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ELEMENTS 



) 
GENERAL HISTORY, 

ANCIENT AND MODERN. ^^ 

BY ALEXANDER FRASER TYTLER, F. R. S. B. 

PiofesEor of HiRlory in the UniveraHy of Edinborgfa. 

TO WHICH IS ADDED, A 8UCCIHCT 

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, 

BY AN AMERICAN GENTLEMAN. 

flUPPLYING IMPORTANT OMISSIONS, BRINGING DOWN THE NAHRATION 

or EVENTS TO THE PRESENT TIME, AND CORRECTING MANY PAS- 

fiAG^S RELATING TO THE HISTORY OF THIS COUNTRY. 

WITH AN IMPKOYEil' 

TABLE OF CHRONOLOGY; 

A COMPARATIVE VIEW OV 

ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY; 

AKD 

QUESTIONS ON EACH SECTION. 

ADAPTED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES, 
BY AN EXPERIENCED TEACHER. 

ONE HUNDRED AND THIRTY-FIFTH EDITION. 



n 



CONCORD, N. H, 
PUBLISHED BY JOHN F. BROWN, 

1849 



Mtor 






DIS«TR!CT f»F NI'.W IIAMP^^fTTRE, to wit : 

Duttiict Clerk' office. 

BE IT RE.MKMnrilKD, that on ilie »'x'A ray of November, A. D. 
1,^*24, und ill tlin furtv-ninlli year cl Ir.e ImJt'pencience of tlie United States 
oi* America, ISAAC (MM., of ll>e sai'J District, !iaa de|K)«itiMJ in lirH office 
ht title of a bouk, the ri^lil wliureuf he claims us proprietor, in llie words fol- 
iitwiii:;. tn irtt • — 

" Kl-ninifs i.CC'iH'ral History, ancif-nt and inodrrn. Bv Alexander Fra- 
<♦•! rviU-r, F K rf. K. l»r.»f.-MM»r .if History in the L'liiversity (»f F<linhiirirh. 
'A'llh n • .»Miiiiiirni,,n, lerininaiini: at the demise of Kins George III., I,!S20. 
By Kev F.dward Nnre;*, D. I). Professor of Modern History in the Uniyer- 
Bity <(i )xf«/rd. To which are addtMl, a snccinct History of ;hc United 
Siutes ; with additions and aheratioiis, hy an American gentleman. Snpply- 
in;! iiitp<»rtant omissions, hrininn;; down thn narration of events to tlie bftf^in 
niiii; of the present voar, and corr«^etinir many passaires relatin'; to tlie history 
of ihis comitry. With an improved Table of Chronoh)sy ; a comparative 
view of Amient and Modern (Jco^raphy ; and Questions on each f'uciion. 
Ad.ipie.l for the use of Schools and Academies, by an expefienced 
Teacher ' 

In conformity to the act of the Con<rres8 of the United Staten, entitled, 
" An act for the enco'irairemenl of learning, by securin<^ the copies of niapu, 
charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of siirh copies, during the 
liMie- ilit-rein mentioned ;" and also an act, entitled, " An act snp[)Jementa- 
rv •«. Mil «irt, flililled an act for th" «nconra<rement of learniii!!, by semrint 
thr ropu^mif injips, charts, and books, to the uiitluirs and proprielorj> cf such 
copie.« 'tiirir<; the times therein niHiUioned, and extendint; the benefits there 
o* to ine arts of dcKigning, engraving, and etchii g historical avid oihct 
prinio.' 

WILIJAM CLAr.GKTT rierk 

of the Dutrict of jVete- Hampshire 
A true copy of RccoH 

Allcrt WILLIAM CLAGGETT Clork. 



tnrt 

Wr«.H*nn*n Jenntonrs 
AprtI 26. 1933 



ADVERTISEMENT. 



In preparing this edition, the original text of TytleT and 
Nares has heen carefully revised ar-d corrected. Part IV., 
which contains the History of South America, New Spain, and 
the West Indies, has been added. These countries are scarccry 
noticed in former editions ; but they have acquired a rank and 
importance which make their history equally important to the 
plan of this work, and equally interesting, with that of most 
countries in Europe. Additions have also been made to man}* 
chapters in Part III., by which the history is continued to the 
commencement of 1,8*24. The Questions for Examination in 
the edition of 1,823, have been corrected, and new Questions 
are added, adapted to the additions made to the text. 

The publisher has been at considerable expense in obtaining; 
these improvements, but he trusts that they make this edition 
decidedly superior to any that has been hitherto published. 



PREFACE. 

TIIF. folk wm» work contains the Outlines of a Course of Lectjivcs on 
Gentral Hislory, delivered for many years in the University of Ldin- 
bur»h, and received with a portion of the public approbation amply 
sulfTcienl to compen-ate the labours of the author. He be-an to compose 
these Elements principally with the view of furni-hin- an aid to students 
atl-ndin- his i.iclures; but soon conceived, that, by giving: a little more 
amplituj". to thrir composition, he mi-ht render the work of more general 
ulilHy. As now -iven to the public, he would willin-ly (latter hin.sell 
that it may be nut only serviceable to youth, in furnishing a regular plan 
for tne prosecution of this important study, but useful even to those who 
have acquired a competent knowledge of general history from the peru- 
sal of tho works of detached historians, and who wish to melho.lize that 
knowledge, or even to refresh their memory on material facts and the 
order of events. , , , . . 

In the composition of these Elements the author has endeavoured to 
unite with the detail of facts, so much of reflection as to aid the mind 
in the formation of rational views of the causes and consequences of 
ev^-nt!, as well as of the policy of the actors; but he h^s anxiously 
guarded against that speculative refinement which has sometimes entered 
into works of this nature. Such works profess to exhibit the philosophy 
or the spirit of history, but are more adapted to display the writer s 
in-enuity as a theorist, or talents as a rhetorician, than to instruct the 
reader in the more useful knowledge of historical lacts. . , , , 

As the pro-ress of tbe human mind forms a capital object in the study 
of history, tlfe state of the arts and sciences, the religion, laws, govern- 
ment, and manners of nations, are material parts, even in an elementary 
work of this nature. The history of literature is a most important arti- 
cle in this study. Tlie author has therefore endeavoured to give to earh of 
these topics its due share of attention ; and in that view they ar» sepa- 
rately treated, in distinct sectioni, at particular periods of tunc. 

ALEX. FRASER TYTLLR. 
Edinburgk, April, 1801. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTIOxN. 

Advantages arising from the Study of History, and more particultxlj 

from prosecuting it according to a regular IMan - - - • 1 1 
Plan of the cuuksk ....... is 



PART FIRST 

ANCIENT HISTORY. 



Sect. 1. Earliest authentic Accounts of tlie History of the World V 

Sect 2. Considerations on the Nature of the Firet Govemmnnts, and 

on the Laws, Customs, Arts, and Sciences of the first 

Agiis IC 

Sect. 3. Of the Egyptians 20 

Sect. 4. Of the Phffinicians 22 

Sect. 5. The History of Greece - ib 

Sect. 6. Reflections on tJie first and rudest Periods of the Grecian 

History - 23 

Sect. 7, Early period of Grecian History. Argonautic Expedition. 

Wars of Thebes and Troy ' U4 

Sect. 8. Estab'.ishnieni of ihe Greek Colonies - . . 25 

Sect. 9. The Republic of Sparta 2<i 

Sect. 10. The Republic of Athens 21^ 

Sect. 11. Of the state of the Persian Empire, and its History down to 

the War with Greece ----.. 29 

Sect. 12. The War between Greece and Persia - - - 31 

Sect. 13. Age of Pericles 33 

Sect. 14. The Republic of Thebes 35 

Sect. 15. Philip of Macedon . - - . . . ib. 

Sect. 16. Alexander the Groat -----.- 36 

Sect. 17. Successors of Alexander ---.-. 38 

Sect. 18. Fall and conquest of Greece - ... . 39 

Sect 19. Political Reflections arising from the History of the States of 

Greece ..-.--... 40 

Sect 20 StateofthaAns in Greece 41 

Sect. 2J Of the Greek Poets - 43 

Sect. 22. Of the Greek Historians 

Sect. 23. Of the Greek Philosophers 

Sect. 24 The History of Rome 

Reflections on the Goyemment and State of Borne iic^r tb 

Kings - 

A2 



Page. 

53 

- - - - . . 56 

S«ct 27. T*io Decern virate - • - ----- 57 

Serl. 28. Increase of iioptilar Power --.--- 58 

Seel. i£i. C«'iH|iM'Hi ol lluly by ihu Komans . . - . - {>9 

Seel. 30. History of C.irlliaf^e 60 

Sect. 31 llislorv <»♦" Sicily - 61 

S«.l. 32. The r'linic Wars 62 

Se«:L Xi. Tiie (jrucrlii, and tlie Corruptinn of the Commonwealth 64 
Sect 34. I*rogr»*ss «»t'ihe Civil Wars. Second Triumvirate, and fall of 

thu Kepublic - 67 

Sect. 33. Confid'jrations on such particulars as mark the Gonius and 

national Cliaractrr of llie Komans .... 70 

Sv'-ttMn uf Roman Eduration ------ ib. 

Sert. 30. (Vftlie Progress of Literature amonj; the Romans - 71 

Seel. 37. Stal« of riiilo.sdjtliv anion;; the Romans . - - 75 

Swcl. 3i4, Ol the Public and Private Maiini'rs of the Romans - - 76 

Sect. ;W. Of the Art of War among the Itomans ... 77 
Sect. 40. RertoctiMiis arising from a View of the Roman History daring 

the Coiiimonweallh ...... 79 

Sect. 41. Rome iind«5r the Emperors ...... S\ 

Sect. 42. The same snbjtcl r.onlhiucd 84 

Seel. 43. A^e of the Anloiiines, «tc. 87 

Sect. 44. Siate of the Roman Empire at the time of Constantino. Hi* 

Successors .....-.- 90 
Sect. 45. Proj^itiss of the Cliristian Reii^'ion from its Institution to the 

Extinction of P;ii:anisn. in the Rei^jn of Theodosius - 93 

Sect. 46. Extinction of the Roman Empire in the West - - 95 
Sect. 47. Oftlie Origin, Manners, and Character of the Gothic Nations 

before their establishment in the R<tman Emj)ire - 97 
Sect. 46. Of the Manners, Eaws. and Govcrnriient of the Gothic Na- 
tions after their establishment in the Roman Empire 09 
Sect. 49. Method of studying Ancient History .... 102 



PART SECOND. 

MODERN HISTORY. 



Sect, 1. Of Arabia and the Empire of :he Saracens - - J06 

Sect. 2. .Monarchy of the Franks ... - - 108 

Sect. 3. Reflections on the State of France during the Metovingian 

race of its Kin^^s - - - - " - - - 109 

Sect. 4. Charlemagne. The new Empire of the West - - 113 

Sect 5. Manners, GoveiDments, and Customs of the Age of Char- 
lemagne ......... 113 

Sect. 6. Retrospective View of the Affairs of the Church before the 

Age of Charlemagne ...... 115 

Sect. 7. Empire of the West und<»r the Successors of Charlemagne 116 
Sect. 8. Empire of tf^e Ea.Ht .luring the Eiglith and Ninth Centuries 118 
Sect. 0. Stale of rlie Church in the Eighth and Ninth Centuries - 119 
8«icl 10. Of the Saracens in the Eigluh and Ninth Centuries - 120 

Sect 11. Eniijire of tlie West and Italy in the Tenth and Eleventh 

Cenluries ........ 12J 

Sect. 12 History of Britain from its earliest Period down to the Nor- 
man Conquest 123 

Seet. 13 OTtite Government, Laws and Manners of the Anglo-Saz<MM 127 



CONTENTS 7 

14. State of Europe during the Tenth, Eleventh, and Twelfth 

CenMnifts 128 

^^ect. 15. History {)rEn<:land in the Eleventh, Twelfth, and part of the 

Tliirlucnth Centuries j^' 

Sect. If). StHto ofCjennany and Italy in the Thirteenth Century \:U 

Se<;l. 17. The Crusades or tloiy \V;ir>; ..... lit') 

Stjct. \6. OF Chivalry and Ronumce i:W 

Sect. 11). Stale of Europe in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries \4U 

Sect. 20. Revulution in Switzerland 141 

Sect. 21. State of Europe continued in the Thirteenth, FouneentJ>, and 

part of the Fifteenth Centuries - - - 142 

Sect. 22. History of Enirland in the Thirtftpiith Cpntiiry - - 143 

Sect. 23. History of Scollana irom the Eleventh to' the I'onrteenth 

Century 144 

Sect. 24. History of England in the Fonrt«eenth Century - - 14ti 

Sect. 25. En;iland and France in the Fifteenth Century. Statt of 

Planners 147 

Sect. 2G Decline and Fall of the Greek E-npire - - - 141) 

Sect. 27. Government and Policy of the Turnish Empire • - 15(1 

SH(t.»28. France and Italy in the End of the Fifteenth Century 151 

iSect. 2!). History of Spain in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries 152 
Suet. 30. France, Spain, and Italy, in the End of the Filleenlh and Be- 

»ituiing of the Si.vteenth Century .... 1^3 

Sect. 31. History of En;.'land from the Middle of the Fifteenth to the 
IJeirinniug of the Sixteenth Century. Civil Wars of Vork 

and Lancaster 154 

Sect. 32. Hi>iory of Scotland from the Middle of the Fourteenth Cen- 
tury to the End of the Reign of James V. - - \i() 
Sect. 33. 01' the Ancient Constitution of tlie Scottish Governnufnt 15'J 
Sect. 34, A view of the Progress of Literature and Science in Europe 
from the Revival of Letters to the End of the Fifteenth 

Century - - - ICC 

Sect. 35. View of the Progress of Commerce in Europe before the 

Portuguese Discoveries IGS 

Sect 36. Discoveries of the Portuguese in the Fifteenth Century, and 

their ett'ects on the Commerce of Europe ... 1G£ 
Sect. 37. Germany and France in the Reigns of Charles V. and Fran- 
cis L 1G7 

Sect. 38. Ob.servations on the Constitution of the Gorman Empire 170 

Sect. 39. 0/ the Reformation in Germany and Switzerland, and the 

Revolution in Denmark and Sweden - - . - 171 
Sect. 40. Of the Reformation in England under Henry VHl. and Ir? 

Successors - -^ 174 

Sect. 41. Of the Discovery and Conquest of America by the Spaniards 175 
Sect. 42. Possessions of the other European Nations in America 177 

Sect. 43 Of the State of the Fine .'^rts in Europe, in the Age of Leo X. IrtO 
Sect. 44. Of the Olioman Power in the Sixteentii Century ,-^ - 182 
Sect. 45. Stale of Persia, and the other Asiatic Kingdums, in the Six- 
teenth and Seventeenth Centuries - - - - 183 

Sect. 4fi. [listciy of India 1S4 

Sect. 47. Ancient Stale of India; Mannt-.rs, Laws, Arts, and Sciences, 

and Religion, of the Hindoos 13C 

Sedt. 48. Of China and Japan 188 

Sect. 49. Of toe Antiquity of the Empire of China. State of the Arts> 

and Sciences, Manners, Governnieiu, I..aw9 - - 189 

Sect. 50. Mr. U.-ii-Iys Theory of the Origin of the Sciences among the 

N'^tions of Asra - |.')2 

Sect 51 R»M^ii ..r Philip M. ol Spam. Revolution of the Netherlands, 

and KstaMishmcut ol'thc K«'pnblic of lloll: "id - |.»4 

Sect. 52 Of ihe Cousuiuiion and Government of tht» Uuitud Pruvmcus 19U 
Sect. 53 Rei«n of Philip II. rajuinued - - • - 197 



i CONTENTS. 

Pag« 
9««t. 64. tftate of Fmnce in the End of t)ie Sixteenth Centurr, under 
Henry II., Francis II., Charles IX., Henry ifl^ and 

Henry IV. 197 

Sect 55. Histury of England and Scotland in the ReigiM of Elixaboth 

and INIarv Queen of izcoXa 199 

Sect. 56. History ol' Great Britain iii the Reigns of James I. and 

Chailee I. . . - 303 

Sect. 57. The Ccnunonwealth of EiiL'land 207 

Sect. 58. Reji^nii of Charles II. and James II. - - • 209 

Sect. 59. On the British Constitution 211 

Sect. CO Of the Public Revenue of Groat Britain - - 214 
Sect 61 History of France under Lewis AIII. - - - 216 
Sect 62. Spain under Philip III. and Philip IV. Constitution of Por- 
tugal find Spain 217 

Sect. 63. Affuirs of Germany from the Abdication of Cliarles V. to the 

Peace of Weslphnlia ... . 218 

Sect. 64. Fr.iM(4' under Lewis XIV. - - - - 219 

S«*ct. 65. Of the Constitution of France under the Monarchy - 223 

Sect 66, Of Peter the Great, Czar gf Muscovy, and Charles XII., 

King of Sweden 224 

Sect. 67 A View of the Progress of Science and Literature in Europe, 
firom the End of the Fifleenth to tiie End of tbe Sixteenth 
Century - - 227 



APPENDIX. 

THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

Sect. 1. A General View of the History of Mankind in the Primeral 

Ages .... * 231 

Sect. 2. Summary View of Jewish History .... 232 

Sect. 3. The Antiquity of the Scriptures 2:i3 

Sect 4. The Subject of the Books, and CJiaracters of tbe Writers 2:i5 

Sect. 5. Of the Antediluvian World 240 

Sect 6. First Apes after the Deluge 241 

Sect 7. Of the Jews ib 

Sect. 8. The History of the Hebrews during the Government of the 

Judges 214 

Sect. 9. Retrospect of the Government of the Hebrews - - 24r» 

Sect. 10. Regal Government of the Hebrews ... 246 

Sect 11. Restoration of the Jews to their Liberty and Country - 249 

Sect 12. The State of Learning and Commerce among the Jews 252 

Conolnsion 253 

PART THIRD. 

MODERN HISTORY 

Seot 1. France, from the death of Lewis XIV., 1,715, te the Peace ef 

Vienna, 1,738 257 



CONTENTS. J 

Piigc. 

Sect 2. England, from the Accession of the House of Hanover, 

1,714, to the end of the Reign of George the First, 1,727 262 

Sect. 3u Austria, (and Germany,) from the Peace of Raitadt, 1,714, 

to the Peace of Aix-Ia-Chapelle, 1,748 - - - 268 

Sect 4. E igland, from the Accession of George IX. to the Throne, 

1,727, to his death, 1,760 273 

Scot. 5. State of Europe at the Conclusion of the Peace of Aix-la- 

Chapelle, 1,748 278 

Sect. 6. Ofthe Seven Years' War, 1,755— 1,762 - - - 281 

Sect. 7. From the Accession of George III., 1,760, to the Commence- 
ment ofthe Disputes 'vilh America, 1,764 " " ." ^88 

Sect 8. Disputes between Great Britain and her American Colonies, 

1,764—1,783 291 

Sect. 9. France, from the Peace of Paris, 1,703, to the Opening of the 

Assembly of the- States General, 1,789 - - - 297 

Sect. 10. Austria, from the conclusion ofthe Seven Years' War, to the 

death of Maria Theresa, 1,763— 1,780 - - - 307 

Sect. 11. Reigns of Joseph II., Leopold II., «fcc,, from 1,765 to 1,800 309 

Sect. 12. France, from the Opening of the Assembly of the States 

General, 1,789, to the deaths ofthe King and Queen, 1,793 316 

Sect. 13. Great Britain, from the conclusion of the American War, 

1,783, to the Peace of Amiens, 1,802 - - - - 322 

Sect. 14. France, from the death of the King and Queen, and Over- 
throw of the Girondist or Brissotine Party, 1,793, to the 
Establishment of the Directory, 1,795 . - - 333 

Sect. 15. France, from the Establishment ofthe Directory 1,795. to the 

Peace of Amiens - - - . - - - 337 

Sect. 16. France, from the Peace of Amiens to the Treaty of Tilsit, 

1,807 347 

Sect. 17. Spam and Portugal, from 1,788 to 1,814 - - - 353 

Sect. 18. France, from the Peace of Tilsit, to the Abdication of Na- 
poleon, 1,814 33D 

Sect. 19. Poland, from the Commencement ofthe Eighteenth Century, 

to the Treaty of Vienna, 1,815 .... 363 

Sect. 20. Great Britain, from the Peace of Amiens, 1,802, to the death 

ofGeorge III., 1,820 369 

Sect. 21. France, from the Entrance of the Allies into Paris, March, 
1,814, to the final Evacuation of it by the Foreign Troops, 
1,818 376 

Sect. 22. Northern States of Europe, from the Close of the Seven- 
teenth rJcntury 37S 

Sect. 23. Southern States of Europe, from the Close ofthe Seventeenth 

Century 387 

Sect, 24. Of India, or Hindoostan - - 391 

State of Arts, Sciences, Religion, Laws, Government, Ac - • 398 

Botany ... 402 

Electricity .......... 405 

Mineralogy and Geology ----.... 407 

Geography .......... 4Q9 

Discoveries and Inventions .... ... 419 

Religion - . 420 

History, Polite Literature, Fine Arte, Ac. - - . „ - 421 

Treaty of Vienna, 1,815 - - ... - 423 



10 CONTENTS. 

PART FOURTH. 

THE UNITED STATES. 

Pare 

3ccL I. Discovery of America 434 

S«ct 2. DiMoverieri by the En/^Iish. Settlement of Virginia. • 427 

Aect. 3. Setilem nt ofMa'SMchuseits, Rnudo-lrtl^nH, Connecticut, New- 

Hnrnpsliire, Maine. Maryland, North and South Carolina, 

New-York, New-Jersey, Pennaylvania, Delaware, and 

Georgia - - - 431 

Seci. 4. War wiih France, and Conquest of Canada. Disputes with 

Great Britain, and War ul'the Revolution • - • 438 
Sect. 5. Establishment of the State and National GovomnneDtB. Wars 

with Tripoli nnd the Indians, &c. .... 448 

Sect 6. Wur with Great Britain, Sec. 451 



A Table of Chronology 460 

CoMrARATivx Tixw or AircniiT iPD tfffOBUi GsooKArai 499 



INTRODUCTION. 



-»»«C«H*-> 



1. THE value of any scitnce is to be estimated according^ to its tenden- 
cy to promote improvement, either in i)riv;it»- virtue, or in tho-e qualitiei 
whrch render man extensively useful in society. Some object? of pursuit 
have a stcoudary utility ; in furnishing rational amusement, wluch, re- 
lieving^ the mind at intervals from the fatigue or serious o<-.cui)ation, in- 
Tigorates an J prepares it for fresh exertion. It is tht- perfection o[ any 
•cience, to unite tlv^se advantages, to promote the advancement of pu'ilic 
and private virtue, and to supply such a degree of amusemv.'nt, as to super- 
eede the necessity of recurring to i'rivolous pursuits for the sake of relaxa- 
tion. Under this description falls the science of history. 

2. History, says IJionysius of Halicarnassus, is •"> philosophy teaching 
by examples." The superior elRcacy of example to precept is universally 
arknowledjreii All the laws of mc-ality and rules of conduct are veri 
fied by experieuce, and are ronstantly-subnntted to its test a-ui examina- 
tion. History, which adds to our own exj)erience an immense treasure ol 
the experience of others, furnishes imiumerable proofs, by which we niav 
ferify all the precepts of morality and of prudence. 

3. flistory, beside its general advantages, has a distinct species of util- 
ly to different men, according to their several ranks iu society, and occU' 
nations in life. 

4. In this country it is an indispensable duty of every man of liberal 
ftirth, to be acquainted, in a certain degree, with tluj scienc ! of politics ; 
ind history is the school of politics. It opens to us the spririj^s of human 
Affairs ; the causes of the rise, grandeur, revolutions, and fall of empires; 
^ points out the reciprocal influence of government and of national man- 
aers ; it dissipates prejudices, nourishes the love of our country, and di- 
rects to the best means of its improvement ; it illustrates equally the hleis- 
ings of political union, and the miseries of faction ; the danger, on one 
hand, of anarchy, and, on the other, the debasing influence of uespotic 
power. 

5. It is necessary that the study of history should be prosecuted arcord- 
•ng tc a regular plan ; for this science, more perhaps than any other, is 
jiable to perversion from its proper use. With gome it is no better than 
an idle amusement ; with others it is the food of vanity ; with a tnird 
class it fosters the prejudices of party, and leads to political bigotry. It 
is dangerous for those who, even with the best intentions, seek for hi«tori- 
cal knowledge, to pursue the study without a guide ; for no science h:u 
been so little methodized. The sources of prejudice are infinite ; and the 
mind of youth should not be left undirected amidst the erring, the partial^ 
and contradictory representations ot historians. Besides the importance o( 
being able to discriminate truth from talsehood, the attention ought to be 
directed only to useful truths. Much ilanger arises from the perusal of 
memoirs, collections of anecdotes. Sic. ; for many of those works exhibit 
the most depraved pictures, weaken our confidence in virtue, and preaeat 
the most unfavourable v'teWs of human nature. 



U INTRODUCTION. 

6. There are manf difficulties whirh attend the attempt of forming it 
proper plan o!" study, and g-iving an inslructivL- view of g^eneral history. 
I 't.iity is to be reconciltd with ^nusenient, pnjudices are to be eucouo' 
'ertd, variety of taste to be consulted, political opinions balanced, judg. 
lui-nt and decision exercised on topics keenly controverted. The proposer 
.>f such a plan ou^ht therefore to be possessed equally of firmness of mind 
•.nd moderation ofsentimeut. In many cases he must abandon popularit> 
;'or the calm approbation of his own conscience. Disreg'arding every 
partial and inferior consideration, he must direct his view solely to 
the proper end of all education, the formings of good men, and of good 
citizens. 

7. ITie object and ^n jral purpose of the following course, i« to exhibit a 
progrtwlvi view of tl-e state of mankind, from the earliest ag^es of which 
we have any authentic account*, down to the close of the 17th century ; 
to delineate the origin of states and of empires, the great outlines of their 
histoiy, the revolutions which they have undergone, the causes which 
iave contributed to their rise and grandeur, and operated ♦o their decline 
ind extinction. For these purposes it is necessary to bestow particular 
ittentton on the mannen of nations, their laws, th( nafiue of their ^rern- 
tnents, their religion, their intellactual improvementt, and their progreM 
n tilt art« tind •cienc«a. 



PLAN OF THE COURSE. 



TWO opposite methods have been followed in a^ivingf academical lectures 
on the study of history : one exhibiting^ a strict chronological arran»-emt nt 
of events, upon the plan of Turselline's Epitome ; the other, a series of dia- 
quiivitions on the various heads or titles of public law, and the doctrinei oi 
politics ; illustrated by examples drawn from ancient and modern history. 
Objections ocur to both these methods : the former furnishes only a dry 
chronicle of events, which nothins: connects togfether but the order of 
time ; the latter is insufficient for the most important purposes of history, 
the tracing of events to their causes, the detection of the springs of hu- 
man actions, the display of the progress of society, and of the rise and fall 
of states and empires ; finally, by confining history to the exemplification 
of the doctrines of politics, we lose its eflfect as a school of morals. 

In the following lectures we hold a middle course between these ex- 
tremes, and endeavour, by remedying the imperfection of each, to unite, 
if possible, the advantages of both- 

While 90 much regard is had to chronology as is necessary for showing 
(he progress of mankind in society, and communicating just ideas of the 
state of the world in all the difierent ages to which authentic history ex- 
tends, we shall, in the delineation of the rise and fall of empires and their 
revolutions, pay more attention to the connexion of subject than that of 
time. 

in this view we must reject the common method of arranging g^eaeral 
history according to epochs, or aeras 

When the world is viewed at any period either of ancient or of modern 
history, we generally observe one nation or empire predominant, to whom 
all the rest bear, as it were, an under part, and to whose history we find 
that the principal events m the annals of other nations may be referred 
from some natural connexion. This predominant empire or state it ia pro- 
posed to exhibit to view as the principal object, whose history therefore 
is to be more fully delineated, while the rest are only incidentally touch- 
ed when they come to have a natural connexion with the principal. 

The Jewish history, belonging to a difierent department of academical 
education, enters not into the plan of these lectures ; though we often re- 
sort to the sacred writings for detached facts illustrative of the manners 
of ancient nations. See Appendix. 

In the ancient world, among the profane nations, the Greeks are the 
earliest people who madce a distinguished figure, and whose history la at 
the same time authentic. 

The Greeks owed their civilization to the Egyptians and Phoenicians. 
The Grecian history is therefore properly introduced by a short account 
of these nations, and of the Assyrians, their rivals, conquered at one time 
by the Egyptians, and conquerors afterwards of them in their turn. 

Rise of the independent rtates of Greece, and singular constitution ot 
the two great republics of Sparta and Athens. 

The war of Greece with Persia induces a short account of the preceding 
periods of the history of that nation, the rise of the Persian monarchy, the 
tiature of its government, manners, and religion. 
B 



14 PLAN OF THE COURSK. 

The OreciJUi hutory is pursued throu«^h all the revolution* of the na- 
tion, till Greece becomes a province of the Roman empire. 

Political reflectioHJ applicable to the history of the statei of Greece. — 
Progress of the Greek- in the art*. — Of the Greek poetj, — hi«toriaix&,-— 

philosopherB, 

Rome, after the conquest of Greece, becomes the leading object of at- 
tention. 

Origin of the Romans. — Nature of their government under the kings.— 
Easy substitution of the consular for the regal dignity. — Subsequent 
changes in the constitution. — Progress to a democracy. — Ejctensiou of the 
Rcnan arms. — Conquest of Italy. — \N'ars with foreign nations. 

The Puuic wars open a collateral view to the history of Carthage and 
of Sicily. 

Success of the Roman arms in Asia, Macedonia, and Greece. — Opu- 
lence of the republic Irom her conquests, and corruption of her manners. — • 
The civil wars, and ruin of the commonwealth. 

Particulars which mark the genius amd national spirit of the Romans : — 
education, — laws, — literary character, — art of war, — public and private 
Diann^;rs. 

Rome under the emperors. — Artful policy by which the first emperors 
disguised their absolute authority, — Decline of the ambitious character 
of the Romans. — Easy submission to the loss of civil liberty. — The military 
tpirit purposely abased by the emperors. — The empire divided becomes 
a languid body, without internal vigour. — The Gothic nations pour down 
from the north. — Italy conquered successively by the Heruli, Citrogoths, 
and Lombards. — Extinction of tlie western empire. 

The manners, genius, laws, and govt niment of the Gothic nations, form 
an important object of inquirj, from ♦heir influence on the maaners ati 
policy ol the modern European Kingdoms. 

In the delineation of modern history the leading objects of attention are 
more various ; the scene is oftener changed : nations, which for a while 
occupy the chief attention, become for a time subordinate, and afterwards 
n; assume their rank as principal ; yet the same plan is pursued as in the 
dej^^i-fmrnt of ancient history: the picture is occupied only by one grrjit 
object Ht a time, to which all the rest hold an inferior rank, and are 
taken notice of only when connected with the principal. 

I'pon the fall of the western empire, the Saracens are the first who dis 
linguiah themselves by the extension of their conquests, and the splen- 
dour of their domiuion. 

\Vhile the Saracens extend their arms in the eajt and in Africa, a new 
empire of the west is founded by Charl-magne. — The rise and progress .f 
the monarchy of the Franks. — The origia^Jf the feudal system. — State of 
the European manners in the age of Charlemagne. — Government, arts 
and sciences, liceraturc. 

As collateral objects of attention, we survey the temains of the Roman 
er^pire in the east ; the conquests and settlements of the Normans ; the 
foun<l»tion ;tnd prc^resa of the temporal dominion of the church of Rome ; 
the conquest of Spain by the Saracens. 

'i'he contjuest of England by the Normans solicits our attention to the 
history of Britain. Retrospective view of the British history, from its ear- 
liest pt riod to the end of the Anglo-Saxon government in England. — Ob- 
servations on the government, laws, and manners, of the Anglo-Saxons. 

Collateral view of the state of the continental kingdoms of Europe, 
during the ninth, tenth, anrl eleventh centuries. — France under the Ca- 
petiau race of monarchs. — Conquests of the Normans in Italy and Sicily. — 
State of the northern kingdoms of Europe. The easic-n empire. — Empire 
of Germany. — Pisputes of supreroacy between th*? popes an<t the emperors- 



PLAN OF THE COURSE. J6 

The history ol Britain still the principal object of attention. — England 
under the kings of the Norman line, and the first princes of the Plantage- 
net branch. — The conquest of Ireland, under Henry II., introduces an an- 
ticipated progressive view of the political connexion between England 
and Ireland down to the present time. As we proceed in the delineation 
of the British history, we note particularly those circumstances which 
mark the growth of the English constitution. 

At thia period all the kingdoms of Europe join in the crusadea.-^A brief 
account b given of those enterprises. — Moral and political effects of the 
crusades on the nations of Europe.— Origin of chivalry, and rise of roman- 
tic fiction. 

Short connected sketch of the state of the European nations alter the 
crusades. — Rise of the house of Austria. — Decline of the feudal govern- 
ment in France. — Establishment of the Swiss republics. — Disorders in the 
popedom. — Council of Constance. 

The history of Britain resumed. — England under Henry III. and Ed- 
ward I. — The conquest of Wales. — The history of Scotland at this period 
intimately connected with that of England. — View of the Scottish history 
from Malcolm Canmore to Robert Bruce. — State of both kingdoms during 
the reign? of Edward II. and III. — The history of France connected with 
that of Britain. — France itself won by Henry V. 

The state of the east at this period affords the most interesting object of 
attention. — The progress of the Ottoman arms retarded for a while by th» 
conquests of Tamerlane and of Scanderbeg. — The Turks prosecute the 
victories under Mahomet the great, to the total extinction of the Constan 
tinopolitan empire. — The constitution and policy of the Turkish empire 

Fran''e, in this age, emancipates herself from the feudal servitude ; and 
Spaic, from the union of Arragon and Castile, and the fail of the kingdoa 
cf the Moors, becomes one monarchy under Ferdinand and Isabella. 

1 he history of Britain is resumed. — Sketch of the history of England 
down to th«- reign of Henrj VUl • of Scotland, during the reigns of the 
five Jameses. — Delineation of the ancient constitution of the Scottish gov 
ernment 

The end of the fifteenth century is a remarkable sere in the history of 
Europe. Learnmg and the sciences underwent at that time a very rapid 
improvement ; and, after ages of darkness, shone out at once with sur- 
prising lustre. — A connected view is presented of the progress of literature 
in Em^ope, from its revival down to this period. — In the same age the ad' 
vancement of navigation, and the course to India by the Cape of Good 
Hope, explored by the Portuguese, affect the commerce of all the Europe 
an kingdoms. 

The age of Charles V. unites in one connected view the affairs of Ger- 
many, of Spain, of France, of EngKnd, and of Italy. The discovery o/ 
the new world, the reformation in Germany and P^ngland, and t'jje splen- 
dour of the fine arts under the pontificate of Leo X., render this period one 
of the most interesting in the annals of mankind. 

The pacification of Europe, by the treaty of Catteau Cambresis, allows 
us for a while to turn our attention to the state of Asia. A short sketch is 
given of the modern history of Persia, and the state of the other kingdoms 
of Asia, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ; the history of India ; 
the manners, laws, arts, and sciences, and religion of the Hindoos ; the 
history of China and Japan ; the antiquity of the Ciiinese empire, its 
manners, laws, government, and attainments in the arts and sciences. 

Returning to Europe, the attention is directed to the state of the conti* 
nental kingdoms in the age of Philip II. Spain, tne Netherlands, France, 
and England, present a various and animated picture. 

England under Elizabeth. The progress of the reformation in Scot- 
land. — The distracted reign of Mary, queen of Scots. — The history of 



16 PLAN OF THE COURSK. 

Britain pursued without interruption down to the revolution, and here cIob- 
ed I'V a likftch of the | rogress of the English constilulKm, and an examina- 
tio'. of its nature at tliis period, when it became fixed and determined. 

The history of the southern continental kingdoms is brought d«)wn to 
the end of the reign of Louis XiV. ; of the northern, to the concluwon of 
the reigns of Charles XII. of Sweden, and of Peter the great, ctar of Mu»- 

COV V • 

We finish this view of universal history, by a survey of the state of the 
arts and sciences, and of the progress of literature in Europe, during tlie 
sixteenth and seventeentli centuries. 

The chjonohgy observed in this View of Universal History xa thai of 
archbishop ITghtr, which is founded on the Hebrew text of the Sacred Wri- 
tinf^a. Jt -i.'tt Table of TV^/.a/.-rv ».* subjoined to these headt^ for ths 
ease (if (M student. 



PART FIRST. 

ANCIENT HISTORY. 



SECTION I. 



Earliest authentic accounts of the history of 

the world. 

It is a difficult task to delineate the state of mankind" in the ear- 
nest ages of the world. We want infonnation sufficient to ^ive us 
positive ideas on the subject; but as man advances in civilization, 
and in proportion as history becomes useful and important, its cer- 
tainty increases, and its materials are more abundant. 

Various notions have been formed with respect to the population 
of the antediluvian world and its physical appearance ; but as these 
are rather matters of theory than of fact, they scarcely fall with- 
in the province of history ; and they are of the less consequence, 
because we are certain that the state of tho«e antediluvian aces 
could have had no material influence on the times which succeeded 
them. 

The books of Moses afford the earliest authentic history o£ the 
ages immediately following the deluge. 

About 150 years after that event, Nimrod (the Belas of profane 
historians^ built Babylon, and Assur built Nineveh, which became the 
capital of the Assyrian empire. 

Ninus the son of Belus, and his queen Semiramis, are said to have 
raised the empire of Assyria to a higher degree of splendour. 

From the death of Ninias the son of Ninus. down to the revolt of 
the Medes under Sardanapalus, a period of 800 years, there is a 
chasm in the history of Assyria and Babylon. This is to be supplied 
only from conjecture. 

The eiuliest periods of the Egyptian history are equally uncer- 
tain with those of the Assyrian. xUenes is supposed the first king ol 
Egypt ; probab y the Misraim of the floly Scriptures, the grandson 
ot^ Noah, or, as others conjecture, the Oziris of Egypi, the inventor 
of arts, and the civilizer of a great part of the eastern world. 

After Menes or Oziris, Egypt appears to have been divided i.ito 
four dyniisties, Thebes, Thin, Memphis, and Tanis ; and the people 
to have attained a considerable degree of civilization : hut a period 
of barbarism succeeded under the shepherd-kino^, subsisting for the 
space of some centuries, do.vn to the age of Sesostris (1650 A. C). 
who united the separate principalities into one kingdom, regulatea 
its policy with admirable skill, and distinguished himself equally by 
his foreign conquests, and by his domestic administration. 
B2 



16 ANCIKNl HISTORY. 



St:CTlON II 



CONSIDERATIONS ON THE NATURE OF THE FIRST GOVJJIV 
MENTS, AND ON THE LAWS, CUSTOMS, ARTS, AND 
SCIENCES OF THE EARLY AGES. 

§ 1 The earliest government is the pntriarchal, which subsLfts it* 
;ln' rmlesl periods o( society. 

'I'liis has an ea^y progress to !he monarchical. 

Tiie tirst nionarchies must have been very weak, ami their terri- 
tory extremelv limited. The idea ot" security precedes thai oJ 
conquest In forming our notions ot the extent of the tii-st monar- 
cliif's, we are deceives' hy the word king, which according to modem 
ideas, is cenneded willi an extent of" territory, and a proporlifnal 
j)mver. Tjie kings in scripture arc no more than the chiels of Irihes. 
I'here were five Kings in the vale of Sodom. Joshua defeated in his 
wars thirty-one kings, and Adonizcdec threescore and ten. 

When families grew into nations, the tr.msition from patriarchal to 
regal government, was easy; tlic Kingly olVicc, probably passed by 
descent from titiher to son, and the sovereign ruled his tribe or na- 
tion, as the patriarch his iimiily, by the right of birth. 

The tirst ideas of conques-t must have, proceeded from a people in 
the state of shepherds, who, nect^ssarily changing their pastures, 
would prohahly make incursio.ns on the approniiated lerrilorv ol 
their neighbotirs. Such were the Arabian or rhocnician invacfers, 
who, under the name of she))herd-kings, cnnquereil Egypt. But 
Kmgdoms so founde . could have little duration. I^iws and good 
policy, essential to thn stability of kingdoms, are the fruit of intellec- 
tual relinement, and arise only in a slate of society coiisiderably ad- 
vanced in civilization. 

'I'he progress from barbarism to civilization is slow, because every 
step in the progress is the result of necessity, alter the experience 
of an error, or the strong feeling of a want. 

§ 2. Origin (f Urns. Ceitain political writers have supposed 
thai in tlie infancy of society penal laAvs must have been extremely 
mild. We presume the contrary to have been nilher the rase, as 
the more barbarous the people, the stronger must be the bonds to 
restrain them : and history confirms the supposition in the ancient 
laws of the Jews, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Gauls. 

Among ll.a earliest laws of all states are those regarding marriage ; 
for the institution of marriage is coeval with the Tormation of society, 
Tho first sovereigns of all states are said to have institute*! marriage j 
and the earliest laws provided encouragements to matrimony. 

Among the ancient nations the husband purcha.'-ed his wife by 
money, or personal services. Among the Assyrians the marriageable 
women were put up at auction, and the price obtained for the more 
beautiful was assigned as a doxvry tt) the more homely. 

The laws of succession are next in onkr to those of marriage 
The father had the absolute power in the division of his estate. 
But primogeniture was understood to confer certain right*!. 

Laws arise necessarily and imperceptibly from the condition of 
society; and each partictilar law may be traced from the state "f 
manners, or the political cmergencv which gave it biith. Hence 
ve perceive the intimate connexion !»etween niPtory and jurispru 



.\NC1ENT HISTORY* 19 

dence, and the light which they must necessarily throw upon each 
other. The law« of a country are best interpreted from its history; 
hjm\ its uncertain history is best ehicidated by its ancient laws. 

§ X Karliest Methods of aatkentiauing Contracts. Before the inven- 
tion of writing, contracts, testaments, sales, marriages, and the like, 
were transacted in public. The Jewish and the Grecian histories fur- 
nisli examples. Some barbarous nations authenticate their bargains 
by exchanging symbols or tallies. — The Peruvians accomplished most 
of the purnoses of writing by knotted cords ci* various colours, termed 
quipos. 'ihe Mexicans communicated intelligence to a distance bv 
painting. Other nations used an abridged mode oi painting, or hi- 
erogl jphics. Before writing the Egyptians used hieroglyphics loi 
transmitting and recording knowledge : after writing, tliey employ 
ed it for \eiling or conceahng knowledge from the vulgar. 

§ 4. Methods for recording Historical Facts^ and publishing Lax3:s. 
Poetry and song were the tirst vehicles of history, and the earliest 
mode of promulgating laws. The songs of the bards record a great 
deal of ancient history ; and the laws of many of the ancient nations 
were comjjosed in verse. 

Stones, rud« and sculptured, tutrmli and mounds of earth, are the 
raonuments of history among a barbarous people ,• and columns, tri- 
umphal arches, coins, and medals, among a more retined. These 
likewise illustrate the progress uf manners and of the arts. 

§ 5 Religious Institutions. Among the earliest institutions of all 
nations, are those which regard religious worship. The sentiment 
of religion is deeply rooted in the human mind. An uninstructed 
sav-ige will infer tlie existence of a God, and his attributes, from the 
general order and mechanism of nature ; and even the temoorary 
irregularities of nature lead to religious veneration of the unknown 
power which conducts it. 

Before conceiving the idea of a Being utterly imperceptible to his 
senses, a savage would naturally seek that Being in the most striking 
objects of sense to which he ower' his most apparent benefits. Tht; 
sun, (jxtendiug his beneficial induence over all nature, was among 
the earliest objects of worship. The fire presented a symbol of the 
sun. The other celestial bodies naturally attracted their share oi 
veneration."^ 

The symbolical niode of writing led to many peculiarities of the 
idolatrous worship of the ancient nations. Animals, symbolical of the 
attributes of deit}', became gods themselves. The same God, repie- 
sented by different miimals, was supposed tc have changed himsell 
into different forms. The . gratitude and veneration for men whose 
hves had been eminently useful, joined to the beUef of the soufs im- 
mortiility, led to the apotheosis of heroes. Many excellent reflections, 
on idolatry and polytheism are found in the book called The fVisdotn 
of Solomon. 

The priesthood was anciently exercised by the chief or monarch; 

* It is a theory, supported by many facts, that in the beg^iuninof. all reli- 
g-ious truth was made known to man by direct revelation. In succeed- 
in» ages, intellectual perception was gradually clouded by the sensual 
and gross nature of man, until his mind could not contemplate Deity, but 
through the veil of His works. Thus the heaveiily were pe-haps, at first 
worsh-pped as representative of their maker, but gradually became objectfl 
of direct adoration, and finally every element was peopled with deities ; 
and mountains, forests, streams, and animals, were consecrated and \ror> 
thf^ped. 



aO ANCIENT HISTORY. 

but as an empire became extensive, the monarch exercised this office 
by his dcleg;ites; and hence an additional source of v?nenition for the 
puesiljooil. The priests were the fninr.ers and the administrator of 
l\\p laws. 

^ G. .Irtf and Sciences of the Ancient Xaiions. The useful arts aie 
the oftspring of necessity ; the sciences are the fruit of ease and 
leisure. The construction of h'lts, of weapons of war, and of hunt- 
ing, are the earliest arts. Agriculture is not practised till the tribe 
becomes stationary, ami property is defined and secured. 

The science* ari^e in a cultivated society, where individuals enjoy 
that leisure which invites to study and speculation. The priesta 
maintained in that condition by the monarch were the earliest cul- 
tivators of science. The Egyptian science was confined to the 
priests. Astronomy, which is among the earliest of the sciences, 
owed its origin probably to superstition. lMe:'icine was among the 
early sciences. All rude nations have a pharmacy of their own, 
equal in general to their wants. Luxury, creating new and more 
complex diseitses, requires a profounder knowledge of medicine, and 
of the animal economy 



SECTION liJ. 

OF THE EGYPTIANS. 

1 A GRKAT portion of the knowledge and attainments of the ancient 
nations, and by consequence of those of the modems, is to be tniced to 
Egypt The Egyptians instructed the Greeks ; the Greeks perform- 
ed the same office to the Romans ; and the latter have Imnsmitted 
much of that knowledge to the world, of which we are in possession 
at this day.* 

2. The antiauity of this empire, though we give no credit to the 
chronicles of Manetho, must be allr»wed to be very greal. The Mo- 
saic writings represent Egypt, about 430 years after the flood, as a 
flourishing and well regulated kingdom. The nature of the country 
itself affords a presumption of the great antiquity of the empire, and 
its eatiy civilization. From the fertilizing effects of th? waters of 
the Nile, it is ])robable that agriculture would be more early prac- 
tised there, than in regions less favouicd by nature. The periodical 
inundations of the Nile are perhaps owing to the vapotirs of t le 
Mediterranean condens'jd on tne mountains of Kthiopia. 

3. The government of Egypt was a hereditary monarchy. T) e 
powers of the monarch were" limited by constitutional laws; yet .n 
many respects his authority was extremely despotical. The fun> 
tions of the sovereign were partlv civil and partly religious. — Ti e 
king had the chief regulation of all tliat regarded the worship oft! e 
gods; and the priests, considered as his deputies, fille<l all the (.f- 
Rces ot state. They were both the k-gi^^lators and the civil judgew ; 
they imposed and levied tne taxes, and regulated weights and njea.*- 
ures. The great national tribunal was composed of thirty juilgeflj 
chosen from the three principal departments of the empire. The 
administration of .justice was defrayed by the sovereign, and, as par< 
ties were their "own advocates, was no burden upon the people 
The penal laws of Egypt were uncommonly severe. Female chas- 

* Far the luppotcd origin of Eo;yptian icience. see Part II. 8e«t. ftO> 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 21 

titv was most rigidly protected. Funeral rites were not conferred 
till after a scrutiny into the life of the deceased, and by a judicial 
decree approving his character. The characters even of the sove 
reigns were subjected to this inquiry. 

There was an extraordinary regulation in Egypt regarding ttie 
Dorrowing of money. The borrower gave in pledge the body o. 
his father, and it was deprived of funeral rites if he failed to re- 
deem it 

Population was encouraged by law ; aiid every man was bound to 
maintain and educate the children born to him of his slaves. 

4. The manners of the Egyptians were very early formed. They 
had a singular attachment to ancient usages ; a dislike to nnovation; 
a jealousy and abhorrence of strangers. 

5. They preceded most of the ancient nations in the knowledge 
of the useful arts, and in the cultivation of the sciences. Architecture 
was early brought to great perfection. Their buildings, the pyra- 
mids, obelisks, &,c., have, from the mildness of the climate, suffered 
little injury from time. Pliny describes the contrivance for trans- 
porting the obelisks. The whole country abounds with the reinains 
of ancient magnificence. Thebe?, in Upper Egypt, was one of the 
most splendid cities in the world. 

The pyramids arc supposed by somo writers to have been erectro 
. about 900 years A. C. They were probably the sepulchral monu- 
ments of the sovereigns. The Egyptians believed that death did 
not separate the soul from the body ; and hence their extreme care 
to preserve the body entire, by embalming, concealing it in caves and 
catacombs, and guarding it by such stupendous structures. Mr. 
Bruce supposes the pyr-imids to be rocks hewn into a pyramidal 
form, and encrusted, wher^ necessary, with mason-work.* 

The remains of art in Egypt, though venerable for their great an- 
tiquity, are extremely deficient in beauty and elegance. The Egyp- 
tians, were ignorant of the construction of an arch. The remains of 
painting and sculpture evince but a slender proficiency in those arts. 

6. The Egyptians possessed considerable Knowledge of geometry, 
mechanics, and astronomy. They had divided the zodiac into twelve 
signs ; they calculated eclipses ; and seem to have had an .dea of 
the motion of the earth. 

7. The morality taughi by the priests was pure and refined j 
but it had little influence on tlie manners of the people. 

8. So likewise the theology and secret doctrines ol the priests 
were rational and sublime ; but the worship of the people was de- 
based by the most absurd and contemptible superstition. 

9. Notwithstanding the early civilizatior and the great attainments 
of this people, their national character was extremely low and des- 
picable among the contemporary nations of antiquity. The reason 
of this is, they were a people who chose to sequester themselves 
from the rest of mankind ; they were not known to other nations by 
their conquests ; they had little connexion with them by commeice , 
and they had an antipathy to the persons and manners of strangers. 

10. There were likewise many circumstances of their own man- 
ners which tended to degrade them in the opinion of other nations. 
All proijssions were hereditary in Egypt, and the rank of each was 
scrupulously settleo; the objects of the religious worship were <lif- 
ferent in different parts of the kingdom, a fertile source of division 

• Recent travelers have si most detnonttrated this suppogition. 



£t ANXIKNT HISTORY 

and controversy ; their peci 
rord and deb;ising nature ; ,i 
tremely loose and proHignte 



and controversy ; their peculiar superstitions were of the 

rord and debjusing nature ; and the mannei-s of the people were ei 

tremelv loose and proHiirnte. 



SECTION IV. 

OF THE PHCEMCIANS. 

1. Tire Phoenicians were amonfj the most early civihzed nations 
of the east. We are indebted to th^m for th<.' iruention of wiiling^ 
and for the first attempts at commercial navigation. The fragments 
of Saiichoniatho are the most ancient monuments of writing after 
the books of Moses. Sjmchoniatho was contemporary with Joshua, 
about 1440 A. C. and 500 belore the cities of Attica were united by 
Theseus. 

2. The Phoenicians, (the Canaanites of scripture), were a r.om- 
meicial people in the days of .Abraham. In the time of the Hebrew 
judges tiiev had begun to colonize. Their first settlements were 
Cyprus and Rhodes ; thence they passed into Greece. Sicily, Sardinia, 
and Spain ; and formed establishments likewise on tne western coast 
of Africa. I'he Sidonians carried on an extensive commerce at the 
time of the Trojan war. 



SECTION V 



THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 



1 Greece being indebted for 
tho, Egyptians and Phoenicians, 



for the first rudiments of civiIiz;ition to 
its history is properly introduced by 
an account of those more ancient nations. 

2. The early antiquities of this country are disguised by fable 
but from the time w hen it becomes important, it has been treated ol 
by eminent writers. 

3. The ancient inhabitants of Greece, the Pelasgi, Hiantes, Lele- 
ges, were extremely barbarous; hut a dawning of civilization arose 
dnder the Titans, a Phuenician or Egyptian colony, who settled in 
llie country about the time of IMoses. ' The Titans gave the Greeks 
the first ideas of religion, and introduced '.he worship of their own 
gods, Saturn, Jupiter, Ceres, &:c. Succeeding ages conlbunded those 
Titans themselves with the gods, and hence sprung numberless fables. 

4. Inachus, the last of the Titans, foundecl the kingdom of Argos, 
I 35G A. C. ; and Egialtes, one of his sons, the kingdom of Sicyon. 

5. In the following century happened the deluge of Ogyges, 1796 
A. C. Then followed a period of barbarism for above 200 years. 

6. Cecrops, the leader of another colony from Egypt, landed in 
Attica, 1582 A. C. ; and, connecting himself with the last king, suc- 
ceeded, on his death, to the sovereignty. He built twelve cities, 
and was eminent, both as a lawgiver and politician. 



7. The Grecian history derives some authenticity at this period 
of Paros, preserved among the Anindelian mar- 



from the Chronicle 



bles at Oxford. The authority of this chronicle l:as been questioned 
of late, aoil many arguments adduced presumptive oi' its being a 
torgery ; but, on a review of the whole contrr verey, we judge the ar- 
gument? for it« authenticity to pirponderntc. It fixe« the date^ of rho 



AJNCIENT HISIXDRY. 23 

m<& remarkable events in the history of Greece, from the time of 
Cecrops down to the age of Alexander the great. 

8. Cranaus succeeded Cecrops, in whose time happened two re- 
markable events recorded in the Chronicle of Pares : the judgment 
jfthe areopagus between Mars and Neptune, two princes of Thessa- 
iy ; and the deluge of Deucalion. The court of areopagus, at Athens, 
<vas instituted by Cecrops. The number of its judges varied at differ- 
ent periods, from nine to tif'j one. The deluge of Deucalion, magni- 
fied and disguised by the poets, was probably only a partial inundation. 

9. Amohyction, the contemporary of Cranaus, if the founder of 
the ampKyctionio council, must have possessed extensive views ot 
policy. This council, from a league of twelve cities, became a 
reprpsentative assembly of the states of Greece, and had the most 
admirable political effects in uniting the nation, and giving it a com- 
mon interest. 

10. Cadmus, about 1519', A. C, introduced alphabetic writing irto 
Greece, from Phoenicia. The alphabet Uien had only sixteen letters ; 
and tne mode of writing (termed boustrophedon)^ was alternately from 
right to left and left to right. From this period the Greeks made 
rapid advances in civilization. 

SECTION VI. 

REFLECTIONS ON THE FIRST AND RUDf:ST PERIODS OF* 
THE GRECIAN H1ST0R\. 

1. The country of Greece presents a large, irregukir peninsula, 
intersected by many chains of mountains, separating its different 
district?, and opposing natural Impeilimenis lo general intercourse, 
and therefore to" rapid civilization. The extreme barharism of the 
Pelas^i, who are said to have been cannibals, and ignorant of the 
u:5e ot hre, has us parallel in motlern barbarous nations. There 
were many circumstances that retarded the progress of the Greeks 
to refinement. The introduction of a national religion was best fit- 
ted to remove those obstacles. Keceiving this new s^^'stem of theolo- 
gy from strangers, and entertaining at first very confused ideas of it, 
they would naturally blend its doctrines and worship with the notions 
of religion which thoy formerly possessed ; and hence we observe 
only partial coincidences of tlie Grecian with the Egyptian and 
Phoenician mythologies, it has been a vain and wearisome labour ol 
modern mythological writers, to attempt to trace all the fables of anti- 
quity^ and the various systems of pagan theology, up to one comnion 
sourct:. The ditliculty of thi-; is best shown, by comparing the diirer- 
ent and most contradictory solutions of the same fable given by differ- 
ent mythologists ; as, for example, lord Bacon and the abbe Baniei-. 
Some authors, with much indiscretion, have attempted to deduce all 
the Pagan m.ythologies from the holy scriptures. Such researches 
are unprofitable, sometimes mischievous. 

2. Superetition, in the early periods, was a predominant charac- 
teristic of the Greeks. To this age, and to this character of the 
people, we refer the origin of the Grecian omclcs, and the insliln- 
•ion of the public games in honour of the got!?. 

The desire of penetrating into futurity, and the superstition com- 
mon to rude nation-j^ gave rise to the or.xles of Delphi, Dodona, &,c. 

The resort of strangers to these oracles on particular occi»,sipns, 
led to ♦he celebmtJon of a fo^tivr?!. nnd to public cann^^. 



24 AINCIE^T HISTORY. 

The four solemn giunos of the Greeks, particularly termed upot, 
were the Olympic, the Pytliian, the iSemean, and the Isthmian 
'I'hey consij^ted principally in contesUi ol' *kill in all the athletic ex 
erci?t's, and the prizes were chietly honorary marks of distinction. 
Archhisiiop Potter, in his .Irchwb^ta Gneca^ fully details their par^ 
ficular nature. These games had excellcni political effects, in pro- 
moting national union, in diffusing the love of glory, and training the 
youth to martial exercises. They cherished at once a heroical and 
superstition* spirit, which led to trie formation of exti-aordinary and 
liazardous enterprises. 



SECTION VII. 

EARLY PERIOD OF THE GRECIAN HISTORY. HIE ARGO- 
NAUTIC EXPEDITION. WARS OF THEBES AND OF TROY. 

1. The history of Greece, for a period of 3tX) years preceding 
the Trojan war, is intermixed w ith fables ; but contains, at the same 
time, many facts entitled to credit, as authentic. Erectheus, or Erich- 
thonius, either a Greek who had visited Egyot, or the leader of a 
new Egyptian colonj, cultivated the plain** of Eleusis, and instituted 
the Eleusinian mysteries, in imitation of the Egyptian games of Isis. 
These mysteries were of a religious and moral nature, conveying the 
doctrines of the unity of God, the immortality of the soul, and a 
future state of reward and punishment Cicero speaks of them 
with high encomium. But the ceremonies connected with ihem 
seem to be childish and ridiculous. 

2. Theseus laid the foundation of the grandeur of Attica, by unit- 
ing its twelve cities, and giving them a common constitution, 1257 
A* v/. 

3. The first great enterprise of the Gmeks was the Argonautic 
expedition, 1263 A. C. (Usher), and 937 A. C. (sir I. Newton J. 
This is supposed to have been both a military and a mercantile aa- 
venture, ?nd was singularly bold for the times in which it was under- 
taken. The object was, to open the commerce of the Euxine sea, 
and to secure some establishments on its coasts. The astronomer 
Cliiron directed the plan of the voyage, and formed, for the use of 
the mariners, a scheme of the constellations, fixing witli accuracy 
the solstitial and equinoctial points. Sir Isaac Newton has founded 
his emendation of the ancient chronology on a calculation of the 
regular procession of the equinoxes from this period to the present, 
as well as on an estimate of tJic medium length of human genera- 
lions. 

4. The stijte of the military art at this time in Greece may be 
estimated from an account of the sieges of Thel)es and Troy. 

In these enterprises the arts of attack and defence were vcny rude 
and imperfect. The sic^e was entirely of the nature of blockade, and 
therefore necessarily of long duration. A dispute for the divided 
sovereignty of Thebes between the brothers Etoocles and Polynices, 
gave rise to the war, w hich was terminated by single combat, in 
*vhich both were killed. 

5. The sons of the commanders slain in this war renewed the 
quarrel of their fathers, anH ccCtL«ioned the war of the Lpigmiui, 
subject on which Homer is said to have written a p«)em, uow lost, 
equal to the Iliad and Odyssey. 



AJNCIENT HISI'ORY. 

6. The detail of the war of Troy rests chiefly on the authority 
of Horaer, and ought not, in spite of modern scepticism to he retast- 
ed, in its princip.d facts, the credit nt a true history. After a block- 
ade of ten years Troy was taken, either by storm or surprise, 11 84 
A. C, and being set on tire ^n tne night, was burnt to the ground '■, 
not a vestige of its ruins existing at the present day. The empire fell 
from that moment. The Greeks settled a colony near the spot, and 
the rest of the kingdom was occupied by the Lydians. 

7. Militiry expeditions at this time were carried on only in the 
spring and summer. In a tedious siege the winter was a season of 
armis'ice. The science of military tactics was then utterly unknown, 
eveiy battle being a aiultitude of single combats. The soldier had 
no pay but his share of the booty, divided by the chiefs. The 
weapons of war were the sword, the bow, the javelin, the club, the 
hatcnet, and the sling. A helmet of brass, an enormous shield, a 
cuirass, and buskins, were the weapons of defence. 



SECTION VIll. 
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GREEK COLONIES. 

1. About eighty years after the taking of Troy, began the war of 
the Heraclidae. Hercules, the son ot Amphitryon, sovereign of 
Mycenae, was banished from his country with all his family, while 
the crown Wiis possessed by a usurper. His descendants, after the 
period of a century, returned to Peloponnesus, and subduing all 
their enemies, took possession of the states of Mycenae, Argos, anc! 
I acedaemon. 

2. A long period ot civil war and bloodshed succeeded, and Greece, 
divided among a number of petty "^yrants, suffered equally the mis- 
eries of oppression and anarchy. 

Codrus, king of Athens, showed a singular example of patriotism, 
in devoting himself to death for his country; yet the Athenians, 
weary of monarchv^ determined to make the "experiment of a popu- 
ar constitution. JMedon, th<j,son of Codrus, was el^ed chief magis- 
trate, with the lille o£^|^chon. This is the comfl^^ement of the 
Athenian re public, 'rtimit 1068 A. C. ^HL 

3. It was at this time that the Greeks begn]H|^HBnize. The 
oppression which they suffered at home forcflSP^B^ them to 
abandon their country, and seek refuge in other H^s. A'farge body 
of ^Eolians from Peloponnesus founded twelve cifes in the Lesser 
Asia, of which Smyrna was the most con.^idera^, A troop of 

oni m exiles built Ephesus, Colophon, Clazomene, irad other towns: 
giving CO their new settlements the name of their native country, 
Ionia. The Dorians sent oil colonies to Italy and Sicily, founding, in 
the former, Tarentum and Locri, and in the latter, Syracuse and 
Arigentum. The mother country considered its colonies as eman- 
cipated children. These speedily attained to eminence tind splen- 
dour, rivalling and surpassing their parent states: and the exami)le 
of their prosperity, which was attributed to the freedom of their 
governments, incited the states of Greece, oppressed by a number of 
petty despots^ to put an end to the regal government, and try the 
experiment 61 a popular constitution. Athens and Thebes g^.ve Utie 
first examples, which were soon followed by all the rest 

4. These infant republics demanded new laws; and it wafl neces- 

C 



«6 ANCIENT HISTOnV. 

wry that ?ome enlightened citizen should arise, who had discernment 
t«> perceive whal system of legislation was most adapted to the char- 
JH (tT of lii?*n.ilive ^tatc ; who had ahililioa lo compile such a system, 
rihI siiihcitMil aiilhonty with his counti-jmon lo recommend and eu* 
tirce it. inicn men were lljfe Spartan Ljcurgus and the Athenian 
Suloo. 

SEC nOX IX. 

THE REPUBLIC OF SPARTA. 

1. Thf. origin of this poUtical sy.'^tem has given rise to much ingo- 
nlotis di.'»<pji*iiion among lije modems, and affords a remarkable in- 
stance of the passion for systematizing. It is a prevaiUng propensity 
with modem philosophers tc reduce every thing to general princi- 
pW's. Man, say they, is always the same animal, and, when placed 
in similar situations, will always exhibit a similar appearance. Hb 
mariners, his improvements, the government and laws under which 
he lives, arise necessarily tVom the situation in which we tind him; 
and all is the result of a few general laws of nature, which operate 
univeivallj on the human species. But in the ardour of this piissioo 
for gencr.dizing, these philosophers often forget, that it is the knowl- 
edge of facts wiiich can alone lead to the discovery of" general laws: 
a knowledge not limited to the history of a single age or nation, but 
exietided to that of the whole species in every age and climate. 
Antecedently lo such knowledge, all historical system is mere ro 
mance. 

t. Of this nature is a late theory of the constitution of Spart;x, first 
etarted by Mr. Browne, in his Essay on Civil Liberty ; and from him 
adopted by later writers. It thus accounts tor the origin of the Spar- 
bm constitution.* *■'■ The army of the HeraclidaE, when they came to 
recover the dominion of their ancestors, was composed ot Dorians 
from Thessaly, the most barbarous of idl the Greek tribes. Tlie 
Achasans, the ancient inlhibitanLs of Laconia, were compelled to seek 
new habitations, while the barbarians of Thessaly took possession of 
their country. Of all the nations which are the subject of historical 
record, this people bore the nearest resemblance to the rude Ameri- 
cans. An American tribe where a chief presides, where the council 
of the aged deliberate, and the assembly of the people gives their 
voice, is on the eve of such a political establishment as the Spartan 
constitution." The Dorians or Thessalians settled in Laceda^mon, 
manifested, it is said, the same manners with all other nations in a 
bariiarous state. Lycurgus did no more than arrest them in that state, 
by fonning their usages into laws. He checked them at once in the 
first stage of their improvement. ^' He put forth a bold hand to that 
spring which is in society, and stopt its 'notion." 

6. This theory, however ingenious, is confuted by facts. All an- 
cient authors agree, that Lycurgus operated a total change on the 
Spartan manners, and on the c()n.-.liti:tion of his country ; while the 
moderns have discovered tliat he made no change on either. The 
n»ost striking ieatures of the manners and constitution of Sparta had 
uoi the smallest resemblance to those of arjv rude nations with which 
we are acquaint wi. The communion of slaves and of manj other 
t^ieciei of property, the right of the stale in the children ol all the 

• Logan** Philowphj of IlUtory, &c 



AMBIENT HISTORY. Ti 

citizens, their common education, the public tables, the equal divi- 
sion of lands, the oath of government between the kings and people, 
have no parallel in the histor^' of any barbarous nation. 

4. The real history of Sparta and its constitution is therefore not 
to be found in modern theory, but in the writings of the Greek his- 
torians, and these are our sole authorities wortliy of credit. 

After the return of the Heraclidae, Sparta was divided between 
the two sons of Aristodemus, Eurysthenes, and Procles, who jointly 
reigned ; and this double monarchy, transmitted to the descendants 
of each, continued in the separate branches for near 900 years. A 
radical principle of disunion, and consequent anarchy, made the want 
of ronstitutional laws be severely felt. Lycurgus, brother of Foly- 
dectes, one of the kings of Sparta, a man distinguished aUke by his 
abilities and virtues, was invested, by the concurring voice of the 
sovereigns and people, with the important duty of reforming and new- 
modelling the ' institution of his country, 884 A. C. 

5. Lyc'irgus instituted a senate, elective, of twenty-eight mem 
oers: vvho-e otlice was to preserve a just balance between the pow- 
er of the kmgs and that of the people. Nothing could come before 
the Jissembly of the people which had not received the previous con- 
sent of ihe senate ; and, on the other hand, no judgment of the sen- 
ate was effectual without the sanction of the people. The kings pre- 
sided in the senate; they were the generals of the republic: but 
they could plan no enterprise without the consent of a council of the 
citizens. 

6. [-.ycurgus bent his attention most particularly to the regulation 
of manners; and one great principle pervaded his whole system; 
Luxury is the bane of society. 

He divided the territory of the republic into 39,000 equal portions, 
among the whole of its free citizens. 

He substituted iron money for gold and silver, prohibited the prac- 
tice of commerce, abolished all useless arts, and allowed even those 
necessary to life to be practised only by the slaves. 

The whole citizens made their principal repast at the public ta- 
bles. The meals were coarse and parsimonious ; the conversation 
was fitted to improve the youth in virtue, and cultivate the patriotic 
spirit. 

The Spartan education rejected all embellishments of the under- 
standing. It nourished only the severer virtues. It Uiught tiie du- 
ties o( religion, obedience to the laws, respect for parents, reverence 
for old age, indexible honour, undaunted courage, contempt of dan- 
ger and of death ; above all, the love of glory and of their country 

7. But the general excellence of the institutions of Lycurgus vv;is 
inpaired by many blemishes. The manners of the Lacedaunonian 
women were shamefully loose. They frequented the baths, and 
fought naked in the palaestra promiscuously with the men. Theft 
was a part of Spartan education. The youth were taught to subdue 
the feelings of humanity; the slaves were treated with the most bar- 
barous rigour, and often massacred tor sport. The institutions of 
Lycurgus had no other end th;m to form a nation of soldi-ei-s. 

8. A faulty part of the constitution of Sparta was the otlice of the 
ephori; magistr-ates elected by the people, whose power, though in 
some respects subordinate, was in others paramount to that ot the 
kvAga and senate. 



1^ 



•S ANCIENT HISTORY. 

SECTIOx\ X. 

THE REPUBLIC OF ATHENS. 

! Oil the aboliticn of the r'^gal oiWce at Athens, the change of 
tlie constitut'oii 'vas in(>re nominal tlian real. 'I'lie archoiiship was, 
during three centuries, a per]H'tual and liercdilary magistracy. In 
754 A. C. this DlHce l)ccame decennial. In G 18 the archons were 
antujally elected and were nine in number, with rsual authority. 
Lnder all these changes the state was convulsed, and the condition of 
the people misenible. 

2. Draco, elevated to the archonship G24 A. C, projected a reform 
in the constitution of his country, and tnought to repress disorders by 
the extreme severity of penal laws, liut his talents were unequal 
lo tlie task he had undertaken. 

3. Solon, an illustrious Athei;i;in, of the race of Codrus, attained 
the dignity of archon b\)\ A. C , and was entrusted with the care of 
framing lor his country a new tbrm of government, and a new sys- 
tcmof laws. He possessed extensive upowlcdge, but wanted that 
intrepidity of mind which is necessary to the character of a great 
statesman. His disposition was mild and temporizing; and, without 
attempting to reform the manners of his countiymen, he accommo- 
dated his system to their prevailing hahits and passions. 

4. The people claimed the sovereign powtr, and they received 
it ; the rich demanded olhces and dignities : the system of Solon 
accommodated them to the utmost of their wishes, lie divided the 
citizens into four classes, according to the measure ol" their wealth. 
To the three lii-st. the riclier citizens, belonG:ed all the othces of the 
commonwealth. The fourth, the poorer cla«s, more numerous than 
all the other three, had an equal right <)f suflrage with them in the 
public assembly, wiiere all laws were fnimed, and measures of state 
decreed. Consequently the weight of the laller decided every ques- 
tion. 

5. To regulate in some degree the proceedings of those assem- 
blies, and balance the weight of the popular interest, Solon instituted 
a senate of 400 members (aUerwards enlarged lo 300 and GOO), 
with whom it was necessary tliat everj' measure should originate, 
before it became the subject of discussion in the. assembly of the 
people. 

G. To the court of areopngus he conmii'*ed the guardianship of 
the laws, and the power of enforcing lhen>; with the supreme 
administration of justice. To this tribunal belonged likewise the 
custody of the treasures of the stale, the care of reUgion, and a 
tutorial power over all the youth of the republic. The number o. 
its judges was various at different periods, an<l th^ most immacuiaie 
purity of chanicter Avas essential to that high othce. 

7. The authority of the senate and areopagus imposed some check 
on the popular assemblies; but as these possessed the ultimate right 
of decision, it was always in the power of ambitious deniagogues to 
sway them to the worst of purposes. Continual factions divided the 
neople, and corniplion pervaded eveiy department of the state. 
The public measures, the result of ihe interested schemes of indi- 
vi«luals, were often equally absurd as they were proHigate. Athena 
oftpu 8;iw her best patriots, the wisest and most viiluous of her citi- 
zens, shamefully sacrificed to the most depraved and most abandoned 



AJSCIEWT HISTORY. 29 

8. The particular laws of the Athenian state are more deserying ot 
encomiuni than its form of government. The laws relating to debt- 
ors were mild and equitable, as were those which regulated the 
treatment of slaves. Bat the vassalage of women, or their abso- 
lute subjection to the control of their nearest relations, approached 
too near to a state of servitude. The proposer of a law found on 
experience impolitic was liable to punishment; an enactment ap- 
parently rigorous, but probably necessary in a popular government 

9. One most iniquitous and absurd peculiarity of the Athenian, and 
some other governments of Greece, was the practice of the onra- 
cisiii^ a ballot of all the citizens, in which each wrote down the name 
of the person in his opinion most obnoxious to censure : and he who 
was thus marked out by the greatest number of voices, though un- 
impeached of any crime, was banished for ten years from his coun- 
try. This barbarous and disgraceful institution, ever capable of the 
grossest abuse, and generally subservient to the worst of purposes, 
hus stained the character of Athens with many flagrant instances 
of public ingratitude. 

10. The manners of the Athenians formed the most striking con- 
trast to tho-'e of the Lacedaemoni;ins. At Athens the arts were in 
the highest esteem. The Lacedcemonians despised the arts, and all 
who cultivated them. At Athens peace was the natural state of the 
republic,, and the retined enjoyment ot lite the aim of all its subjects 
Sparta was entirely a military establishment ; and her subjects, when 
unengaged in war, v«ere totilly unoccupied. Luxury v/as the char- 
acter ot the Athenian, iis frugality of the Spartm. They were 
equally jealous of their liberty, and eqi.ally brave in war. The 
courage of the Spartans sprang from constitutional ferocity, that oi 
the Athenian from the principle of honour. 

11. The Spartan government had acquired solidity, while all the 
rest of Greece was torn by domestic dissensions. Athens, a prey to 
faction and civil disorder, surrendered her Uberties to Pisistratus, 550 
A. C. ; who, after various turns of fortune, established himself tirm- 
ly in the sovereignty, exercised a splendid and muniticenc dominion, 
completely gained the ati'ections of the people, and transmitted a 
peaceable crown to his sons Hippias and iiipparcnus. 

12. Hermodias and Aristogfiton undertook to restore the democra- 
cy ; and succeeded in the attempt Hipparchus w^is put to death ; 
and Hippias, dethroned, solicited a foreign aid to replace him in the 
sovereignty. Darius, the son of Hystiispes, meditated at this time 
the conquest of Greece. Hippias took advantage of the views of 
an enemy against his natite country, and Greece was now involved 
in a war with Fei-sia. 



SECTION XL 

OF THE STATE OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE, AND ITS HISTORY 
DOWN TO THE WAR WITH GREECE. 

1. The first empire of the Assyrian" ended under Sardanap;dus,and 
three monarchies arose upon its ruins, JN'ineveh, Babylon, and the 
kingdom of the Medes. 

2. The history of Babylon and of Nineveh is very irapertectlv 
known. The Medes, hitherto independent tribes, were united under 
a monarchy by Dejoces. His son Phraortes conquered Persia, but was 

C 2 



so ANCIENl' HISTORV. 

himwif vanquished by Nabuchodonosor I., kin^ of Assyria, and wit 

lo (Ipjitb. .Nahm hodunosor II. led the Jews into captivity, took Je- 
rusiieri) and Tyre, and tuUliied Kgvpt. 

3. 'I'he history of Cyrus is involved in great uncertainty ; nor is 
it possible to reconcile or apply to one man the diflerent accounts 
given ot him by Herodotus, Ctesia«. and Xenophon. Succeeding 
his lather CamLyses in the throne of Persia, and his uncle Cyaxares 
in the sovereignty of the Medes, he united these empires, vanquish- 
ed the B;d>ylonian< and Lydians, subjected the greatest part of the 
Lesser Asia, and made himself master of t?yria and Arabia. 

4. He uiH S'icceeded by his son Cambyses, disiinj^uishcd only as 
1 tyrant and a madman. 

5. After the death of Cambyses, Darius, the son of Hysta^p^. 
n'as elected sovereign of Persia, a prince of great enterprise and 
ambition. Unfortunate in a rash expedition against the iicythiims, 
he projected and achieved the conquest of India. Intlated with suc- 
cess, he no\v meditated an invasion of Greece, and cordially entered 
into the vittvs of Hippias, who sought by his means to regain the 
sovereignty of Athens. 

6. G(/vcni,nent^ Manners^ Lavcs^ ^c. of Oie Ancient Pe nans. The 
government of Persia was an absolute monarchy ; the will of the sov- 
ereign being subject to no control, and his person revered as sacred: 
yet the education bestowed by those monarchs on their children was 
calculated to im-pire every valuable quality of a sovereign. 

The ancient Persians in general bestowed the utmost attention on 
tlie education of youth. Children at the age of live were committed 
to the care of the niagi, for the improvement of their mind and 
morals. They w ere trained at the same time to every manly exerci>e. 
'J'he sacred book:j of the Zenda'cesla promised to e\»iry worthy parent 
the imputed me*'it and re war 1 of all the good actions of his chil- 
dren. 

7. Luxurious as they were in after times, the early Persians were 
distinguished for their temperance, bravery, and virtuous simplicity 
of manners. They were all trained to the use of arms, and display- 
ed great intrepidity in war. The custom of the women following 
their armies lo the tield, erroneously attributed to effeminacy, was 
a remnant of barbarous manners. 

o. The kingdom of Persia was divided into several provinces, each 
under a governor or satrap, who wjus accountable to the sovereign 
for the whole of his conduct. The prince, at stated times, visited 
his provinces in person, correcting all al^ises, easing the burdens 
of the oppressed, and encouraging agriculture and Uie practice of 
the useful arts. The laws of Persia were mild and equitable, ant 
the utmost purity was observed in the administration of juslife. 

9. The religion of the ancient Persians is of great antiquity. 1 
is conjectured that there were two-Zoro;»sters; the first, thj founder 
of this ancient religion, and of whom are recorded miracles and 
prophecies ; the second, a reformer of that religion, contemporary 
with Darius the son otllyslaspes. The Zeiulaiesta^ or sacreu book, 
compiled l)v the former, was improved and purified by the latter. 
It has been lately translated into French by M. Anquetil, and appears 
to contain, amidst ii mass of absurdity, some sublime truths, and ex- 
cellent precepts of morality. The theology of the Zendave.sla '» 
foun»leil on the doctrine of two oppa-ile principles, a good and an 
evil, Ormusd and Ahnman, eternal beings, who divide between them 
the government of the universe, and whose warfare must endure Hit 



AJSCIENT HISTORY. 8) 

the end of 12,000 years, when the good will finally prevail over the 
evil. A separation will ensue of the votaries ol' each : the just sha!l 
be a(^initte(l to l-.e irnmeili.ite cujoyim^ul ol' l^iradise ; iUe wickciL 
after a limited pwriricatio'i l»y fire, ah. ill ullimalely heallowod Iw par 
take in the bless]. igs of eterniiy. Orrntisd is to he a<lorcd Ihroii^h 
the rQediiitn ot' his greatest works, the sun, moon, and stars. 'I'lie 
fire, the symhol ot' the sun, the air, the earth, the water, have tiieii 
subordinate vvorshiji. 

The morality of the ZemUivesfa is best known from its ai»ridg- 
ment, the Sadder, complied about three centuries ago by the mo<lem 
Guebres. It inculcates a chastened species of epicurism; allowing 
;i free indulgencoof the passions, while consistent with the iv(?it<ire 
of society. It prohibits equally intemper.mce and ascetic m<u'tirica- 
tion. It recommettils, as precepts of religion, the cultivation of thf 
earth, the planting of fruit-trees, the destruction of ncxious animalsi, 
the bringing water to a barren land. 

10. Such were the ancient Persians. But their character had un- 
dergone a great change before the period of the war with Greece. 
At tliis lime th-y were a degenerate and ftorrupted people. Athens 
had recently thrown otfthe yoke of the Pisi-tralida*-, and highly val- 
ued lier nevv liberty. Sparta, in the ardour of patriotism, torgot all 
jealousy of her rival state, and cordially united in the defence ol 
their common country. The Persians, in this contest, had no other 
advant.tge than that of numbers, an unequal match for superior hero- 
ism and military skiU. 



SECTION XIL 

THE WAR BETWEEN GREECE AND PERSIA. 

1 . The ambition of Darius, the son of Hystaspes, heightened by the 
passion of revenge, gave rise to the proj:xt ot that monarch for tlie 
invasion of Greece. The Athenians had aideil the people ut Ionia in 
an attempt to throw off the yoke of Persii, and burnt and ravaged 
ijardi-j, the capital of Lydia. Darius speedily reduced the loni.uis to 
submi^s-ion, and ihen turned his arms against the Greeks, their allies; 
the exi^e ilippias eagerly promptin^g t.ie expedition. 

2. After an insolent dern md of submission, whicli the Greeks scorn- 
fully refused, D.irius began a hostile attack both by sea and land 
Tne first Persian fleet was wrecked in doubling the promontory oi 
Athos; a second, of 600 sail, ravaged the Grecian islands; while an 
immense army landing in Euboea, poured down with impetuosity -on 
Attica. Tiie Athenians^ met them on the plain ^C Marathon, aml^ 
headed by Milliades, defeated them with pro(hgious slaughter, 190 
A. C. The loss of the Persians in this battle was 6,300, and that o 
the Athenians 190. 

3. The merit of Miltiades, signally displayed in this great battle, 
w;ls repaid by his country with the most shocking ingralitude. Ac- 
cused oi treason for an unsuccessful attack on the isle of Paros his 
sentence of death was commuted into a line of fifty Udents; which 
being unable to pay ho was thrown in*o prison, and there died ot'his 
wounds. 

4. The glory of ungr.iteful Athens wa" yet noldy sustained in the 
Persiim war by The- istocles and .Aristides. Darius d^ing wad suc- 
ceeded by his son Xerxes, the heir of his father^s ambition, but not of 



5S .\JVC1ENT HISTORY. 

hi§ abilitiea. He armed, as is said, tive millions of men, for the co»- 
auost of Greece; 1,2UU ships ol war, ami 3,00) ^hips of burden 
Lmding in Tlirssaly he ])rocooded, hy rapiil luarcht's, to 'rhermoi>. 
yhp, a narrow dolile on Ihc .Vt/n« Muliaciui. 'I'he Atheniiuis jinci 
Spartans, ai,led only by the Thespians, I'iala^ans, and Kginetes, de- 
termined to withstand the invader. Leonidas, king ol .Sparia, \vj\fl 
chosen to defend this important pass with 6,U(X) men. Xerxes; after 
a weak attempt to corrupt liim, imperiously summoned him to lay 
down his aims. Let hii.i coi/ie^ said Leonidas, ant/ take them. For twc 
days the Persians in vain strove to force their way, and were repeat- 
edly reuulsed with great slaughter. An unguarded track being at 
length diicovered, the defence of the pass became a fruitless attempt 
on the part of the Greeks. Leonidas, foreseeing certain destruction, 
commarided all to retire but IMX) of his countrymen. 11 is motive was 
to give tlie Pjrsians a just idea of the spirit of that loc whom they 
had to encounter. He, with his brave Spartans, wore all cut off to a 
man, 480 A. (\ A monument, erected on the spot, bore this noble 
inscription, written by :?imonides: O stranger: tell it at Lacedcemojt^ 
tliat we died here m obedience to tier las^s. 

5. The Persians poure9 down unon Attica. The inhabitants of 
Athens, after conveying their women and children to the islands for 
security, betook themselves to their lleet, abandoning the city, which 
the Persians pillaged afid burnt. The Meet of the Greeks, consisfing 
of 3S0 Siiil, u^.s attacked in the straits of Sal.miis by that ol" the Pei- 
sians, amounting to 1.200 ships. Xerxes himself beheld from an em- 
inence on the coiist the total discomfiture of his squadron. He then 
ded with precipitation across the Hellespont. A second overthrow 
awaited his army by land : for Mardonius, at the head of 500,000 
Persians, was totally defeated at Plata^a by the combined armv ol the 
Athenians and Laceda&raonians, 479 A. C. On the Siime day the 
Greeks engaged and destroyed the remains of the Persian lleet at 
Mycale. From that day the ambitious schemes of Xerxes were at 
an end ; and his inglorious life was soon after terminated by assassina 
tion. He w as succeeded in tfie throne of Persia by his son Artaxerxes 
Longimanus, 464 A. C. 

6. At this time the natiomd character of the Greeks was at its highest 
elevation. The common diuiger had annihilated all partial jealousies 
between the states, ;md given tli^m union as a nation. But with the 
cessation of danger those jealousies recommenced. Sparta meanly 
opposed the rebuilding of deserted Athens. Athens, rising again into 
splendour, saw with pleasure the depopulation of Sparta b;y an earth- 
quake, ;uicl hesitated to give her aid in that juncture of calamity 
against a rebellion of her slaves. 

7. Cimon, the ;on of Miltiades. after expelling the Persians from 
Thrace, attacked and destroyed their fleet on the coast of Pamphylia, 
and, landing his troops, gained a signal victory over their army the 
same day. Supplanted in the public favour by the arts of his rival 
Pericles, he suliered a temporary exile, to return only with higher 
popularity, and to signalize himself still more in the service ol his 
ungrateful country. He attacked and totally destroyed the Persian 
fleet of 300 sail, and, landing in Cilicia, completed his* triumph, by 
defeating 300,000 Persians under Megabyzes, 460 A. C. Artaxerxes 
now had the prudence to sue for peace, which was gr.mted by the 
Greeks, on terms most hoiiourable to the nation. They stipulated 
for the freedom of all the Grecian cities of Asia, and that the neetsof 
Persia should not approach their coasts from the Euxine to the ex- 



ANCIENT HISTORY. SH 

treme boundary of Pamnhylia. The last fifty years were the period 

of the highest glory of tne Greeks; and thoy owed their pro«perity 
entir'^.ly ta their union. The peace with Persia, dissolving trial con 
nexion, brought bark the jealousies between the predonniuanl states, 
the intestine disorders of each, and the national weakness. 

8. The martial and the patriotic spirit began visibly to decline in 
Athens. An acquaintance with Asia^ and an importation of her 
wealth, introduced a relish for Asiatic manners and luxuries. With 
the Athenians, however, this iQxurious spirit was under the guidance 
of taste and genius. It led to the cultivation of the finer arts ; and 
the age of Pericles, though the national glory was in its wane, is the 
aera of the highest internal splendour and magnificence of Greece. 



SECTION XIll. 
AGE OF PERICLES. 

1. Repubucs, equally with monarchies, are generally regulated 
bv a single will : only, in the former there is a more frequent change 
of masters. Pericles ruled Athens with little less than arbitrary 
sway ; and Athens pretended at this time to the command of Greece 
She held the allied states in the most absolute subjection, and lavished 
their subsidies, bestowed for the national defence, in magnificent 
buildings, games, and festivals, for her own citizens. The tributary 
states loudly complained, but durst not call this domineering republic 
to account ; and the war of Peloponnesus, dividing the nation into 
two great parties, bound the less cities to the strictest subordination 
on the predominant powGi"S. 

2. Tfte state of Corinth had been included in the last treaty be- 
tween Athens and Sparta. The Corinthians waging war with the 
people of Corcyra, an ancient colony of their own, both parties so- 
licited the aid of Athens, which took part with the later: a measure 
which the Corinthians complained of, not only as an infraction of the 
treaty with Sparta, but as a breach of a general rule of the national 
policy, that no foreign power should interfere in the disputes between 
a colony and its parent state. War was proclaimed on this ground 
between Athens and Lacedaemon, each supported by its respective 
allies. The detail of the war, which continued for twenty-eight 
years, with various and alternate success, is to be found in Tlwicy*!- 
ides. Pericles died before its termintition ; a splendid ornament of 
his country, but a corrupter of its manners. Alcibiades ran a similar 
career, with equal talents, equal ambition, and still less purity ol 
moral principle. In the interval of a truce with Sparta he inco'nsid 
erately projected the conquest of Sicily ; and, failing in the attempt, 
was, on his retum to Athens, condemned to death for treason. He 
hesitated not to wreak his vengeance a-gainst his countiy, by selling 
nis services, first to Sparta, and afterwards to Persia. Finally, he 
purchiised his peace with his country^ by betraying the power 
which protected him, and returned to Athens the iciol of a populace 
as versatile as worthless. 

3. A fatal defeat of the Athenian fleet at /Effos Potamos, by l.y- 
sander, reduced Athens to the last extremity; and the Lacedaemonians 
blockaded the city by land and sea. The war was ended by fhe 
absolute submission of the Athenians, who agreed to demolish their 
port, to limit their fleet to twelve ships, and undertake for the fu 



S4 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

no mHltary enterprise, but under command of the Lacedaemoniant. 
405 A C. 

4. To the 6anf>e Lysnnder, who terminntrd the Peloponnesipn war 
8o gloriously for Lacedaemon, history ascribes the iirst great breach 
of lie coiLstitution of hi? country, by the introduction of gold into 
that republic. Lysander, after Ine reduction of Athens, abolished 
llie popular government in that state, and substituted in its place 
tliirty tynmts. whose power was absolute. The most eminent of 
the citizens tied from their country: but a. band of patriots, iieaded 
by Ttirasybulus, attacked, vanquished, and expelled the usurpers, 
nnd once more re-established iht denioci;icy. 

5. One event, which happened at this time, retlected more disgrace 
on the Athenian name than their national humiliation : this was thej)er- 
secufion and death of Socrates, a philosopher who was himselt the 

f)attem oi every virtue which he tiught. The sophists, whose futile 
ogic he deri<led and exposed, represented him as an enemy tc the 
religion of his country, oecause, without regard to the popular su- 
perstitions, he led the mind to the knowledge of a Supreme Being, 
the creator and ruler of the universe, and to the belief of a future 
stale of retribution. He made his delence with the manly fortitude o' 
conscious innocence; but in vain: his judges were his personal ene- 
mies, and he was condemned to die by poison, 397 A. C. (See Sec* 
tion XXlIi, § 5.) 

6. On tfie death of Darius Nothus, his eldest son Artaxerxes Mrn^ 
mon succeeded to the empire of Persia. His younger brother Cyrus 



formed the project of dethroning him, and with the aid of 13,0OC 
Greeks engaged him near Babylon, but was defeated and slain ; a 
jiLst rewanlof his most culpable enterprise. The remainder of the 



Grecian army, to the amount of 10,000, under the command of Xen- 
ophon, made a most amazing retreat, traversing a hostile country ol 
1,000 miles in extent, from Babylon to the banks of the Euxine Xen- 
ophon has beautifully written the history of this expedition; but has 
painted the character of Cyrus in too llattering colours, and without 
tlie smallest censure of his ciiminal ambition. 

7. The Greek cities of Asia had taken part with Cynis. Sparta 
v\'as engaged to defend her countr} men, and consequently was in- 
volved in a war with Persia. Had Athens added her strength, the 
Greeks might have once more defied the power of Asia; but jealousy 
kept the stales divided, and even hostile to each other; and the gold 
of Artaxerxes excited a general league in Greece against Lacedae- 
mon. Agesilaus, king of Sparta, sustained for a tinie the honour of 
»ii« country, and won some important battles in Asia; but others *vere 
lost in Greece; and a naval defeat near Cnidos utterly destrr^yed the 
Lacedaemonian fleet Finally, to escape total destiuction, the Spartans 
sued for |)eace, and obtained it by the SHcritice to Persia of all the 
Asiatic colonics, 387 A. C. Artaxerxes furthei demanded, and obtain- 
ed for bis allies the Athenians, the inlands of Scyios, Lemnos. and Im- 
bro3 ; a disgraceful treaty; a mortifying picture of the bumiiiatiou oi 
the Greeks. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 35 

SECTION XIV. 
THE REPUBLIC OF*THEBES'. 

1. While Athens and Sparta were thus visibly lending todeclioe^ 
the Theban republic emerged tiom obscurity,';uid rose rbr a time 
to a degree of splendour eclipsing ah its contemporary states. Ti,e 
republic was divided by faction, one party supporting its ancient «ie- 
fijocracy, and the other aiming at tiie eslabiisnraent <,f nn oligarrliy. 
The tauer courted the aid of tnc Sp;u-tims, who emhnice<i tlial doca- 
6ion to take possession of ilie citadel. lour liundred of the exiled 
Thebans tied for protection to Athens. Among these was felopid^w, 
who planned and accomplished the deliverance of his country. J)i!»- 
euising himself and twelve of his friemis as peasants, he entered 
Thebes in the evening, and joining a patriotic party of the citizens, 
they surprised the heads of tne usurpatioEiamiil the tumult of a feast, 
and put them all to death. Epaminondas, the fiiend ol' Pelopidas, 
shared with him in the glory of this enterprise: and attacking, with 
the aid of 5,0U0 Athenians, the Lacediemonian garrison, drove them 
entirely out of the Theban territory. 

2. A war necessarily ensued between Thehes and Sparta, in which 
the former had the aid of Atiiens. Tnis, however, was but for a sea- 
son. Tnebes singly opposed the power of Sparta, and the league of 
Greece: but Epaminondas and Pelopidas were her generals. The 
latter, amidst a career of glory, perished in an txpedilion against 
the tyrant of Pheraea. Epaminondas, triumphant at Leuctra and iVlarv 
tinea, fell in that last engagement, and with him exj>ired the glory of 
nis t:ountry, 363 A. C. Athens ancl'Sparla were humbled at the battle 
of Mantinea. Thebes was victorious ; but she was undone by the death 
of Epaminondas. All parties were tired of rhe w-tri and Arta^terxes, 
more powerful among those jnfatuated states than in his own domin. 
ions, dictated the terms of the treaty, it was stipulated that each 
power should retain what it possessed ; and that the less states, now 
tree froffi the yoke of the greater, should remain so. 

SECTION XV. 
PHILIP OF MACEDON- 

1. Greece was now in the most abject situation. The spirit of 
patriotism appeared utterly extinct, and military glory^ at an end. 
Athens seemed to have lost all ambition; tiie pleasures of luxury h:id 
entirely supplanted heroic virtue ; poets, musicians, sculptoi's, and 
conieiUans, were now the only great men of Atti--^. Sparta, no les8 
changed from the- simplicity of its ancient manners, and its power 
abridged by the new independency of the states of Peloponnesiia, 
was in no capacity to attempt a recovery of its former greatness, in 
this situation Philip of Macedon formed the ambitious project of bi mg- 
iug under his dominion the whole of Grt-ece. 

2. He had mounted the throne of Macedon by popular choice, in 
violation of the natural right of the nearer heirs to the crown: and 
he secured his power by the success of his aria^ against the llljriHMS. 
Faeonians, and Athenians, who espoused the interest of his com])eT iters. 
Uniting to greut miUtary talents the most consummate artilice and ad* 



AJ^CIliJNT illSTOKY. 

dress, he had his pensionaries in all Ihe states of Greece, who direct- 
ed to Ilia ail\iuitage every public measure. The iiiiserahle pfilicy I 
of these states, embroiled in perpetual quarrels, co-operated uitb his ; 
designs. A sacrilegious attempt of the rhociaiis to phmder the tem- \ 
pie of Delphos excited the sacred itar, in which almost all the repulv | 
Hcs took a part. Philip's aid being courteil by the Thebans and 
Theasalians, he began hostilities by invading Phocis, the key to the 
territorv of Attica. /Kschines. the orator, bribed to his interest, ut , 
tempted to quiet the alarms cf the Athenians, by ascribing to Philip , 
a design only of punisliin^ sacrilege, and vindicating the cause ol 
Apollo. Demosthenes, with true patriotism, exposed the artful de- 
signs of the invader, and with the most anin)ated eloqucFice roused ! 
his countrymen to a vigorous effort lor the preservation ol their nat- | 
oral liberties. But t\.e event was iinsuccessfuL The battle of Che- ! 
ronaea, fought 337 A. C, decided the fate of Greece, and subjected all 
the states to tlie dominion of the king of Macedon. But it was not 
his policy to treat them as a conquered people. Tliey retained theii 
separate and independent governments, while Jie controlled and dii-ect ; 
ea ajl the national me;isures. Convoking a general council of the slate?, 
Philip was appointed commander in chief of the forces of the nation ; ] 
and he laid be.lbre them his project for the conquest of Persia, ap- 
pointing each republic to furaish its proportional subsidies. On the 
eve of this great enterpris(i Philip was assassinated by l^aus-anias. a 
captain of his guards, in revenge ol a i)rivate injury, 336 A. C. Tne ; 
Athenians, on the death of Philip, meanly «?xpressed the most tunml 
tuous joy, in the hope of a rcQovery of their liberty; but this vision- 
ary prospect was never realized. The spirit of the nation wa-? gene ; 
and in their subsequent revolutions they only changed theii .masters. 



SECTION XVI. 

ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

1. Alexander, the son of Philip, succeeded at the age of twenty to 
the throne of Macedon, and, after a few succes*;f\:4 battles against the 
revolted states, to the command of Greece. Assembling the deputies 
of the nation at Corinth, he communicated to them his resolution oi 
prosecuting the designs ol his father ior the conquest of Persia. 

2. With an army of 30,000 foot, and 5,000 hoi'se,lhe sum of 70 tal- 
ents, and provisions only for a single month, he crossed the Hellespont, 
and in traversing Phrjgia visited tlie tonib of Achilles. Darius Co 
domanus, resolved to crush at once this inconsidenvte youth, met him 
on the banks of the G I aniens with 100,000 footimd 10,000 horse. 
The Greeks swam the river, their king leading the van, and, attack- 
ing the astonished Persians Jeft 20,000 dead upon the tield,aad put to 
tlijght their whole army. Drawing from bis tii'st success a piesage 
of^continued victory, Alexander now sent home his lle^rl, leaving to 
his army ihe sole altcmalive, that they must subdue Asia or nerish. 
Prosecuting their course for some time without resistance, the Greeks 
were attacked by the Persians in a narrow valley of Cilicia, near the 
town of issus. The Persian host amouriTed to '100,CKK) ; but their sit- 
uation was such that only a small part could come into action, and 
ttiey were defeated with prodigious slaughter. The loss of the Per- 
sians in this battle was 110,000 ; that of the Greeks (according to i^. 
Curiiug) only 450. 



ANCIENT HISTROY. 87 

3. I'be history of Alexander l>y Qiiintus Curtius, though a mo*' 
elegant conipoi^ition, is extremely suspicious on the score ot' autijen- 
lic information. Arriiin is tiie best anthoriiy. 

4. The generosity of Alexander was displayed after the battle of 
Issus, in his attention to his noble prisoners, the mother, the wife, 
and family of Darius. To the credit of Alexander it must be owiied 
that humanity, however overpowered, and at times extinguished by 
his passions, cerbiinly fornied a part of his natural character. 

5. The consequence of the battle of Issus was the submission of 
all Syria. Damascus, where Darius had deposited his chief treasures- 
was betrayed and given up by its governor. The Phoenicians were 
pleased to see themselves thus avenged for the oppression which the> 
aad suffered under the yoke of Persia. 

6. Alexander had hitherto borne his good fortune with moderation, 
i^e/zar, says Cyivt'ius, si liac contiiientia ad uUiinwn vitce perseverare pot- 
uisset ; sed notuiuin Fortuna sp. aniiiio ejus infudcrat* He directed his 
course towards Tyre, and desired admittance to perform a sacritice 
to Hercules. The Tyrians shut their gates, and m lintained tor seven 
months a noble defence. The city was at length taken by storm, 
and the victor glutted iiis revenge by the inhumru massacre of 8,000 
of the inhabitants. The fate of Gaza, gloriously defended by Be' is, was 
equally deplorable to its citizens, and more disgraceful to the con- 
queror. Ten thousand of the former were sold into slavery, and its 
brave defender dragged at the wheels of the victor's chariot : Glori- 
aiUe rege^ Ackillem^ a quo genus ipse deduceret^ imitatum se esse^ poena 
in hosiem capienda.] Curtius. 

7. The taking of Gaza opened Egypt to Alexander, and the whole 
country submitted without opposition. The course he now pursue«i 
demoastrated that in his conquests he followed no determined plan. 
Amidst the most incredible iiitigues, he led his army through the 
deserts of Lybia, to visit the temple of his father, Jupiter Aminon. On 
his return he built Alexandria, at the mouth of the IV ile, afterwards the 
capital of the Lower Egypt, and one of the most flourishing cities m 
the world. Twenty other cities of the same name were reared by 
him in the course of his conquests. It is such works as these that 
justly entitle the Macedonian to the epithet of Great. By rearing 
in the midst of deserts those nurseries of population and of industry, 
he repaired the waste and iiavoc of his conquests. Except for those 
monuments of his glory, he would have merited no other epithet 
than that assigned him by the brahmins of India, The Mighty Murderer. 

8 Returning from Egypt, Alexander, traversed Assyria, and was 
met at Arbela by Darius, at the head of 700,000 men. The Persian 
had* proffered peace, consenting to yield the whole country from the 
Euphrates to the Hellespont, to give Alexander his daughter in mar- 
riage, and the immense sum of 10,000 talents. But these tern^s 
were haughtily rejected, and peace ofi'ered only upon the unqualihed 
submission of his enemy. The Persians were defeated at Arbela, 
with the loss of 300,000 men. Daiius tied from province to province. 
At length betrayed by Bessus, one of his own satraps, he was cruelly 
murdered; and the Persian empire, which had subsisted for 206 
years from the time of Cyrus the great, submitted to the conqueror, 
330 A. C. 

• Happy if he could have persevered in this tempersince to the end of 
his life, but Fortune had not yet poisoned his mind. 

t The king^ boasting that he imitated Achilles, from whom he 8upp««ed 
himself degcended, in the infliction of this punishment upon his eoemv. 
D 



38 ANCfENl' HISTORY 

9. Alexander now projected the conquest of India j firmly pemiad- 
ed thai the gods had decreed him the sovereignty of the whole hab- 
itiihle globe. He f>enetrated to tlie Ganges, and would have pro 
ceeded to the eastern ocean, if the spirit oi his army had kept pace 
wi'h his ambition. But his troops, seeing no end to their toils, refus- 
ed to proceed. He returned to the Indus, whence sending round his 
fleet to the Persian gulf under Nearchus, he marched his army 
across the desert to Pei-sepolis. 

10. Indignant that he had found a limit to his conquests, he abandoned 
hinfwolf to every exr.e!*s of luxury and debauchery. The arrogance 
of his nature, and the ardour of his passions, heightened by continual 
intemperance, broke out into the most outrageous excesses of cruelty, 
ibr which, in the tew intervals of sober reliection, his ingenuous 
mind suflered the keenest remorse. From Fersepolis he returned 
to Habvlon, and there died in a fit of debauch, in the thirty-third year 
of Ills age, and thirteenth of his reign, .S24 A. C. 

11. Of the character of Alexander the most opposite and contra- 
dic4ory estimates have been ibrmed. While by seme he is esteemed 
nothing better than a Ibrtunate madman, he is by others ceiebrated 
tbr the grandeur, wisdom, and solidity of his political views. Truth 
is rarely to be ibund in extreme censure or applause. We may al- 
low to Alexander tlie spirit and the talents of a great miliUiry genius, 
without combining with these the sober plans of a orofound pohtician. 
In a moral view of his character, we see an excellent and ingenuous 
nature corrupted at length by an unvarying current of success, and a 
striking example of the fatal violence ot the passions, when eminence 
of fortune removes all restraint, and flattery stimulates to Uieir uo 
controlled indulgence. 



SECTION XVil. 

SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER, 

1. Alexander, on his death-bed, named no successor, but gave hy 
ring to Ferdiccas, one of bis officers. W hen his courtiers asked him 
to whom he wished the empire to devolve upon bis death, he replied, 
'• To the most worthy ;" and he is said to have added, tliat he fore* 
saw this legacy would prepare for him very exti-aordmary funeral 
ntes ; a prediction whicn was fully veritied. 

2. Ferdicais, sensible that his pretensions would not justify a di- 
rrxt assumption of tlie government of this vast empire, brought about 
a division ol the whole among thirty-three of the principal officers; 
and trusting to their inevitable dissensions, he proposed by tiial means 
to reduce all of them under his own authority. Hence arose a series 
of wars and intrigues, of which the detail is barren both of amuse- 
ment and useful intbrmation. It is sufficient to say, that their conse- 
quence was a total extirpation of the family of Alexander, and a new 
partition of the empire into four great monarchies, the shares of 
Ftolemy, Lysimachus, Cassander, and ijeleucus. Of these tiie most 
powerful were that of Syria under Seleucus and his descendants, and 
tluit of Egypt the Ftolemies. 

" We cannot (says Cond iliac) fix our attention on the history ol 
the succesi-ors of Alexander, though a great theatre is opened to our 
view, a variety of scenes, and multiplied catastrophes. A picture is 
ofliBD displeasing from the very circumstance of its greatness. We 



AIVCIENT HISTORY. 39 

lose the connexion of its parts, because the eye cannot take theni is 
at once. Still less will a large picture give us pleasuie. if ever)* part 
of it presents a different scene, each unconnected \rith the other.'' 
Such is the history of the successors of Alexander. 



SECTION XVIII. 



FALL AND CONQUEST OF GREECE. 

\. Nor is the history of Greece from the period of the death of Al- 
exander any longer an interesting or pleasing object of contemplation. 
Demosthenes once more made a noble attempt to vindicate the nation- 
al freedom, and to rouse his countrymen, the Athenians, to sh<tke cfl 
the yoke of Macedon. But it was too late. The pacific counsels of 
Phocion suited better the languid spirit of this once illustrious people. 

2. The history of the different republics present from this time 
nothing but a disgusting series of uninteresting revolutions ; with the 
exception only of that last effort made by the Achaean states to re- 
vive the expiring liberty of their country. The republic of Achaia 
was a league of a few ot the smaller states to vindicate their freedom 
against the domineerhig spirit of the greater. They committed the 
government of the league to Aratus of Sicyon, with the title of pisB- 
tor, a young m..n of high ambition, who immediately conceived th_e 
more extensive project of rescuing the whole of Greece from the 
dominion of Macedon. But the jealousy of the greater states render- 
ed this scheme abortive. Sparta refused to arrange itself under the 
guidance of the praetor of Achaia • and Aratus, forgetting his patriotic 
designs, sought only now to wreak his vengeance against the Lace- 
daemonians For tfiis purpose, with the most inconsistent policy, he 
courted the aid even of the Macedonians : the very tyrants who had 
enslaved his country. 

3. The period was now come for the intervention of a foreign 
power, which was to reduce all under its wide-spreading dominion. 
The Romans were at this time the most powerful of all the contero- 
^loniry nations. The people of Etolia, attacked by the Macedonians, 
with a rash policy besought the aid of the Romans, who, eager to 
add to their dominion this devoted country, cheerfully obeyed the 
summons, and speedily accomplished the reduction of Mace^lonia. 
Perseus, its last sovereign, was led captive to Rome, and graced the 
triumph of Paulus iEmiliu?, 167 A. C From that period the Ro- 
mans were hastily advancing to the dominion of all Greece ; a prog 
ress in which their art was more conspicuous than their virtue. 
They gaiijed their end by fostering dissensions between the states, 
which they directed to their own advantage, corrupting their princi- 
pal citizens, and using, in tine, every art of the most insidious policy. 
A pretext was only wanting to unsheath the sword, and this was 
furnished bv the Achaean states, who insulted the deputies of imperi- 
al Rome. This drew on them at once the resentment of the Romans. 
Metellus marched his legions into Greece, gave them battle, and en- 
tirely defeated them. Mummius the consul terminated the work, 
and made an easy conquest of the whole ol Greece, which from that 
period became a Roman province, under the name of Achaia, 1 46 A. C. 

4. Rome had acquired from her conquests a flood of wealth, and 
began now to manifest a taste for luxury, and a spirit of refinement 



. ANCIENT HISTORY . 

hi these polnta Greece was to its conquerors an instructer and • 
model : 

GrsBcia rapta ferum victorem ccpit, et artei 
Intulit agrtdti Latio.* 

Hence, even though vanquished, it was regarded with a species of 
respect by its ruder masters. 



SECTION XIX. 

POLITICAL REFLECTIONS ARISING FROM THE HISTORY 
OF THE STATES OF GREfXE. 

L The revolutions which the states of Greece underwent, and the 
situations into which they were thrown by their connexion and difl'er- 
ences with each other, and their wai-s with foreign nations, were so 
various, that their history is a school of instruction in political science. 
The surest test of the truth or falsehood of abstract principles of pol- 
itics, is their application to actual experience and to the history ol 
nations. 

2. The oppression which the states of Greece suffered under their 
ancient despots, who were subject to no constitutional control, w;is a 
most justiliable motive for their establishing a new form of govern- 
ment, which promised them the enjoyment of greatf r political free- 
dom. We believe too that those new Ibrms of govern nent were fiam 
ed by their virtuous legislators in the true spirit of patriotism. But 
as to the real merits of those political fabrics, it is certain that they 
were very far from corresponding in practice with what was expect- 
ed from them in theory. We seek in vain, either in the history of 
Athens or Lacedasmon, ibr the beautiful idea ofa well-ordeDMlcommon- 
wealth. The revolutions of government which they were ever ex- 
periencing, the eternal fictions with which they were embroiled, 
plainly demonstrate that there was a radical defect in the structure of 
the machine, which precluded the possibility of regular motion. The 
Condition of the people under those governments was such as par- 
took more of servitude and oppression, than that of the subjects oi the 
most despotic monarchies. Tne slaves formed the actual ma^iorily of 
the inhabitants in all the states of Greece. To these the tree citi- 
zens were rigorous bond-masters, liondage being a consequent =i of 
the contraction of debts even by fr^emen^a great uroportion of these 
was subject to the tyrannical control oi their fellow-citizens. Nor 
\vere the richer classes in the actual enjoyment of independence. 
They were perpetually divided into factions, which servilely ranked 
themselves under Ihe banners of the contending chiefi of the rei)ulv 
lie. Those parties were kept together solely by corruption. The 
whole was therefore a •system of servility and cfebasement of spirit^ 
which left nothing ofa free or ingenuous nature in thecontlition of in- 
dividuals, nor any thing that could furnish encomium to a real advo- 
cate Ibr the dignity ol" human nature. 

Such wirs the condition of the chief republics of antiquity. Their 
povernmenls promised in theory, what they never conferred in prao 
tice, tlie political happiness of tlie citizens. 

• 1" or conquered Greece subdued her conquering foe, 
And taug^ht rude Rome, the arts of peace to know. 



AxNClENT HJSlX)Ky. 

3. " In democracy (says Dr. Fergusson) men must love equality ; 
they mii*t respect the rights of their fellow-citizens ; they must be 
satistied with th;rt degree of consideration wiiich they can procure by 
their abiUties fairly measured against those of an opponent; they 
must labour for the public without hope of protit : they must reject 
every attempt to create a personal dependance." This is the picture 
of a republic in theoiy. If we reverse this picture in every single 
particular, and take its direct opposite, we shall have the true por- 
trait of a republicim government in practice. 

4. It is the fundamental tiieory of Montesquieu's Spirit of Lazi-.o^ 
thai the three distinct tbrms of government, the monarchical, despot - 
ical, and republican, are intiuenced by the three separate principle- 
of honour, fear, and virtue; and this theory is the foundation on 
which the author builds a great part of his political doctrines. That 
each of these principles is exclusively csseniial to its respective form 
of government, but unnecessary and even prejudicial in the others, is a 
position contrary both to reason and to truth. IS^o t'-^rm of govern- 
ment can subsist where every one of those principles has not its 
operation. The admission of such a theory leads to the most mis- 
chievous conclusions ; as, for example, that in monarchies the state 
dispen^s with virtue in its oihcers and magistrates; .that public 
employments ought to be venal; imd that crimes, if kept secret, are 
of no consequence. 

5. It is only in the infant periods of tiie Grecian history that we 
are to l»ok for those splendid examples of patriotism and heroic vir- 
tue, which the ardent mind of uncorrupted youth will ever delight 
to contemplate. The most remarkable circumstance which strikes? 
us CHI comparing the latter with the more early period* of the his- 
tory of the Greeks, is the total change in the genius and spirit of the 
people The ardour of patriotism, the thirst of military glory, f^ie 
enthusiasm of hberty, decline with the rising grandeur and opulence 
of the nation, and an enthusiasm of another species, and far less 
worthy in its aim, succeeds : an admiration of the tine arts, a violent 
passion for the object* of taste, and for the retinements of luxury . 
This leads us to consider Greece in tlie Ught in which, after the loss 
of its liberty, it still continued to attract the admiration of other na- 
tions. 

SECTION XX. 
STATE OF THE ARTS IN GREECE. 

1. It is not among the Greeks that we are to look for the great'^9» 
improvements in the useful and necessary arts of lite. In agrit.ui- 
lure, manufactures, commerce, they never were greatly distinguisli. 
ed. But in those which are termed the tine arts, Greece surpassed 
all the contemporary nations. The monuments of those ^vhichyet 
remain are the models of imitation, and the confessed standiid ol 
excellence, in the judgment of the most polished nations of modem 
times. * 

2. After the de teat of Xerxes the active spirit of the Athenians, 
which would have otherwise languished tbr want of an object, caking 
a new direction from luxury, displayed itself signally in aHthe works 
of taste in the tine arts. The admiiiistnition ol Peiicies \n;is the ifra 
of luxury and splendour. The arts broke out at once with suipris- 
ing lustre ; and architecture, sculpture, and paiutiug, were carried 

D2 6 



42 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

to the summit of perfection. This golden age of the arts Id Greece 

eiiiJiired for al»out a ceiiturv', till alter the deatli of Alex.inder the 
gnat. 
3. The Greeks were the parents of that system of archilecttire 

whirli is universally allowed to be the mo>t perfect. 

The Greek arcnitectiire consisted of tiiree distinct orders: the 
Doric, the Ionic, ;uid Corinthian. 

The Doric has a masculine grandeur, and a superior air of strength 
to both the others. It is therefore best adapted to works of great 
magnitude, and of a sublime character. The character of sublimity 
is essentially connected u ith chasteness and simplicity. Of this or- 
der is the temple of Theseus at Athens, b\iilt ten years after the bat- 
tle of Marathon, and at tliis day almost entire. 

: The Ionic order is I'ght and elegant. The former has a masculine 
grandeur; the latter a feminine elegance. The Ionic is likewise 
simple : lor simplicity is an essential requisite in true beauty. Of 
this order were the 'temple of Apollo at Miletus, the temple of the 
JJelphic oracle, and tlie temple of Diana at Ephesus. 

'J he Corinthian marks an age of luxury and magnificence, when 
pomp and splendour had become the predominant passion, but had not 
ye* extinguished the tsu-le for the "sublime and beautiful. It attempts 
Iherefore a union of all these chaiiictci's, but satisfies not the chasten- 
ed judgment, imd pleases only a corrupted taste. 



'• And n«bly plain, the manly Doric rose 

'* The Ionic then, with decent matron gract, 

'' Her airy pillar heavVl ; luxuriant laatt 

** The rich CoriutUian spread her wanton wreath." 

Thosipson^s Liberty^ Part 2. 

4. The Tuscan and the Composite orders are of Italian origin. 
The Etruscan architecture appears to have been nearly allied to the 
Grecian, but to have possessed an inferior degree of elegance. The 
Trajan column at Home i- of this order; les-s remarkble for the 
beauty of its proportions than for the admirable sculpture which 
decorates it. The Composite order is what its name implies; it shows 
that the Greeks had in the three original orders exhausted all ihe 
principles of grandeur and beauty ; and that it was not possible to 
frame a fourth, except by combining the former. 

5. The Gothic architecture oilei-s no ccntradiclion to these obser- 
vations. The effect which it produces cannot be altogether account- 
ed for from the rules of symmetry or harmony in the proportions be- 
tween the several parts; but depends on a certain idea of vastness, 
gloominess, and solemnity, which are powerful ingredients in the 
Bublime. 

G. Sculpture was brought by the Greeks to as high perfection as 
architecture. The remains of Grecian sculpture are at this day tlie 
most perfect models of the art^; and the modem artists have no means 
of attaining to excellence so certain, as the study of those great mas- 
ter-pieces. 

7. The excellence of the Greeks in g-culpture may perhaps be 
accounted for chietly from their having the human figure olten before 
their eyes Quit«3 uaked, and in all its varirus attitudes, both in the 
paiuatru^ and m the public gam.es. The iu.tique statues liave there- 
fore a i^randeur united with perfect simplicity, because the attitude 10 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 43 

obt the rtsalt of an artificial disposition of the fietnre, sa to the mod- 
ern academies, but is nature «mconstrained. Thus, in the Dying 
Gladiator, whpn we ol>serve the relaxation of the muscles, antl'tiie 
f1?ible failure of strength ani hfe. we cannot doubt that nature was 
the sculptor's immediate model of imitation.* 

8 And this nature was in reality superior to what we now see in 
the ordinary race of men. The constant practice of gymnastic ex- 
ercises gave a finer conformation of bouy than what is now to be found 
in the vitiated pupils of modem effeminacy, the artilicial children of 
modem fashion. 

9. A Kfondary cause of the eminence of the Greeks in the arts of 
design, was their theology^ which furnished an ample exercise for 
the genius of the sculptor and painter. 

10. We must speaJi with more diffidence of the ability of the 
Greeks in painting, than we do of their superiority in sculpture ; be- 
cause the existing specimens of the former are extremely rare, and 
the pieces which are preserved are probably not the most excellent. 
But in the want of actual evidence we have every presumption that 
the Greeks had a^ained to equal perfection in the art of painting and 
in sculpture ; for ii we find the judgment given by ancient writers of 
their excellence in sculpture confirmed by the universal assent of the 
best critics among the modems, we have every reason to presume an 
equal rectitude in the judgment which the same ancient writers have 
pronounced upon their paintings. If Pliny is right in his opinion of 
the merits of those statues which yet remain, the Venus of Praxiteles, 
and the Laocoon of Agesander. Polydonis. and Athenodorus. we have 
no reason to suppose his taste to be less iust when he celebrates the 
merits, and criucally characterizes the different manners of Zeuxis, 
Apelles, Parrhasius, Protogenes. and Timanthes, whose works have 
perished. 

11. The paintings found :a Herculaneum. Pompeii, the Sepul- 
chnim Nasonianura at Home, were probably the work of Greek 
artists ; for the Romans were never eminent in any of the arts de- 
pendent on design. These paintings exhibit great knowledge ol 
proportions, ani of the chiaro-oscuro ; but betray an ignorance of 
the rules of perspective. 

1 2. The music of the ancients appears to hare been very greatly 
inferior to that of the modems. 

13. The peculiar genius of the Greeks in the fine arts extended its 
effects to the revolutioDS jf their states, and influenced their fate as a 
nation. 



SECTION XXL 

OF THE GREEK POETS, 

1. The Greeks were the first who reduced the athletic exercise* 
to a system, and considered them as an object of general attention and 
importance. The Panathenaan, and afterwards the Olympic, the 
Pythian, Nemaean, and Isthmian games, were under the regulation 
of the laws. They contributed essentially to the improvement of the 
nation ; and, while they cherished martial ardour, and promoted har- 

• Crttilas rulneraium dtJxcitnitTTx ftcit^ tx quo potrit inJelligi quanlum 
Tt^tef animi. Plin. lib. 36. Cresiias haLi represented a wounded mac 
fainting', from which we maj perceive how much life itill i^ain« 



44 ANCIENT HISTOKY^. 

diness and agility of body, they cultivated likewise urbanity and po> 
Utenoss. 

2. The game:? of Greece were not confined to gymnastic or athlet- 
ic exercises. Tiiey enconniged coinue'itions in genius aud learning. 
I'hcy were the rtsort olthe poets, the nistoiians, ant! the philosophers. 

3. In all nations, poetry is of greater antiquity than prose composi- 
tion. I'he eurlit;st prose wrilei-s in Greece, Flierecycles of Scyros, 
and Cadmus of Miletus, were 3oU yeai's posterior to Homer. Any 
remains of the more ancient poets, as Linus, Oruheus, &:c., are ex- 
tremely suspicious. Homer is generally supposed to have tlourished 
about 9U7 A. C. ; to have followed the occu|\ition of i wandering 
minstrel, and to have composed his poems in detached fragments, 
and separate ballads, and episodes. Pisistnitus, about 540 A. C., em- 
ployed some learned men to collect and methodize tliese fragments ; 
aiid to this we owe the complete poems of the Iliad and Odys.«;ey. 
The distinguishing merits of Homer are, his profound knowledge of 
human nature, his faithtul and minute description of ancient man- 
ners, his genius for the sublime and beautiful, and the harmony of 
his poetical numbers. His tidelity as a historian has been questioned • 
but the great outlines of his narrative are probably authentic. 

4. Hesiod was nearly contemporary with Homer: we should be 
little sensible of his merits, if they were not seen through the medi- 
um of an immense antiquity. 'Ihe poem of the Works and Days 
contains some ju<licious precepts of agriculture. The Theogony is 
an obscure history of the origin of the gods, and the formation of the 
universe. 

5. About two centuries after Homer and Hesiod, tlourished Archi- 
lochus, the inventor of Iambic vei-se; Terpander, equally eminent 
as a poet and a musician ; Sapi)ho, of whose composition we have 
two exquisite odes; Alcseus and Simonides, of whom there are some 
fine fragments; and Pindar and Anacison, who have lelt enough to 
allow an accurate estimate of their merits. 

6. Pindar was esteemed by the ancients the chief of the lyric poets. 
He possesses unbounded fancy, and great sublimity of imagery ; but 
his digressions are so rapid and so frequent, that we cannot discover 
the chain of thought ; and his expression is allowed, even by Longinus, 
to be often obscure and unintelligible. 

7 Anacreon is a great contrast to ^indar. His fancy suggests only 
familiar and luxurious pictures. He has no comprelicnsion of the 
sublime, but contents himself with the easy, the graceful, and the 
wanton. His morality is loose, and bis sentiments little else than the 
effusions of a voluptuary. 

8. The collection termed Antholngia^ which consists chiefly of an- 
cient epigrams, contains many valuable specimens of the taste and 
poetical tancy of the Greeks, and contributes materially to the illus- 
tration of their manners. The best of the modern epigrams may be 
traced to this source. 

9. The a^ra of the origin of dramatic composition among the Greeks 
is about 590 A. C. Thcspis was contemporary with Solon. Within 
little more than a century, the (ireek drama was carried to its high- 
est perfection, tor i^v^chyhis died 45l) A. (■. i^-zschylus wrote J;ixty- 
six tragedies ; tor thirteen of which he gained the lirst prize of dra- 
matic poetry at the Olympic games. Like Shakspeare, his genius is 
subUme, and his imagination unbounded. He dis(f;iined regularity of 

Elan, and all artilicial restriction; but untbrtunately he disdained 
kewise the restraints of decency and of good morals. 



ANCIENl HlStX3RY. 46 

10. Enripides and Sophocles flourished about fifty years after 
fischylus. Euripides is most' masterly in piiinting the passion of love, 
both in its tenderest emotions and in its most violent paroxysms : yet 
the characters of his women demonstrate that he had no fjn'at opmion 
of the virtues of the sex. J^nginus does not rate high his talent for 
the sublime. Rut he possessed a much superior excellence: his verses, 
with great eloquence and harmony, breathe the most admirable mo- 
rality. There remain twenty tragedies of Euripides; and of these, 
the Medea is deemed the best. 

1 1. Sophocles shared with Euripides the palm of dramatic poetry; 
and is judged to have surpassed him in the grand and the sublime. Ol 
120 tragedies which be composed, only seven remain.' They display 
great knowledge of the human heart, and a general chastity and 
simplicity of expression, which gave the greater force to the occasional 
strokes of the sublime. The Oedipus of Sophocles is esteemed the 
most perfect production of the Greek stage. 

12. The Greek comedy is divided into the ancient, the middle, and 
the nerji\ The first was a licentious satire and mimicry of real per- 
sonages, exhibited by name upon the stage. The laws repressed this 
extreme license, and gave bin:i to the middle comedy, which continued 
the satirical delineation of real persons, but 'jnder fictitious names 
The last improvement consisted in banishing all personal satire, and 
confining comedy to a delineation of manners. This was the new 
comedy. Of the first species, the ancient, we have no remains. The 
dramas of Aristophanes are an example of the second or midrlle 
comedy, The grossness of his raillery, and the malevolence which 
frequently inspired it, are a reproach to *iie morals of that people 
which could tolerate it. Yet his works have their value, <is throwing 
light upon ancient manners. 

13. Of the new comedy, Menander was the bright example ; pos- 
sessing a vein of the most delicate wit, with the utmost purity of 
moral sentiment Unfortunately we have nothing of him remaining 
but a few fragments preserved by Athenaeus. We see a great deal of 
his merits, however, in his copyist and translator, Terence. 

• 14. The actors, both in the Greek and Roman theatres, wore masks, 
of which the features were strongly painted, and the niooth so con- 
structed as to increase the power of the voice. It is probable that the 
tragedy and comedy of the Greeks and Romans were set to music, 
and sung, like the recitative in the Italian opera. Sometimes one 
person was employed to recite or sing the part, and another to per- 
lorm the corresponiiing action or gesticulation. 

15. The mimes were buriesque parodies on the serious tra«jedy 
and comedy. The pantomimes consisted solely of gesticulation, and 
were cajried to great pedection. 

SECTIOiN" XXII. 
OF THE GREEK HISTORIANS. 

1. The most eminent of the Greek historians were contempon- 
ries. Herodotus died 413 A. C. ; Thucydides 391 A. C; and \eno- 
phon was about twenty years younger than Thucydides, Herodotus 
writes the iomt history of the Greeks and Persians, from the timt- of 
Cyrus, to the battles of Plata:a and Mycale. He treats incidentally 
likewise of the Egyptians, Assyrians, Medes, and Lydians. His vera- 
city is to be depended on in all matters that fell under hia own obser- 



-^ ANCIENT HISTORV. 

raUon; but he adimts too easily the reports of others, und l»in |eo 
eral fond of the marvellous. His style is pure, and he has a copious 

elocution. 

3. Tbucydides, himself an able general, h;i9 written, with great abil- 
itT, the history of the /irst twenty-one years of the Peloponnesian 
war; introducing it with a short narrative of the preceding periods 
of the history of Greece. He is justly estoemed lor his liJelity and 
candour. His style is a contnvst to the full and (lowing period of 
Herodotus, possessing a sententious brevity, which is at once lively 
and energetic The history of the remaiijing s^ix years of the war 
of Peloponnesus was written by Theoponipus and Xenophon. 

3. Xenophon commanded the Greek army in the service of Cyrus 
the younger, in his culpable enterprisui against his brother Artixerx- 
89. (See Sect. XIII, ^ 0.) After the failure of this enterprise, Xeno- 
phon directed that astonishing retreat from Babylon to the Euxine, 
of which he has given a splendid and faithtul narrative. He wrote 
likewise the Cyropedia, or the history of the elder Cyrus, which 
is belived to be rather an imaginary delineation of an accomplished 
prince than a real narration. He continued the history of Tbucyd- 
ides, and has left two excellent political tracts on the constitutions o( 
Lacediemon and Athens. His style is simple and energetic; but the 
brevity of his sentences son3 2times obscures his meaning. 

4. Greece, in its decline, produced some historians of great em 
Inence. Polybius, a native of Megalopolis, wrote forty books of the 
Komm and Greek history during his own age: that is, from the be- 
ginning of the second Punic war to the reduction of Macedonia into 
a Roman province ; but of this great work, only the first tive bookf 
are entire, with an epitome of the foliowing twelve. He merits le&s 
the praise of eloquence than of authentic intbrmation, and most judi- 
cious redection. 

5. Diodorus Siculus flourished in the time of AugustuJj, and compos- 
ed, in forty books, a general history of the world, iinder the title of 
Bibliotheca Historica. No more remain than fifteen books ; of which 
the drst live treat of the fabulous periods, and the hi=toi^ of the tlgvp- 
tians, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, .^c. prior to the Trojan war. T. he 
next dve are wanting. The remainder brings down the history frorr 
the expedition of Xerxes into Greece till alter the death of Alcxandci 
the great. He is taxed with chronological inaccuracy in the earliei 
parts of his uork; but the authenticity and correcmess of the latei 
periods are unimpeached. 

6. Dionysius of Halicarn;issus, eminent both as a historian imd rhet 
orician, ilourishejl in the age of Augustus. His lloman .Vntiquitie: 
contain much valuable information, though his work is too much 
tinctured with the spirit of systematizing. 

7. Plutarch, a native of Chfronea, in Ficrotia. flouri«^hod in the 
reign of Nero. His Lives of lllustr'ous Men is oiu> of the most val- 
uable of the liteniry works of the ancients; introducing us to an 
acquaintance with the private character and manners of those eminent 
persons whose public achievements are recorded by professed his- 
torians. His morality is excellent; and his style, though unpolislied, 
is clear and energetic. 

8 Arrian wrote, in the reign of Adrian, seven books of the wars of 
Alexander, with great judgment and fidelity ; his narrative being 
composed on the authority of Aristobulus and Ptolemy, two of 
Alexander's principal olhcersv His style is unadomod, but ch;i9te, 
perspicuous, and manlT. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 47 



SECTION XXIII. 



OF THE GREEK PHILOSOPHERS. 

1. After the time of Homer and Hesiod, the increasing relisli for 
poetical composition gave rise to a set of men termed rhapsodisti", 
whose employment was to recite at the games and festivals the coro 
positions of the older poets and to comment on their merits and ex- 
plain their doctrines. Some of these, founding schools of instruclioi, 
were dignihed by their pupils with the epithet of Sophists, or teach- 
ers of wisdom. 

2. The most ancient school of philosophy was that founded by 
Thales, 640 A. C, and termed the ionic. Ihale^ is celebrated foi 
hi.'^ knowledge of geometry and astronomy. His metaphysical doc- 
trines are imperfectly known. He taught the belief of a tir*t cause, 
and an over-ruling providence ; but supposed the Divinity toanimata 
the universe, as the soul does -the body. The moral doctrines of the 
Ionic school were pure and rational. The most eminent of the dis- 
cii^les of Thales were Anaximander and Anaxagoras. 

3. Soon after the Ionic, arose the Italian sect, founded by Pythag- 
oras, who was bom about 586 A. C. He ii supposed to have derived 
much of his knowledge from Egypt ; and he nad, like the Egyptian 
priests, a public doctrine for the people, and a private for his disci- 
ples ; the former a good system of morals, the latter probably unin- 
telligible mystery. His notions of the Divinity were akin to those oi 
Thales; but he believed in the eternity of the universe, and its co 
exi:#tence with the Deity. He taught the transmigration of the soul 
through different bodies. His disciples lived in common ; abst'itined 
rigorou-ly from the tlesh of animals; and held music in high estima- 
lion, as a corrective of the passions. Fyt^^agorcxs believed the earth 
(o be a sphere, the planets to be inhabited, and the fixed stars to be 
the suns and centres of other systems. His most eminent followei"S 
were Empedocles, Epichnrmus, Ocellus Lucanus, Timaius, Archytas. 

4. The Eleatic sect was founded by Xenophanes, about 500 A. C. 
It3 chief supporters were Parmenides, Zeno, and Leucippus, citizens 
of Elea. ' L he metaphysical notions of this sect were utterly unintel- 
ligible. They maintained that things had neither beginning, end, 
nor any change ; and that all the changes we perceive are in our 
o^vn senses. Yet Leucippus taught the dov^trine of atoms, whence 
he supposed all material substances to be formed. Of this sect were 
Democritus and Heraclitus. 

5. The Socratic school arose from the Ionic. Socrates died 'U)l 
A, C, the wisest, the most virtuous ot the Greeks. He e^fploded the 
futile logic of the Sophists, which ':cnsisted of a set of general argu- 
ments, applicable to all manner of questions, imd by which they could, 
with an appearance of plausibility, maintain either side of any pi op 
osition. Socrates always brought his imtagonist to p<i»Rliculai's; be- 
ginning with a simple and undeniable position, which bcmg granted, 
another followed equally undeniable, till the disputant was conduct- 
ed step by step, by his own concessions, to that side of the question 
on whkh lay the truth. His rivals lost all credit as philosophers, but 
had influence to procure the destruction of the man who had expo:^ 
ed them. The doctrines of Socrates are to be ieamed from Plato 
«HKi Xenophon. He taught the belief of a first cause, whose beoefi- 



AWCIENT HISTORY. 



cencc la equal to his power, the Crtator and Ruler of the universe 
He incnlaited the monil agency of many the iimnortnlity of the soul, ^ 
an«l. a future >tale of rewaiii and punishment. He explo<led the ! 
polytheistic suptn-stilions of his connliy, and thein:e became tlie 
victim of an accnsalion of inipioly. (See Section Xill, §5-) | 

I). The morality of Socrat»'s was succev>t'ully cultivatecl by the 
L'yrcr»aic sect, but was puslied tocxtravacmice by the Cynics. Vir- 
tue, in their opinion, consisted in renouncing all ibe conveniences of 
lite. They clothed themselves in rags, sl«'pt and ate in the streets, ' 
or waiuieret! about the country with a stick and a knapsack. They •] 
coinlemned all knowledge ;is useless. They associated impudence ; 
with jgnonuice, and indulged themselves in scurrility and invective 
without restraint. 

7. 1 lie Megarian sect was the happy inventor of logical syllogism, 
or the art ot quibfilini^. 

8. Plato was tbe founder of the Academic sect : a philosopher, \ 
whose <<octrines have had a more extensive empire over the minds j 
of mankiiuU than those of any other among the ancients. This is in 
part owing to their intrinsic merit, and in part to the eloquence with 
which they have been propounded. Plato had the most sublime 
ide-.LS of the Divinity and his attributes. He taught that tlie human j 
soul was a portion of the Divinity, and that this alliance with the ' 
eternal mind might be improved into actual intercourse witli the | 
Supreme Being, by abstracting the soul from all the corruptions 
which it derives from the body : a doctrine highly flattering to tbe 
pride of man, and generating that mystical enthusiasm which luistli* 
most powerful empire over a warm imagination. 

9. The Platonic philosophy found its chief opponents in tour re \ 
markable sects, the Peripatetic, the Sceptic, the Stoic^ and the Epi- | 
curean. 

10. Aristotle, the founder of the Peripatetic sect, was the tutor of 
Alexander the great, and established his school in the Lyceum al , 
Atheijs: a philosopher whose tenets have found more zealous parti- 
zjins and more rancorous opponetits, than those of any other. His ; 
Metaphysics, from the sententious brevity of his expression, are ex- 
tremely obscure, and have given rise to numberless commentaries. 
The best analysis of his doctrines is given by Dr. Kcid, in Lord 
Kames's Sketches of the History of Man. His physical works are 
the result of great observation and acquaintance with nature; and his 
critical writing.*, as his Poetics and Art of Rhetoric, display both taste 
and judgm«^nt. The pec'i.iar passion of Ari-^totle was that ol chissi- 
fying, arranging, and combining the objects ot hi^s knowledge, so as to 
reduce all to a few principles: a very dangerous propensity in phi- 
losophy, and repressive of improvement in science. 

1 1. The Sceptical sect was.ounded by Pyrrho, They formed no 
systems of their own, but endeavoured to weaken the foundations of 
those of all others* Tliey inculcated universal doubt, as the only true 
wisdom. There was, in" their opinion, no essential diflbrence be- 
tween vice and virtue, further than as human compact had discrim- 
mated them. I'nmquillity of mind they supposed to be the slate of 
the greatest happiness, and this was to be attained by absolute indif- 
ference to all ilogmas or opinions. 

19. The Stoics, proposing to themselves the same end, tranquillity 
of mind, took a nobler path to arrive at it. They endeavoured to 
raise themselves above all the passions and feeUngs ot humanity. 
They believed ail nature, and God himself, the soul of the imiverso. 



ANClliNT HISTORY. 4. 

to be regulated by fixed and immutable laws. The human soul be- 
ing a portion of the Divinity, man cannot complain of being actuated 
by that necessity which actuates the Divinity himself. His pains and 
his pleasures are determined by the same laws which dctermme his 
existence. Virtue consists in accommodating the disposition of the 
mind to the immutable laws of nature ; vice in opposing those laws : 
vice therefore is folly, and virtue the only true wisdom. A beautiful 
picture of the Stoical philosophy is found in the Meditations of M. 
Aurelius Antoninus. (See Madan's Translation.) 

13. Epicurus taught that man's supreme happiness consisted in 
pleasure. He limited the term, so as to make it mean only the prac- 
tice of Wrtue. But if pleasure is allowed to be the object, every 
man will draw it from those sources which he finds can best supply 
it. It might have been the pleasure of Epicurus to be chaste and 
temperate. We are told that it was so. But others find their pleas- 
ure in intemperance and luxury, and such was the taste of his princi- 
pal followers. Epicurus held that the Deity was indifierenl to all the 
actions ol' man. His followers therefore had no other co«in.seilor 
than their own conscience, and no other guide than the instinctive 
desire of their own happiness. 

14. The Greek philosophy, on the whole, affords little more than 
a picture of the im'jecility and caprice of the human mind. Its 
teachers, instead of experiment and observation, satisfied themselves 
with constructing theories ; and these wanting fact for their basis, 
have only served to perplex the understanding, and retard equalh 
tbe advancement of sound morality ;md the progress of useful kiiowl- 
p^ge. 

SECTION XXIV. 
THE HISTORY OF ROME. 

1. In the delineation of ancient history, Rome, after the conquest 
of Greece, becomes the leading object of attention. The history of 
this empire, in its progress to universal dominion, and afterwards in its 
decline and fall, involves a collateral account of all the other na- 
tions of antiquity, which in those periods are deserving of our con- 
sideration. 

2. Though we cannot determine the aera when Italy was first peo- 
pled, yet we have eveiy reason to believe that it was inhabited by 
a refined and cultivated nation, many ages before the Roman name 
was known. These \vere the Etruscans, of whom there exist at 
this day monuments in tlie fine arts, which prove them to have been 
a splendid, hixurious, and highly polished people. — Their alphabet, 
resembling the Phoenician, disposes us to believe them of eastern 
origin. The Roman historians mention them as a powerful and opu- 
lent nation long before the origin of Rome ; and Dionysius of Hali- 
carnassus deduces most of the religious rites of tiie Romans from 
Etruria. 

3. The rest of Italy was divided among a number of mdependent 
tribes or nations, comparatively in a rude and uncultivated state ; 
Umbrians, Ligurians, Sabines, Veientes, Latins, ^Equi, Volsci,^* 
Latium, a territory cf fifty miles in length and sixteen in bre*^"^* 
contained forty-seven independent cities or states. 

4. The origin of the city and state of Rome is involved ^ great 
uncertamty. Dionysius supposes two cities of that name to have 

E T 



K) ANCIENT HISTORY. 

existed, and to have perished before the foundation of the city bulll 

hv KornuUi?*. The vulgar accoiint of tlie latter is, that it waa 
feuDilcil Ib-i A. C. hy a iroop of «»hepher(ls or banditti, who peb- 
p'.tMl iht'ir new ciiy l»y capi^ing olVthe vvive?j and daujjhters of liieir 
nfit;hli(un'!i, llie :Sal;ines. 

o. Tne great ontlini's of the rii>t constitution of the Iioman govern- 
ment, th()nj>h generally allril)ut»'d l«> the polilical aljilitics ol" Komu- 
liis, •seem to have a natural foundation in the usages of harbarou3 
nations. Other institutions bear the traces of political skill and posi- 
tive enactment. 

6. Komulns is said to have divided his people into three tribe?, and 
each tribe into ten curi<£. The bmds he distributed into three por- 
tions ; one lor the support of the government, another for the main- 
tenance of reliijion, and the third for the use of the Roman citizens, 
whicn he diviileil into equal |u)rlion« of two acres to each citizen. 
He instituted a senate of llK) members (afterwards increased to 2UU,) 
who deliberateil on and prepared all pulilic measures for the assembly 
of the people, in whom was vested the right oi' determination. The 
partrician funiiies were the descendants of those centum jjatres {^hun- 
dred J'aikers). 

7. 'I'he king had the nomination of the senators, the privilege oi 
a«isemhling the people, and a right of appeal in all questions of im- 
portance. He Lad the command of the army, and the oliice oi' port' 
tifejr iiMxitntis {ni^h })ric:>i). He had, as a guard, twelve iictors, and 
a iroop of horsemen named cctercs, or cquitcs^ afterwards the di-stiact 
orvlei of Koman knights. These regulations are ofpoKitive in'ititi> 
tion othei-s arose naturally Ironi the state of society. 

8. The patria potcstas { paternal aullu)ri!y) is of the latter nature, be- 
ing common to all barbarous tribes. Tl)e limitation of all arts to the 
slaves arose from the constant employment of the citizens in warfare 
or in agriculture. 

9. 1 lie co.mexion of patron and client was an admirable institu- 
tion, which at once united the citizens, and maintained a useful sub- 
ordina-tion. 

10. The Sabines were the most formidable enemy of the early 
Romans; and a wise policy united for a while the two nations into 
one state. After the death of Romidus, who reigned thirty-seven 
years, Noma, a Sabine, was elected king. Bis disposition was pious 
and pacific, and he endeavoureil to give his people the'same charac- 
ler. He pretended to divine inspiration, lo give the greater authori- 
ty to his laws, which in themselves were excellent. He multiplied 
the national gods, built temples, and instituted -dillerent classes of 
priests, Jiainincs^ salii^ ^c, and a variety of religious ceremonies. 

The tlamines olhciated each in the service of a particular deity ; the 
saiii guarded the sacred bucklers; the vestals cherished the sacred 
tire; the augui-s and aruspices divined future events from the Hight 
of birds, and the entrails of victims. The temple of Janus was open 
in war. and shut during peace. Numa reformed the calendar, regu- 
lating the year at twelve lunar monlhs, and distinguished the days 
for civil occupation {Jasti) from those dedicated lo religious rest 
{nrfusii). Agriculture wws lawful on the latter, ;is a duty of religion. 
Numa reigned forty-three years. 

11. Tullus Hosti.ius, the third kitig of Rome, of wailike disposi- 
tion, subiliu'd the .MbaiLs Fiflenates, anl other neighbouring stUes. 
The Sabines, now disunited from the Uomans, were among tne most 
poweriui oi their enemies. Tuilos reigned thirty three yeura. 



ANCIENT HISTOIIV. 51 

12. Ancus Martiurf, the grandson of Numa, was elected king on 
the death ot'Tullus. He inherited the piety and virtues of his grand- 
father, and joined to these the talents of a warrior. He increased 
ttie population of Rome, by naturalizing some of the conquered 
states ; enlarged and forlitied the city, and built the port of O^stia at 
the mouth of the Tiber. He reigned gloriously twenty-four years. 

13. Tarquinius Friscus, a citizen of Corinth, popular from his 
wealth and liberality, was elected to the vacant throne. He enhiFg- 
ed the senate by 100 new members from the plebeian families, /?arre* 
nuiioruin gentium {the fathers of the less families). This body consisted 
now of 300, at which numoer it remained for some centuries. I'ar- 
quin was victorious in his wars, and adorned and improved the city 
with works of utility and magniticence. Such were the circus or 
hippodrome, the walls of hewn stone ; the capitol ; the cloacae, those 
immense common sewers, wliich lead to the beUef that the new 
Rome had been built on the ruins of an ancient city of greater mag- 
nitude. Tarquinius was assassinated in the thirty-«ightn year of ills 
reign. 

14. Servius Tullius, who had married the daughter of Tarquinius, 
secured, by his cwn address and the intrigues of his mother-in-law, 
his election to the vacant throne. He courted popularity by acts of 
muniticence ; discharging the debts of the poor, dividing among the 
citizens his patrimonial lands, improving the city with useful edifices, 
and extending its boundaries. The new arrangement which he in- 
troduced in the division of the Rt)man citizens is a proof of much po- 
litical ability, and merits attention, as on it depended many of the 
revolutions of the republic. 

15. From the time that the Romans had admitted the Albans aiid 
Sabines to the right? of citizens, the urban and rustic tribes were 
composed of those three nations. Each tribe being divided into ten 
curicE^ and every curia having an equal vote in the cotnitia. as each 
individual had in his tribe, all questions were decided by the majority 
of suffrages. There was no pre-eminence between the citrus^ and 
the order in which they gave their votes was determined by lot. 
This was a reasonable constitution, so long as the foilunes of the 
citizens were nearly on a par; but, when riches came to be une- 
qually divided, it was obvious that much inconvenience must have 
arisen from this equal partition of power, as the rich could easily, by 
bribery, command the suffrages of the poor. B^^sides, all the taxes 
had hitherto been levied by the head, without any regard to the in- 
equality of fortunes. These obvious defect? furnished to Servius a 
just pretext for an entire change of system. His plan was, to remove 
the poorer citizens from all share of the government, while the 
b irdens attending its support should iill solely on the rich. 

16. All the citizens were required, under a heavy penalty, to de- 
clare upon oath their names, d\yellings, number of their childien, 
and amount of their fortune. After this numeration or ceny/;*, Ser- 
vius divided the whole citizens, without distinction, into four tribes, 
named, from the quarters where they dwelt, the Palatine., Subun'an.f 
Collatine^ and Esquiline. Beside this local division, Servius distribut- 
ed the whole people into six. classes, and each class into several 
centuries or portions of citizens so called, not as actually consisting 
of u hundred, but as being obliged to furnish and maintain 100 men 
in time of war. in the hi-st cIjiss, which consisted of the richest citi- 
zens, or those who were worth at least UK) )nince (about 300^. ster- 
ling), there were no less than ninety *eight centuries. In tlie secoitd 



52 AX^CIENT HISTORY. 

cla« (those worth 75 mina) there were twenty-two centuries. In 
the thini (those worth bO minte) were twenty centuries. In Ihe 
fourlli (those worth "Jo ininii') Iwonty-two cenlnries. In the fifth 
(those wortli 12 viino) thiily ct-nturies. The sixth, the most nu- 
nieroua of the whole, coinpivluMMlitjf; all tht* j)<)orer<ili/ens, furnish- 
ed only one century. 'J'hus the whole Konr.ui people were divided 
into 193 cenluriesi, or portions of citizens, so called, as furnishing 
each a hundred soldiers. The sixth cliiss was declared exempt iVom 
taxes. The otiier classes, according to the nunsher of centuries of 
which they consisted, were rated for the puhlic burdens at so much 
for each century. 

17. The poor had no reason to complain of this arrangement; but 
something was wanting to compensate the rich for the burdens to 
which they were subjected. For this purpose Servius enacted, that 
henceforth the cnmn'ui should give their votes by centuries ; the first 
class, consisting of ninety-eight centuries, always voting first. Thus, 
though the whole people were called to the comitia. an<i all seemed 
to have an equal sufirage, yet in reality the richer cla^^ses determin- 
ed every question, the sufirage oi' the poor being merely nominal; 
for as the whole people formed 1V)3 centuries, and the first and second 
cljbsses contained 120 of these, if they were unanimous, which gen- 
emlly happened in questions of importance, a majority was secured. 
Thus, in the comitia ccnturiaia {assembhex m which the projile rated by 
centuries)^ in which the chief mugislnites were elected, ])eace and 
war decreed, and all other important business discussed, the richer 
classes of the citizens had the sole authority, the votes of the poor 
being of no avail. And such was the ingenuity of this policy, that all 
were pleased with it : the rich puid their taxes with cheerfulness, as 
the price of theiiMiower; and tlie poor gladly exchanged authority 
for immunities. Tlie census, performed every five years, wa* dosed 
by a bstnnn^ or expiatory sacrilice ; . and hence that period of time 
was called a /f«/rt/7/<. 

18. Servius was assassinated, after a reign of forty-four years, by 
his infamous daughter Tullia, married to Tarquinius, the grandson 
of Priscus, who thus paved the way for his own elevation to the 
throne. The government of Tarquin.snrnamed the proud, was sys- 
tematically tynmnical. I lo ingratiated iiiinself with the lower orders, 
to abase by their means the jjowcr of the higher; but. insolent, ra- 
pacious, and cruel, he finally disgusted all ranks of his subjects. A 
rape committed by hJs son Sextus on Lucrelin, the wife of Collatinus, 
who, unable to sunive her dishonour, stabl>e<l herself in presence of 
her husband and kindred, roused their vengeance, and proctned, by 
their influence with their countrymen, the expulsion of the tyrant. 
and the utter abolition of the regal dignity at Rome, 509 A. C 

Rejiectioiis on the Government and State of Rome during the period of 

tlie kings. 

19. The whole structure of the coastitution of the Romans under 
the monarchy has been by most authors erroneously attributed ex- 
clusively to the abilities oV Romulus, a youth of eighteen, the leader 
of a troop of shepherds or banditti. This chimerical idea we owe to 
Dionysius of Halic^imassus. The truth is, the Roman government, 
like almost every other, was the gradual result of circumstances; 
the fruit of time, and of political emergency. 

20. The constitution of the Roman senate has occasioned consider' 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 63 

•bte research, and is not free from obscurity. It is probable that the 
kings had the sole right of naming the senators, that the consuls suc- 
ceeded them in this right, and afterwards, when these magistrates 
found too much occupation from the frequept wars in which the state 
was engaged, that privilege devolved on the censors. The senators 
were at tirst always chosen from the body of the patricians, but after- 
wards the plebeians acquired an equal title to that dignity. In the 
early periods of the republic the people could not be assenjbied but 
by the senate's authority ; nor were tne plebiscita {decrees of the peo- 
ple) of any weight till confirmed by their decree. Hence the early 
onstitution ot the republic was rather aristocratical than democrat- 
ical. F;om this extensive yower of the senate the first diminution 
wus made by the creation o" tht i-ibunes of the people; and other 
retrenchments successively took place, till the people acquired at 
length the predominant power in the state. Yet the senate, even 
after every usurpation on their authority, continued to have, in many 
points, a supremacy. They regulated all matters regarding religion; 
nad the custody ot the public treasure ; superintended the conduct oi 
all magistrates ; gave audience to ambassadors ; decided on the fate of 
vanquished nations disposed of the governments of the provinces ; 
and took cognizance, by appeal, in a-ll crimes against the state. In 
great emergencies they appointed a dictator, with absolute au-thorily. 

21. At the period of the abolition of the regal government the ter- 
ritory of the Romans was extremely Umited. The only use which 
they made of their victories was to naturalize the inhabitants of 
some of the conquered states, and so increase their population. Thus, 
their strength being always superior to their enterprise, they laid a 
solid foundation for the future extension of their empire. 

22. In the accounts given by historians of the strength of the ar- 
mies, both of the Romans in those early times, and of the neighbour- 
ing states, their enemies, we have every reason to beheve there is 
much exaggeration. The territories from which those armies were 
furnished were incapable of supplying them. 

23. In the continual wars in which the republic was engaged the 
Romiins were most commonly the aggressors. The causes of this 
seem to have been the ambition of the consuls to distinguish their 
short administration by some splendid enterprise, and the wish of the 
senate to give the people occupation, to prevent intestine disquiets. 

24. The regal government subsisted 244 years, and in that time 
only seVen kings reigned, several of whom died a violent death 
These circumstances throw doubt on the authenticity of this period 
of the Roman history. It is allowed that there were no historians for 
the five first centuries after the building of Rome. The first is 
Fabius Pictor. who lived during the second Punic war. •Livy sayg 
<hat almost all the ancient records were destroyed when Rome wus 
taken by the Gauls. 



SECTION XXV. 

ROME UNDER THE CONSULS. 

1. The regal government being abolished, it was agreed to commit 

the supreme authority to two magistrates, who should be .annually 

elected by the people from the patrician order. To these they gave 

the names o{ consutes ; ''• a modest title, (says Vertot), which gave to 

E 2 



UUl 

(I 



i 
b4 ANCIENT HISTORY. ' 

onderptand thai they were rather the counsellors of the republic than I 
Its Povercigns; and tlint the only point which they ought lo have la 
vie»v was iUj pres* IN alion ami glory." liul, in liict, Iheir aulhority i 
djllered scarcely ii^ anything Irom that of the king?. They hud 
the supreme a'dniinislnilion of justice, the disposal of the piihlic 
money, the power of convoking the senate and assembling the yeo- ^ 
pie, raising armies, naming all the oth'-ers, ;ind the right of making 
peace and war. The only difibrence was, tiiat their autliority wua ^ 
limited to a year. 

i. The lii-st consuls were Bnitus and Collatlnus (the husband of i 
Lticretia). Tarquin was at this time in Ltruria, where he got two of ] 
the most powerful cities, \ eii and Taiquinii, to espouse liis cause. 
He had likewise his partisans at Uo'ue, and a plot was formed to 
open the gates to ro:eive him. it was detected, and Hrulus had 
the mortification \o find his two sons m the number of the coaspinv- 
tors. He condemned thenj to be beheaded in his presence. Ejntit i 
patrein ui cwisulcin ugerct ; orbntsqw. vivcre^ quum imblica: vindictce deesse i 
luiUtit. \ii\. Max. ^ He ceased ' t be a father^ iftat lie might ej:ccnte the i 
Uuies of a consul; and chose to live c/iddlcss rather tluniAo negleU tlu 
public irtn.ishiiiait (fa crime. \ 

:3. The consul \ alerius. successfirf in an engagement with the ex- 
iled I'arquin, was the tirsi Roman who enjoyed Ine snlendid reward 
of a triumph. Arrogant from his recent honoms, hi.>< popularity be- 1 
gan to decline , and, in a view of recovering it, he proposed the law, \ 
termed from him the Valerian, which *•' permitted any citizen w ho 
had been condemned to death by a magistrate, or even to banish- | 
ment or scourging, to appeal to the people, and required theii con i 
sent previously to the execution of the sentence.*' This law gav^ i 
ihe tjr^t blow to the aristocracy in the conslitulimi of the Roman re- ; 
public. ^ ^ , _, 1 

I. For thirteen years after the expulsion of Tarquin, the Romans : 
were involved in cVinlinual wai-s rn his account. Of these the most 1 
remarki.l)le was the war with the Etrurians, under Forsena; a war 
l"er<ile ir. exploits of romantic heroism. \ 

b. Sooii alter tb's period began those domestic disorders, which '■ 
continued long to embroil the rep'^ilic. Great complaints had ariseo 
among the poorer classes of the citizens, both on accovmt ol the ine- , 
quality or property, from the partial distribution of the conquered 
lands, which the higher ranks generally contrived to engross to them- 
selves, and from Ihe nai-sh policy by wliich it was in the power of i 
creditoi-s to reduce to a state of slavery their insolvent debtoi-s. As ; 
there was no legal restraint on usiiry, the poor, when once reduced j 
to the necessity of contracting tiebtsi were left entirely at the mei-cy 
ot their crt^litors. These grievances, lelt in common by a large pro- ; 
portion of the citizens, excited much discontent, which, from com- 
plaints long disregarded, grew at length into a sjiirit of detemiineo ; 
resistance. The wars required new levies, and the plebeians posi- | 
lively refused to enrol theif names, unless the senate should put an i 
end to their oppression, by decreeing at once an abolition ol all the | 
debts due by tne poor to tiie rich. The emergency was critical, as 
the enemy was at the galeS of Rome. The consuls founil their uu- ! 
thority ot no avail ; for ihe Valerian law had given any citizen con- ; 
demned by them a right of appeal to the people. An extraordinary J 
measure was necessai7, and a dictator >vas created for the hrsl time, j 
a magistrate who, for the period of six months, was invested with , 
absolute and unlimited authority. Lartius, nomioated to this bisa 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 6b 

office, armed the txventy-four lictorp with axes^ summoned the whole 
people to thf. comiMa, an:l cjilliiig over tho names, under the pentilty 
of death to any citizen who slioiiM dare to tnnrrnur, cnrcllL'd all rucn 
as he judged most tit tor th? service ot'fheir country. This expedi 
ent heram-.' henceforward a frequent ;uid ccrtiiin resource in all soa- 
fions of pnblic danger. 

6. The death of Tarquin removed one check against the tyranny 
of the higher over the lower orders; for the latter had hitherto kept 
alive a salutary apprehension, that, in case of extreme oppression, 
they would be under the necessity of calling back their king. VVhep 
this fear w;is at an end, the domineering spirit of the patricians, ex- 
ceeding every bound both of good policy and humanity, drove the 
people at length to deeds of mutiny and rebellion. An alai-m fron 
the enemy gave full weigh^ to their power, and m ide the chief magis 
trates of the st^ite solemnly engage their nonour to procure a ro 
dress of their grievances, :is soon as the public danger was at an end 
The promise, either from a failure of will or of power, was not fuJ 
filled, and this violation of fdth drove the people at length to ex 
tremiiies. Bound by their mia^iry oath not to desert tlieir standards, 
tliLiy carried them along with them ; and the whole army, in midUiry 
array, withdrew from Koine, and deliberately encamped on the Mons 
b.icer, at three miles distance fron) the city; and here they were soon 
joined by the greater part ul the people. This resolute procedure 
had its desired effect. The senate deputed ten persons, the most re* 
spectable of their order, with plenary powers; an^l these, seeing no 
meiUum of compromise, granted to the people all their demandSk 
The debts were solemnly abolished; and, for the security of their 
privileges in future, they were allowed the right of choosing nrngi?- 
(rates of their own order, wh^ should have the power of opposing 
^\' th effect every measure which f^ey should judge prejuciiti il tO 
their interests. These were the tribunes of the people, chosen annu- 
ally ; at first live in number, and afterwards increased to ten. With- 
out guards or tribunal, and having no seat in the senate-house, they 
iiad yet the power, by a single veto^ to suspend or annul the decrees 
of the senate and the senlences of the consuls. Their persons ware 
declared sacred, but their authority was contined to the limits of a 
mile from the city. The tribunes demanded and obt<\ined two magis- 
trates lo assist them, who were tertiied aeJiles, from the charge coin- 
mitted to them of the buildings of the cit^. 

7. From this asra (260 years from the toundation of Roifte) we date 
the commencement of the popular constitution of the Roman repub- 
lic: a change operated by the unwise policy of the patricians them- 
selves, who, by yielding to just complaints, and humanely rpdressins 
flagrant abuses, might have easily anticipated every grotmd ofcii* 
satisfaction. The hrst wish of tlie people vvas not power, bni reliel 
from tyranny and oppression ; and if this had been readily granted 
them by abolishing the debts, or at least by repressing enormous 
usury, and putting an end to the inhuman right of c )rporal puni<h* 
ment and the bondage of debtors, the peoole would have cheerfully 
returned to order and submission, and the (loman constitution would 
have long remained aristocratical, as we have seen it was at tlie com- 
mencement of the consular government, i^ut the plebeians having 
now obtained migistr.ites of tneir own order with those high powers, 
we shall see it beconii the object of those magistr.ites to incre:we 
their authority by continual demands and bold encroachments. The 
people, regarding them as the champions of their rights, are delight- 



56 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

ed to find themselves gnidually approaching to a level .with the 
higher order; and, no longer bounding their deeires to ease and se- 
curitv, are soon eaually inlhicnced l»y ;md)ition as their «iiperiors. 
While lids |x>ople, uorue down by injustice, seek no more than the 
redress of real grievances, we sympinhiy.e with their ieeiings, and 
applaud their spirited exertions. But w hen they had at length com- 
passed the end w hich they wished, obtained ea!:e and security, nay, 
power vvhich they had neither sought nor expected ; when we see 
them, al'ter this, increasing in their demands, jissuming Ihatiirrogance 
which they justly blamed in their superiors, goaded on by the anv 
hilion of their leaders to tyninni/e in tlieir turn ; we view with 
proper discrinunation the love of liberty and its extreme licentious- 
ness ; and treat w ith just detestation the authors of those pernicious 
measures, which embroiled the state in en Hess faction, and paved the 
way for the total loss of tnat liberty, of which this deluded people 
knew not the value when they actually possessed it. 



SECTION XXVI. 

THE LAW OF VOLERO. 

1. The disorders of the commonwealth, appeased by tlie creation 
of the tribunes, were but for a time suspended. It was necessary 
tliat the popular magistrates should malce an experiment of their 
powers. In an assembly of the people one of the consuls, interrupt- 
ed by a tribune, rashly said, tliat if the tribunes had called that nssem 
bly, he would not have interrupted them. This was a concession on 
the part of the consuls, that the tribunes had the power of assem- 
bling the comitia, which, from tnat moment, thej' assumed as their 
acknowledged right. It was a consequence of this right, that tl*e 
affairs of the commonwealth should be agitated in tliose meetings, 
equally as in the assemblies held in virtue of a coasular summons, or 
senatorial decree, and thus there were, in a manner, two distinct 
legislative powers established in the republic. 

•2. The trial of (Joriolanus for inconsiderately proposing the cboli- 
tion of the tribunate, an offence interpreted to be treason against the 
state, threw an additional weight into the scale of the people. The 
proposal of an agrarian law, for the divisi")n of the buids acquired by 
recent conquests, resumed at interv;ds, though never curried into 
execution, inHamed the passions of the rival ordei-s. 

3. Publius V'olero, formerly a centurion, and a. man distinguished 
for hiS military services, had, in the new levies, been nuiked as a 
common soldier. Complaining of this unmerited degr-datiou, he re- 
hised his services in that capacity ; and the constils having con- 
demned him to corponil punishment, he appealed iVom their sen- 
tence to the people. The contest hunted till the annual term of elec- 
tions, when V oiero himself Wiis chosen a tribune of the people. He 
had an ample revenge, by procuring the enactment of a most impor- 
tant law. The comitia by centuries and by curia^ could he called 
onlv in virtue of a decree of the senate, alter consulting the auspices; 
anrf in those comitia the tribunes had hitherto been elected, and the 
most important public affairs discussed. It was decreed by the law 
of Volero, that the election of the tribunes should be made, and the 
chief public business hencetbrward discussed, in the comitia held by 
tribes, which were unfettered by any of those restraints. From thia 



AJVCIENT HISTORY. 67 

period the supreme authority in the Roman republic may be consid- 
ered as having passed r.ompleteiy from the nigher order into tiie 
hands of the people. The Roman constitution was now plainly a 
democracy, 471 A. C. 



SECTION XXVIl. 

THE DECEMVIRATE. 

1. The Romans had, till this prriod, no body of civil laws. — Under 
the regal government the kings alone administered justice; the 
consuls succeeded them in this high prerogative, and thus possessed 
without control the absolute command of the fortunes and civil rights 
of all the citizens. To remedy this great detect, Terentillus, a tri- 
bune, proposed the nomination of ten commissioners, to frame and 
digest a code of laws for the explanation and security of the rights 
ofall orders of the state. A measure so equitable ought to have met 
with no opposition. It was, however, strenuously opposed by the 
patricians, who,^y a fruitless contest, only exposed their own weak- 
ness. The decemviri were chosen ; but the election being made in 
the comitia by centuries, the consul Appius Claudius, with his col- 
league, were at the head of this important commission. The laws 
were framed, those celebrated statutes known by the name of the 
Twelve Tables, which are the basis of the great structure of th© 
Roman jurisprudence, 451 A. C. 

2. An acquaintance with these ancient laws is therefore of impT.r- 
tance. Even in the most flourishing times of the republic they (Ton- 
tinued to be of the highest authority. They have the encomium of 
Cicero himself; and we learn from him, that to commit these laws 
to memory was an essential part of a Uberal education. From the 
twelve tables the jurisconsulti composed a system of judicial forms, 
for the regulation of the diiferent tribunals. The number of the 
laws w.is likewise from time to time increased by the senatusconsulta 
and plebiszita. 

3. The decemvirs were invested with all the powers of govern- 
ment, for the consulate had ceased on their creation. Each decem- 
vir by turn presided ibr a day, and had the sovereign authority, with 
its insignia, the fasces. The nine others officiated solely as judges 
in the determination of lawsuits, and the correction of abuses. An 
abuse, however, of the most flagrant nature, committed by the chief 
of their own number, was destined speedily to bring their office to 
its termination. 

4. Appius Claudius, inflamed by lawless passion for the young , 
Virginia, the betrothed spouse of icilius, formerly a tribune of the i- # 
people, employed a profligate dependant to claim the maiden as his •l* 
own property, on the talse pretence of her being the daughter of ^ 
one of his female slaves. The claim was made to the decemvir * 
himself in judgment, who pronounced an infamous decree, which 
tore from her family this helpless victim, and put her into the hands 

oi his own minion. Her father, to save the honour of his child, 
plunged a dagger into her breast ; and the people, witnesses of this 
shocking scene, would have massacred Appius on the spot, if he had 
not found means to escape amidst the tumult. Their vengeance, 
however, was satiated by the instant abolition of this hated magis- 
^cy, and by the death of Appius, who chose by his own hand to 

B 



58 ANCIENT HISTORY. ^ , 

prevent the stroke of the executioner. The decern vlrpte had sWf ' 
BHtcd tor three years. The consuls were now restored, logelhef , 
with the tribunes of the people, 449 A. C. ^ 

SECTION XXVIII. j 

INCREASE OF THE POPULAR POWER. j 

1. The scale of the people was daily acquiring weight, at the ex- i 
pense of that of the highest order. Two harrien*, howevci, still ' 
separated the patricians and plel>eians: onc^ a law which prevented ' 
their intermarriage, and the other, the constitutional limitation of all' '. 
the higher oftices to the order of the patricians. It was only neces- 
sary to remove these restrictions, and the patricians and plebeians : 
were on a footing of perfect equality. The tin?t, after a Icng but j 
fniitle?s contest, was at length agreed to by the semite ; and this ] 
concession had Its usual effect of stimulating ifie people to intlexible I 
perseverance in their struggle for the latter. On an emergence oi < 
war the customary device was practised, of refusing to enter the ' 
rolls, unless upon the immediate enactment of a U^^ which should ! 
admit their capacity of holding all the olhces of the republic. The i 
senate soifght a palliative, bv the creation of six military tribunes w i 
lieu of the consuls, three of whom should be patricians, and three 
plebeians. This measure satisfied the people lor a time : the consuls, i 
rio\vever, were soon restored. i 

2. The disorders of the republic, and frequent wars, had inter 
rupted the regular survey of the citizens. This was remedied by 
the creati^>n ot a new magistracy. Two officers, under the title oi , 
censor«, were appointed (437 A. C.J, whose duty was not only to 
make the census every five years, but to inspect the morals, and ' 
regtilate the duties of all the citizens : an othce of dignity equal to \ 

f. .its importance, exercised, in the latter limes of the reiniblic, only by ! 
^ • consular persons, and aftenvards annexed to the supreme functions i 
of the emperors. -» 

3. The dissensions between the orders continued, with little varia- ', 
tion either in their causes or effects. The people generally, as the 
last resonrce, refused to enrol themselves, till ovcniwed by the 
supreme authority of a dictator. To obviate the frequent necessity 
of this measure, which enforced at best an unwilling and compelled 
obedience, the senate had recourse to a wise expedient ; this was, 
to give a regular pay to the troops. To defray this expense a mod- 

*^erate tax was imposed in proportion to the fortunes ot the citizens. 
From this period the Roman system of war ;ussumed a new aspect 
^The senate always found soldiei-s at command ; the anny was under 
^ ^its control; the enterprise? of the republic were more extensive, 
• and it< successes more signal and imj^ortant. \ eii, the proud rival 
of Home, and it* oqtial in extent and population, was taken by Camil- 
liis, after a sirge of ten yeai-s, A. I . ( . 3iKi. The art of war was 
in proved, as i( now became a pre lession, instead of an occasiofial 
occupation. The Romans were, Irtuii this circumstance, an over- 
match for all their n<'igbbours. Their dominion, hitherto conhned 
to the territory of a few miies, was now rapidly extended. It was 
impossible but that the detached states of Italy must have gi^en way 
bcdorc a people w ho were alwavs in arms, and, by a perseverance 
alike resohite and judicious, were equal to every attempt in which 
Uiey engaged. 



AKClENT HISTORY. $§' 

4. The taking nf Veil was succeeded by a war with the Gntils. 
This people, a branch of the great nation '^f the Celtae, had open<-d 
In tliemselves a jjassage through tlie Alps at tour dilierpiit perhuls, 
and were at tins tune established in the country between ihose 
mountains imd the Appenincs. Under the commaiid of Brennus ther 
laid siege to the Etruscan Clusium; and the people, of no warlike 
lurn themselves^ solicited the aid of the Romans. The circnmstan- 
ces recorded ol this war with the Gauls throw over it a cloud of 
fable and romance. The formidabJe powor of Heme is said to have 
been, in a single campaign, so utterly exhausted, that the Ga'ils eh- 
terea the city without resistance, and burnt it to the ground, 385 A. 
C. Though thus overpoweied, the Ilomaus, in a singie engagemeiit. 
retrieve all their losses, and in one day's time there is net a liaul 
[eft remaining within tlie Roman territory. 

To the burning of the city by the Gauls, the Rcma-n writers attri- 
bute the loss of ail the records and monuments of their early history. 

5. It is singular, that most of the licnian revolutions shomd have 
owed their origin to women. Frcm this cause we iiave seen sprirg 
the abohtion of the regal othce and the decemvirate. trcm this 
cause arose the change of the constitution, by which the plebeians 
became capable of holding the highest clhces of the ccmmonwealih. 
The younger daughter ot Fabius Ambustus, married to a plebeian, 
envious ol the honours of lier eider sister, tlie wile oi' a patrician, 
stimulated her father to reuse the lower order to a resolute purpose 
of asserting their equal right with the p-Uricians to all the ofhces and 
dignities of the slate. After much turbulence and contest the final 
issue was the admission 'of the plebeians, rirst to the consulate, and 
afterwards to the censorsliip, the praetorship, and priesthood (A. U. 
C. 454, and A. C. 300) . a change benehcial in the main, as consoli- 
dating the strength of the republic, and cutting cfithe principal soured 
of intestine disorder. The factions of the state had hitlierto confinetf 
the growth of its power, its splendour, and prosperity ; for no state 
can at once be prosperous ana anarchical. We shall now mark the 
rapid elevation of the Roman name and empire. 



SECTION XXIX. 

CONQUEST OF ITALY BY THE ROMANS. 

1. The war with the Samnites now began, nnd was of long contin- 
uance ; but its successful termination was speedily followed by llie 
reduction of all the states of Italy. In the course of this important 
war the Tarentines, the allies ol the yamnitef, sought the aid ol 
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. one of the greatest generals oFhis age. I'yrr- 
has landed in Italy witn 30,000 men and a train of elephants, 28U A. 
C. He was at first successiul, but no longer so than till a short ex; 
p( rience reconciled the Romans to a new mode of war.. Sensible at 
length of the difficulties ot his enterprise, and dreading a fatal issue, 
be embraced an invitation from the Sicilians to aid them in a war 
with Carthage. On this pretext, wliich at least was net dishonoura- 
ble, Pyrrhus withdrew his troops Irom Italy. In this interval the 
Romans reduced to extremity the Samnites, the Tai-entines, and the 
other allied states. Pyrrhus returned, and made a 1-ist eflorl neal 
Beneventum. He was totally defeated, lost 2G,000 men, and aban- 
doning at once all further views to Italy, returned with precipitation 



60 ANCiENT HISTOKV. 

lo his own dominiorw, 274 A. C. The hostile slates submitted to the 
victoriou-^ power; and Homo, 480 years from the tountlation of the 
city, was now mistress of all Italy. 

2. The poUcy obscrveti by the Romans, with respect to the con- 
quered nations, was wise and judicious. They removed to Rome 
all the leading men olthc principal conquered cities, admitting them 
into the ancient urban and rustic tribes, and thus soothing the pride of 
the vanqui!*hed, by giving them an apparent share in their own do- 
mestic goveniment; while, in arraiiging the constitution of the cities, 
they Hired their magistracies with illustrious Romans, whose abilities 
and intluence were fitted to maintain those new provinces m alle- 
giance to the Roman government. 

3. Sicily had long been considered the grdnory of It^ly. The 
Carthaginians at this time possessed considerable settlements in the 
Island, aiid were ambitious of acquiring its entire dominion. An ob- 
vious policy led the Romans to dispute with them this hnportant ac- 
quisition, and gave rise to the Funic wars. This leads, by a natura) 
connexion, to a short view of the history of Carthage ana of Sicily 



SECTION XXX. 

HISTORY OF CARTHAGE. 

1 Carthage, according to the most probable accounts, w:is foiaiJetl 
by a colony of Tyrians, about eeventy years before the building of 
Rome. Tne colony had the same language, the same or nearly 
similar laws and consiitution, the same national character, with the 
parent state. The city ot Carthage was, at the period of" the Funic 
wars, one of the nwst splendid in the world, and had under its Homin 
ion 3U0of the smaller cities of Africa bordering on the Mediterranean 
sea. 

2. The constitution of the republic is celebrated by Aristotle as 
one of the most perfect of the governments of antiquity ; but we 
know little more than its general nature Ibpm ancient writers. Two 
magistrates, named snffdes^ annually choaih, seem to have possessed 
powers akin to those of the Roman consuls; and the Carthaginian 
senate to those of the senate of Rome ; with this remarkable iliffer- 
ence, that, in the former, unanimity v>{ opinion was requisite in all 
measures of importance. A divided senate transmitted the business 
to the assembly of the people. A tribunal of 104 judges took cog- 
nizance of military operations, and of the conduct of their generals. 
A superior council ot five seems to have controled the decisioas of 
the larger tribunal. Two peculiarities of the Carthaginian policy 
have been censured by Aristotle. One peculiarity was, that the same 
person might hold several employments or othces in the state ; the 
other that the poor were debarred from all othces of trust or import- 
ance. But the former of these is frequently both expedient and 
necessary, and the latter seems agreeable to the soundest policy ; for 
in offices of trust poverty offers too powerful an incitement to devia- 
tion from duty. 

3. The tirst settlements made by the Carthaginians were entirely 
in the way of commerce. Trading lo the coast of Spain for gold, 
they built Carthagena and Gades : and coasting along the weslera 
shore of Africa, they had establishments for the same purpose as fa/ 
as the 25th degree of north latitude. The Pe.riplua ofHaimo affords 



AJ>JCIENT HISTORY. 6J 

B proof of ard°nt enterprise and policy. Desirous of extending a 
limited territory they armed against l!ie Manritaniaas, Numidian*!, 
and all tlie neighbouring nations; employing mercenary troops, 
which they levied, not only in AtVica, hut in Spain, the two Gauls, 
and Greece. 

4. The annals of the Carthaginian state are httle known till their 
wars with the Romans. Ttie tirst oi their wars mentioned in history 
is that with the Greek colonies ol" Sicily. Darius courted the.r alli- 
ance when he meditated the conquest of Greece ; and Xerxes re- 
newed that treaty when he followed out the designs of his lather. 



SECTION XXXI. 

HISTORY OF SICILY. 

1. The f.arly periods of the history of Sicily are as little knoxvn as 
those of Carthage. The Phoenicians had sent colonies to Sicily be- 
fore the Trojan war. The Greeks, in after times, made considerable 
settlements in the island. The Corinthians founded Syracuse, which 
became the most illustrious of the Greek cities of Sicily; and from 
Syracuse arose afterwards Agrigentum, Acra, Casmene, Camarene, 
and several other Sicilian towns 

2. The government of Syracuse was monarchical, and might have 
long remained so, if all its sovereigns had inherited the abilities and 
yhtues of Gelon. But his successors, exercising the worst of tyran- 
ny, compelled their subjects at length to abolish the re^al govein- 
cient ; and their example was speedily followed by all the Grecian 
Slates of Sicily- 

3. The monarchy of Syracuse, however, w^as revived about sixty 
years after in the person of Dionysius, a man of obscure origin, but 
of signal ability. Twice expelled for a tyrannical exercise of domin- 
ion, he as often found means to overpower his enemies, and re-estab- 
h&li himself in the throne. At his death the crown pjissed, without 
opposition, to his son, Dionysius the younger, a weak and capricious 
tyrant, whom his subjects judging unworthy to reign, dethroned anci 
banished, 357 A. C. The'crown was conferred on Dion, his brother- 
in-law, whose amiable character rendered him the delight of his 
people. But after a short reign this prince fell a victim to treason. 
Aided by the distractions of Syracuse consequent on this eveiit, Dio- 
nysius remounted the throne ten years after his expulsion ; but his 
tyrannical dis]>osition, heightened by his misfortunes, became at 
length so intolerable, that he was expelled a second time, and 
finished to Corinth, where he ended his days in poverty and obscurity. 
The author of this revolution was the illustrious Timoleor, to 
whose abilities and virtues his country owed equally its liberty and •>.- 
its subsequent happiness and prosperity, 343 A. C. ^ 

The signal opposition of national character between the Romans 
and the Carthaginians may be easily explained, when we attend to 
the effects of a commercial life on the genius and manners of a nation. 
The vices of a commercial people are selfishness, cunning, avarice, 
with an absence of every heroic and patriotic virtue. The favoura- 
ble effects of commerce are industry, frugality, general courtesy of 
manners, improvement in the useful arts. Attending to these conse- 



62 ANCIENT HISTORY. ; 

qpnc*^«of the fTCvalence of Ihc commercial ppiril, we shall sec th^ "^ 
principal lealurea of the Carthaginian cliaraclcr opposed to the 



KomaQ. 



SECTION XXXll. 
THE PUNIC WARS. 



1 The triumph which the Rom;ins had obtained over Pvnhus 
•eemed to give assurance of success in any enterprise m which they 
should engage. The Mamertines, a people ol Campania, obtained 
aid from tl.e Komans in an unju-slihable attempt whicli they made to 
ftei/e Messina, a Sicilian town allied to Syracuse. The Syracusiu.^, 
at first assisted by the Carthaginians, opposed this mvasion ; but the 
former, more alarmed by the ambitious encroachments ol ihe Car- 
thagini ms on Sicily, soon repented of this rash alliance, and joiijed 
he Uomans in the purpose of expelling the Carthaginians entirely 
from the island. In fact the Sicilians seem to have had only the des- 
perate choice of linal submission either to Home or ^^rlhage. 
Thev chose the former, as the alternative least dishonourable, ihe 
Romans had ever been their friends, the Carthaginians their enemies. 
'■Z. Agrigentum, possessed by the C:arthaginians. was taken, after 
a long siege, by tlie joint forces of Rome and byracuse. A Roman 
fleet, the rirst which they ever had, was equipped m a fe>v .^^eeks, 
and gained a complete victory over that of Carthage at this tmie tho 
e?p4 t maritime power in the world, 2t50 A. C. These .ucces.^>* 
H^re tinned by the reduction of Corsica and Sardinia. In a second 
aiWl engagement the Romans took from the Carthaginians sixty o 
Uitir ships of war, and now resolutely prepared lor the invasion ol 
AHica The consul Regulus commanded the expedition. He ad- 
van-ed to the gates of Carthage ; and such was the general constef. 
nalicn that the enemy proposed a capitulation. Insmrited, however, 
Efa Umely aid of Greek troons under Xantippu.-, tte Carthaginians 
mad.' a desperate effort, and, defeating the Roman army,made Heg-i. 
iSs tlieir prisoner. But, repeatedly defeated in h.cily, they were at 
lenfilh serioMsly desirous of a peace; and the Roman general was 
sent with their ambassadors to fiome to aid the negotiation, under a 
^,lemn oath to return to Carthage as a prisoner, if the trea V ^ ^ovild 
fnil It was rejected at the uigent desire ol Regulus, who thus sac- 
rihced his life to what he judged the interest of his country. 

3 Lilyboeum, the stro'nge^t of the Sicilian towns beforgm^ to 
Car hage, was taken after a siege of nine years. -Mter ?bme alter, 
ntte 8ulce«ses two naval battles won by the Romans terminated Jw 
vv r and Carthage at last obtained a peace on the humi laUng tcrmi 
ol abandoning to the Romans all her possessions m Sicily, the ray- 
men of o.2UU talents of silver, the restitution of all prisoners without 
u.so.n, and a solemn engagement never to make vy;,r against Sy ra- 
01^7/ her allies. The island of Sicily was now dec ared a Rom;in 
province, though Syracuse maintained its independent government. 

^'\ Tht^ peace betwem Rome and Carthage was of twenty-three 
vears' duration. The latter power was rr rruiting its strength, and 
Suited to revenge it. losses and disgrace I'he second Pun»c wa^ 
blganouthep^irtolthe Carthaginians, who besieged Saguntum, « 
citf of Spain, in aUiance with tT,e Komans. Ihe young Hannibal 



ANCIENT HISTORY. ^' 63 

took SagTintum after a siege of seven months : the dcsp<»nite bhabi 
tanta setting tire to the town, nnd perishing amidst ilif UJimes. Jlan- 
Qibiil now torme(l the bold design of cai'rying the war inio ll;ily. He 
provided against every diiliculty, gained to his interest a part of the 
Gallic tribes, passed the Pyrenees, and finally the Alps,* in a loil- 
floine march of five months and a half from his leaving Carthagena, 
and arrived in. Italy with 20,000 foot and 6,000 horse. 

5. In the first engagement the Romans were defeated. They also 
lost two otiier important battles at Trebia, and the lake Thr.isy me- 
nus. In the latter of these the consul Flaminius wits killed, and his 
army cut to pieces. Hannibal advanced to Cannag in Apulia, where 
the Komans opposed him with their whole force. A memorable 
defeat ensued, in which 40.000 Romans were left dead upon the 
field, and among these the consul /Emilius, and almost the whole 

4jody of the knights. If Hannibal had taken advantage of this great 
victory; by instantly attacking Rome, the fate of the rep.ibiic Wcis 
inevitable; but he deliberated, and the occasion was lost. The 
Romans concentrated all their strength. Even the «)jives sjrmed in 
the common cause, and victory once more attended the standards of 
the republic. Philip, king of Macedon, joined his forces to tiie 
Carthag.nians, but, defeated oy Levinus, speedily withdrew his ci*- 
sistance. Hannibal retreated before the brave Marcellus. Syracuse 
had now taken part with Carthage, and thus paved the way ibr the 
loss of its own Uberty. 31arcellus besieged the city, which was long 
defended by the inventive genius of Archimedes; but was tciken in 
the third year by escalade in. the night. This event put an end to 
the kingdom of Syracuse, which now became a part of the Roraan 
province of Sicily, A. L. C. 512, A. C. 212. 

6. While the war in Italy was prosperously conducted by the 
great Fabius, who, by consUmtly avoiding a general engagement, 
found the true method of weakening his enemy, the younger Scipio 
accomplished the entire reduction of Spain. Asdrubal was sent 
into Italy to the aid of his brother Hannibal, but was defeated by 
the consul Claudius, and slain in battle. Scipio, triumphant in Spain, 
passed over into Africa, and Ciirried havoc and devastation to the 
gates of Carthai;e. Alarmed for the fi\te of their empire the Car- 
Diaginians hastily recall e^d Hannibal trom Italy. The battle of 
Zema decided the fate of the war, by the utter defeat of the Cartha- 
ginians. They entreated a peace, which the Romans gave on these 
conditions: that the Carthagini-.tns should abandon Spain, Sicily, anJ 
all the ishmds; surrender all their prisoners, give up the whole of 
th^ir tleet except ten gallies, pay 10,000 talents, and, in tulurp. 
undertake no war without consent of the Romans, A. U. C. 552, A. 
C. 202. 

7. Every thing now concurred to swell the pride of the conquer- 
ors, and to extend their dominion. . A war with Philip of Macedon 
was terminated by his deleat ; and his sc.:i Demetrius was sent to 
Rome as a hostage for the payment of a heavy tribute imposed on 
tlie vanquished. A war with Antiochus, king of Syria, eiided in 
his ceding to the Romans the whole of the Lesser Asia. But these 
splendid conquests, while they enlarged the empire, were tatal to its 

* The passage of Hannibal over the Alps has heen lately idnstrated, 
in a most learned and ingenious essay, by Mr. Whitaker (the celebrated 
historian of Manchester, and vindicator of Queen Mary), who has, with 
great acuteness, traced every step of the Carthao^inisra general, from his 
crossing the Rhone to his final arrival in Italy. 



64 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

virtues, and subversive of the pure and venemble simplicity of 

ancient tirnos. 

0. The thip] Punic war began A. U. C. 605, A. C. 149, and ended 
in tlie ruin of Carthagr. An unsuccesslul war with the Numidians 
had reduced ll)e Carthaginians to great weaicness, and the Komana 
meanly laid hold of that opportunitj' to invade Africa. Coascious ol 
thoir utter inability to resist this formidable power, the Carthaginians 
otlierod every submission, and consented even to acknowledge them- 
selves the subjects of Koine. The Romans demanded 30U Tiost:iges, 
for the strict pertormance of every condition that should be enjoined 
by the senate. The hostages were given, and the condition requir- 
ed was, that Carthage itselt should be razed to its foundation. Des- 
pair gave courage to this miserable people, and they determined to 
die io the defence of their native city. But the noble effort was in 
vain. Cwrthage was taken by storm, its inhabitants massacred, and 
the city burnt to the ground, A. U. C. 607, A. C. 146. 

9. Uhe same year was signalized by the entire reduction of 
Greece under the dominion of the Romans. This was the a?r.i of 
the dawn of luxury and taste at Rome, the natural truit of foreign 
wealth, and an acquaintance with foreign manners. In the unequal 
distribution of this imported wealth, the vices to which it gave rise, 
the corruption and venality of whicn it became the instrument, we 
see the remoter causes of those fatal disorders to which the republic 
owed its dissolution. 



SECTION XXXIII. 

THF GP.ACCHI, AND THE CORRUPTION OF THE COMMON- 
WEALTH. 

1. At this period arose Tiberius and Caius Gracchus, two noble 
youths, whose zeal to reform the growing corruptions of the state, 
precipitated them at length into meiisures destructive of all govern- 
ment and social order. Tiberius, the elder of the brothers, urged 
the people to assert by force tho revival of an ancient law, for limit- 
ing property in land, and thus abridging the overgrown estates of the 
patricians. A tumult was the con^^equence, in which Tiberius, with 
300 of his friends, were killed in the forum. This fatal example did 
not deter his brotner, Caius Gracchus, from pursuing a similar ca'-eer 
of zeal or of amf ition. After some successful experiments ot' his pow 
er, while in the ortice of tribune, he direcced his scrutiny into the cor- 
ruptions of tlie senate, and orcvailed in depriving that body of its con 
slilutional control over all the inferior magistrates of (he slate. Em- 
ploying, like his brother, the dangerous engine of tumultuary force 
lie fell a victim lo it himself", with 3,000 ot his partisans, who were 
slau^^htered in the streets of Rome. The tumults attending the se- 
ditio^n of the Gnicchi wcie the prelude to those civil disorders which 
now followed in quick successiim to the end of the commonwealth. 

2. The circumstances aiicnding the war with Jugurtha gave deci- 
sive proof of the corruption of the Roman manners. Jugurtha, 
grandson of Masinissa, sought to usurp the crown of Ntimiilia by 
destroying his cousins, Hiempsal and .\dherbal, the sons of the last 
king. He murdered the elder oi the brothers; and the younger 
applying for aid to Rome, Jugurtha bribed the senate, who declared 
him innocent of ;U1 culi>able act or design, and decreed to him the 



ANCIENT HISTOKY. 66 

sovereignty of half the kingdom. This operated only as an incentive 
to hii criminal ambition. He declared open war aga^a-t his cousin, 
oesioged him in his capital of CirUi, and Haiiliy puc him to death. 
To avert a threatened war Jugurlha went in pei-cn to Rome, 
pleaded his own cause in the senate, and once more by bribery 
secured his acquittal from all charge of criminality. A perseverance, 
however, in a similar train of conduct tinally drew on him the ven- 
geance of the Rom;ms ; and being betrayed into their hands by his 
own father-in-law, he was brought in chains to Rome, to grace the 
triumph of the consul Marius, conlined to a dungeon, and starve*! lo 
death, A. U C. 651, A. C. 103. 

3. The ambition of the allied states of Ibily to attain the rights 
of citizenship produced the .«ocial war, which ended in a conces- 
sion of those rights to such of tlie confederates iis should return 

f)eaceably to their allegiance. This war with the allies was a pre- 
ude to that which followed between Rome and her own citizens. 
Sylla and Marius, rivals, and thence enemies, were at this time the 
leaders of the republic. Sylla, commanding in a v.ar against Mithri- 
dates, was superseded, and recalled from Asia. He refused to obey 
the mandate, and found his army well disposed to support him. 
" Let us march to Rome,'' said they, with cne voice ; '• lead us on 
to avenge the cause of oppressed liberty." Sylla accordingly led. 
them on, and they entered Rome sword in hand. Marius and his* 
partizans fled with precipitation from the city, and Sylla ruled for a 
while triuraphacit. But the faction of his rival soon recovered 
strength. Marius returnhig to Italy, and joining his forces to those 
'>! Cinna, his zealous partizan, laid sieg3 to Rome, and, while Sylla 
was engaged in the Mithridatic war, compelled the city to absolute 
submission. After a horrible massacre of all whom they esteemed 
their enemies^ Marius and Cinna proclaimed themselves consuls, 
without the formality of an election; but Marius died a few days 
after in a fit of dehaucl^ 

4. After a victorious campaign in Asia, Sylla returned to Italy, 
and, joined by Cethe^us, Verres, and the young Pompey, gave 
battle to the party of his enemies, and entirely defeated them. 
His entry into Rome was signalized by a dreadful mjissacre, and a 
proscription, which had lor iLs object the extermination of every 
enemy whom he had in Italy. Elected dictator for an unlimited 
period, he was now '.vithout a rival in authority, and absolute master 
of the government, which, of course, was no longer a republic. 
In the exercise of his dominion he deserved more praise than in 
the means of acquiring it. He restored the senate to its ju licial 
authority, regulated t'le election to all the important offices oi 
sUite, and enacted many excellent laws against oppression and the 
abu^e of power. Finally, he gave demonstration, if not of a pure 
conscience, at least of a magnanimous intrepidity of character, by 
voluntarily resigning all command, retiring to "the condition of a 
prh^ate citizen, and oQ'ering publicly to give an account of his con- 
duct. He died within a short time after his resignation. He wiis 
certainly a man of great strength of mind, and had some of the qual- 
ities of a heroic character; but he lived in evil times, ^vhen it was 
impossible at once to be great and to be virtuous. 

5. The death of Sylla renewed the civil war. Lepidus, a man ol 
no abilities, aspired to succeed hnn in power: and Pompey, with 
superior talent*, cherished the same ambition. While the latter w;i3 
employed in the reduction of the revolted provinces of Asia, the 

F2 9 



ec ANCIENT HIS'IXJRY. 

conspiracy of Catiline threatened the entire destruction of Rome. 
It \v:is extinguished by the provident zeal nnd active patrioli<«Ri 
of the con^iiil Cicero. Catiline and his chi^d' accomplices were 
attacUed in the field, and dtdeated hy Antonms. The traitor ma<ie 
a desperate delence, and died a better deatli than his crimes had 
merited. 

G. Julius Cnssar now rose into public notice. Sylla dreaded hi 
nbililies and ambitiori, and had numl>ered liim among the proscribec. 
'* i'l.^re is many a Mariiis," said he, *Mn the pereon of that young 
man. He iiad learned prudence from the danger of his situaiion, 
anil tacitly courted popularitv, without tliat show of e.iterprise 
which gives alarni ic a rival. \V!ii!c Pot.-.pey and Crassus contended 
tor the command of the reniiblic, Caspar, who Icnew that, by attach- 
in:; himsell to either ri\al, he intalliblv made the other his enemy, 
showed the reach of h',< talents by reconciling them, and thiis 
acquiring the? iriendsbip of both. Fro'm five ir to their mutual friend 
thf^y agreed to a partition of power; ixml thus was Ibrmc'd tiie tirst 
tnumvipjile. C;n*ar was elected consul. He increased his popularity 
by a division of lands among the poorer citizens, and strengthened 
his interest with Pompey by giving him his daiighter in marriage. 
l-Ie hiii thp, command of lour legions, and the government of traus- 
. alpine Gaul and Illy ria. • 

7. The military glorv of the republic, and the repuUition oJ 
C.E<ar, were nobly stistained In Gaul. In the tii-st year of his govern- 
ment he subdued the llelvetii. who, leaving their own country, had 
attempted to settle themselves in the better regions of the Koman 
province. He totally defeated the Germans un.ler Ariovistus, who 
had attempted a similar invasion. The BclgiE, the Nervii, the 
Ce'tic Gauls, the Suevi, .Alenapii. and other warlike nations, were 
all successively brought under subjection. In the fourth year of hi? 
government he transported his army into Britain. Landing at Peal 
he was opposed by the natives with" equal courage and military skill. 
He gained, however, s.neiil advantages, and. binding the Britons to 
submission, withdrew into Gaul on the approach of winter. He 
returned in the following suminer with a giea'er force, and, prose- 
cuting bis victories, reduced a consitlerable portion of the island 
under the Roman dominion, .A. C. 51. But the pressure of atiiiirs 
in It dy suspended for a time the progress of the Koman arms in 
Britain. 

8. C^sar dreaded the abilities of Cicero, who had opposed him 
in his views of ambition. By the machinations of his partizans, 
while he was absent in Gaul, he procured the bfmishmont of Cicero, 
an 1 tb? conti-cation of his estates, on the preteice of illegal me:is- 
ures parsu-^d in the suppression of the conspiracy of Catiline. 
During an exil" of sixteen months in (Jreece, Cicero gave way to a 
despond'ncy of mind utterly unworthy of the obilosopher. Pom- 
pey had abantloned him, and this ungrateful (lesertion bore mfi.st 
heavily upon his mind. In the wane of his reputation Pom|>ey soon 
became desirous to prop his own sinking fortunes by the abilities of 
Cicero, and eagerly promoted his recal from exile. The death of 
Cr.Lssus, in an expedition against tb" Parthians, now dissolved the 
triumvirate ; and Cjjsar and Pompey, wn -t inion had no other bond 
than interest, began each to conceive separately the view of undivid- 
ed uomiiiioQ. 



ANCIENT HISTORY ei 



SECTION XXXIV. 

PROGRESS OF THE CIVIL WARS. CECOND TRIUMVIRATE. 
FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 

1. Tire ambition of Caesar and of Pornpey had now evidently tlie 
Eame object ; and it seemed to be the only question, in those degen- 
erate times, to which of these aspiring leaders the republic should 
lurrender its liberties. The term of Caesar's government was near 
expiring. To secure himself against a deprivation of power, he 
procured a proposal to be made in the senate by one of his partizans, 
which wore the appearance of great moderation, namely, that 
Caesar and Pompey should either both continue in their govern- 
ments, or both be deprived of them, as they were equally capable 
of endangering the public liberty by an abuse of power. The mo- 
tion passed, and Caesar immediately offered to resign, on condition 
that nis rival should do so ; but Pompey rejected the accommodation. 
The term of his government had yet several years' duration, and 
he suspected the proposal to be a snare laid for him by Cassar. He 
r<?solved to m.jntam his right by force of arms, 'and a civil war was 
the necessary consequence. The consuls and a great part of the 
senate were the friends of Pumpey. Ceesar had on his side a victo- 
rious army, consisting of ten leglons, and the body of the Roman cit- 
izens, whom he had won by ims iioerality. Mark Antony and Cas- 
sius, at that time tribunes of the people, left Ro.Tie, and repaired to 
Caisar's camp. 

2. The senate, apprehensive of his designs, pronounced a decree. 
branding with the crime of parricide any commander who should 
dare to pass the Rubicon (the boundary between Italy and the 
Gauls) witti a single cohort, without their permission. Caesai 
infringed the prohibition, and marched straight to Rome. — Pompey, 
to whom the senate conmiitted the defence of the state, had no 
army. He quitted Rome, followed by the consuls and a p^rt of the 
senate, and endeavoured hastily to levy troops over all Italy and 
Greece ; while Caisar triumphantly entered the city amidst the 
acclamations of the people, seized the public tr'^rsury, and possessed 
himself of the supreme authority without opposition. Having se- 
cured the capital of the empire, he set out to take the field against 
her enemies. The lieutenants of Pompey had possession of Spain. 
CiESar marched thither, and subdued the whole country in the 
spare of forty days. He returned victorious to Rome, where, in his 
absence, he had been nominated dictator. In the succeeding elec- 
tion of magistrates he was chosen consul, and was thus invested, by 
a double title, with the right of acting in the name of the republic. 
Pompey had by this time raised a numerous army, and Caesar was 
anxious to bring him to a decisive engagement. The two armies 
met in Illyria, and the first conflict was of doubtful issue. Caesar 
led his army into Macedonia, where he found a large reinforcement 
He gave battle to Pompey in the field of Pharsalia. and entirely 
defeated him. Fifteen thousand of Pompey's army were slain, and 
24,000 surrendered themselves prisoners to the victor, A. U. C. 705, 
A. C. 49. 

3 The fate of Pompey was miserable in the extreme. Willi his 
x^'ife Cornelia, the companion of his misfortunes, he fled to Egypt in 



63 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

a single ship, trusting to the protection of Ptolemy, whose father 
ha«i ovvrii to him his settlement on the throne. Hul the niinistere of 
this voung princ.r, ihvadiii^ the nowor ol Ca'sar, f»aseiy Mjuru^tl his 
favour by liie murder of hjs rival. I'ornpey wa^ r»ro'igni a.-hore in' 
a small boat by the guards oi tlie k;ng ; iuui a i\omar centurion, 
who had fought under his b;uiners, stabbed bim, even m the sight oi 
Cornelia, aucl cutting olV his head, tlirew the body naked on the 
isands. (Jaesar pursued l\^mpey to AU-xandria, where the head cf 
that unhappy man, presented as a gralelul offering, gave him the 
tirst intelligence of bis fate. He wept, and turned witli horror from 
the sight. He caused every lionour to be paid to his memory, and 
Irom that time showed tlie utmost benelicence to liie pariizans of 
his unlbrlunate rival. 

4. The sovereignty of Egypt was in dispute between Ptolemy 
and his sister Cleopati;iu The latter, though married to her brother, 
and joint heir by her father's will, was ambitious of undivided author- 
ity; and Caesar, captivated by her channs, decided the contest ic 
favour of the beauteous queen. A war ensued, in wJiich Ptolemy 
was killed, and Egypt subdued i)y the Roman arms, in this war Uie 
famous library of Alexandria was burnt to ;ishes, A. C. 48. A revolt 
oi" the Asiatic provinces, under Pharn.ices, the son of 3Jithriilales, 
w;is signally chastised ; and the report was conveyed by Caesar to 
the Kom;in senate in three words, l^eni. vuli, vici The couquerf)r 
returned to Rome, which needed his presence; for Italy was divid- 
ed, and ihe pariizans of Pompey were yet extremely formidable, 
ilis two sons, with Cato and Scipio, were in arms in Africa. Ca3s;ir 
pursued them thithf r, and proceeding with Qaution till secure of his 
advantage, defeated them in a decisive engagement at I'hapsu"! 
Scipio perished in his passage to Spain. Cato, shutting himself up 
m Clica, meditated a brave resistance; but seeing no hope of suc- 
cess, he finally determined not to survive the liberties of his country, 
ind fell deliberately by his own hand. Mauritania was now added 
fo the number of the Roman provinces ; and Caesar returned to 
Rome, absolute master of the empire. 

5. trom that moment his attention was directed solely to the 
prosperity and happiness of tlie Riman people. He remembered 
ao longer that there had been opposite parties ; beneficent aUke to 
ihe friends of Pompey as to his own. He laboured to reform every 
species of abuse or grievance. He introduced order into every de- 
partment of the state, delining the separate rights of all its magistrates, 
and extending his care to the regulation of its most distant provinces. 
The reformation of the kalendar, the draining- of the marshes of 
italy, the navigation of the Tiber, the emhellisliment of Rome, the 
complete survey and delineation of the empire, alteniately ' em- 
ployed his liberal and capacious mind. Returning from the final 
overthrow of Pompey's party in Spain, he was hailed the father of 
his country, was cix^atcd consul for ten years, and perpetual dic- 
tator. His person Wits declared sacred, his title henceforth imperator 
A. U. C. 70y, A. C. 15. 

i 
its 
well 

sentiments 

Cato, others would have ha«l tfie same ambitious thoughts; jmd, 
since the commonwealth w.is fated to fall, there never would have 
been wanting a hand to drag it to destruction. Yet Caesar had by 




ANCIENT HISTORY. 69 

force subdued his country ; and therefore was a usurper. If it had 
6een possible to restore the liberties of the repiiblic, and with these 
Its happiness, by the suppression of his usurpation, the attempt 
would nare merited the pniise at least of good desi^^n. Perhaps so 
thought his murderers; and thus, however weak their policy, how- 
ever base and treacherous their act, they will ever find apologists. 
They expected an impossible issue, as the event demonstrated. 

7. A conspiracy was formed by sixty of the senators, at the head 
of whom were Brutus and Cassius; the former a man beloved of 
Caesar, who had saved his Ufe, and heaped upon him numberles9»*. 
benefits. It was rumoured that the dictator wished to add to^ his 
numerous titles that of king, and that the ides of March was fixed 
on for investing him with the diadem. On that day, when taking 
his seat in the senate-house, he was suddenly assailed by the con- 
spirators. He defended himself for some time against their daggers, 
till, seeing Brutus among the number, he faintly exclaimed, " And 
you, too, my son !" and covering his face with his robe, resigned 
himself to his fate. He fell, pierced by twenty-three wounds, A. U. 
C. 711, and A. C. 43. 

8. The Roman people were struck with horror at the deed. 
They loved Caesar, master as he was of their Uves and liberties. 
Mark Antony and Lepidus, ambitious of succeeding to the power ol 
the dictator, resolved to pave the way by avenging his death. 
Caesar, by his testament, had bequeathed a great part of his fortune 
to the people; and they were penetrated with gratitude to his 
memory. A public harangue by Antony over the bleeding body, ex- 
posed in the forum, inftamed them with the utmost indignation 
against his murderers, who must have met with instant destruction 
if they had not escaped with precipitation from the city. Antony 
profited by these dispositions ; and the avenger of Csssar, of course 
the favourite of the people, was in the immediate prospect of attain- 
ing a similar height of dominion. In this, however, he ibund a for- 
midable competitor in Octavius, the grand-nephew and the adopted 
heir of Caesar, who, at this critical moment, arrived in Rome. 
AvaiUng himself of these titles, Octavius gained the senate to his inter- 
est, and divided with Antony the favour of the people. The rivals 
soon perceived that it was their wisest plan to unite their interests ; 
and they admitted Lepidus into their association, whose power, as 
governor of Gaul, and immense riches, gave him a title to a share 
of authority. Thus was form.ed the second triumvirate, the eifects 
of whose union were beyond measure dreadful to the republic. 
The triumviri divided among themselves the provinces, and cement- 
ed their union by a deliberate sacrifice made by each of his best 
friends to the vengeance of his associates. Antony consigned to 
death his uncle Lucius ; Lepidus his brother Paulus ; and Octaviu? 
his guardian Toranius and his friend Cicero. In this horrible pio 
scription 300 senators and 3,000 knights were put to death. 

9. Octavius and Antony now marched against the conspirators, who 
had a formidable army in the field in Thrace, commanded by Brutus 
and Cassius. An engagement ensued at Philippi, which decided 
the fate of the empire. Antony obtained the victory, for Octavius 
had no military talents. He was destitute even of personal bravery, 
and his conduct after the victory was stained with that cruelty which 
IS ever the attendant of cowardice. Brutus and Cassius escaped ihe 
vengeance of their enemies by a voluntary death. Antony now 
tought a recompense for his troops by the plunder of tlie east 



w ajvcii«:jst history. 

While ioCiliciii, he summoned Clcopatni to answer for her coodact 
in ilethronin^ ;m infant brother, and in openly favouring the party oi 
lirutus and Cassius. Tlie qiicen came to 'J'arsiis, anil made a com- 
pute conquest ol" ilie triumvir, hnnu'ix'd in luxury, and intoxicated 
with love, he Ibr^ot glory, ainltition, tame, and "every thing, lor 
Cleopatni. OctJivius saw this pliren>iy wilii delight, as the nrepara- 
live of his rivars ruin, lie had nothing to dread Irom Lepidus, 
whose insignificant character tiivt drew on him the contempt of his 
partizans; and whose lolly, in allempling an invasion of the province 
of his colleague, was^ punished hy his deposition and hanishment. 

10. AntoLy had in'his iuadne«s luvisheil tlie provinces of the em. 
pire in gifts to his paranjour and h»i children The I{oman people 
were justly indignant at these enormities; and the divorce of his 
wife Octavia, the sister o{ his colleague, was at length the signal ol 
declared hostility between them. An innnense armament, chielly 
naval, came at length to a decisive conllict near Actium, on the 
coast of Epirus. Cleopatra, who attended her lover, deserted hira 
with her galleys in ihe heat of the engagement; and «iuch was the 
inliituation of Antony, that he abandoned his tleet, and followed her. 
After a contest ofsonie hours, they yielded to the squadron of Octavius^ 
A. U. C. 723, A. C. 31. The victor pursued the fugitives to Kgypl; 
and the base Cleopatra proffered terms to Octavius, including the 
surrender of her kingdom, and the abantlonment of Antony. After 
an unsuccessful attempt at resistance, Antony anticipated his liite 
by falling on his sword. Cleopatra soon after, either from reinoi-se, 
or more probably fronr* mortihed ambition, as she found it was Octa- 
vius's design to lead her in chains to Rome to grace his liiumph, had 
courage to follow the example of her lover, and put herself to death 
oy the poison of an asp. Octavius returned to Rome sole master oi 
the Roman empire, A. U. C. 7i27, A. C. 27. 



SECTION XXXV. 

CONSIDERATIONS OF SUCH PARTICULARS AS MARK THE 
GENIUS AND NATIONAL CHARACTER OF THE ROMANS. 

SYSTEM OF ROMAN EDUCATFON. 

1. A viRTLfQUS hut rigid severity oi' manners was the characteristic 
of the Romans under their kings, and in the first ages of the repub- 
lic. The private lite of the cilixens, frugal, temperate, and labori- 
ous, had its intluence on their public character. The [paii-ia py)tc.sius) 
paternal authority gave to every head of a family a sovereign author- 
hy over all the membei^ that composed \t- mid this power, ie\l iis a 
right o'' nature, was never roused. Plutarch has R'nvuke<l, as a defect 
in the Roman laws, that they did not prescribe, as those of Lacedie- 
mon, a system and rules for the education of youth. Hut the tnith 
is, the nianners of the people supplied this want. The utmost at- 
tention was bestowed in the early lormation of the mind ;md chanic- 
tcr. The excellent author of the dialogue De OratorHnis (concerning 
orators) presents a valuable picture of the Roman education in tlie 
early ages of the co.Timon wealth, contrasted with the less virtuous 
pnictice of the more retined ages. The Roman matrons did not 
4oamlon their infants to mercenary nurses. They regarded the 
careful Durture of their ofiG>priug, ihe rudimeoU of theii educatioo, 



ANCIEI^T HISTORl. 71 

and the necessaiy occupaiioua of iheir household, as the highest 
points of female merit. Next to the care bestowed in the instilment 
of virtuous morals, a remarkable degree of attention seems to have 
been given to the iangijage of chiklren, and to the attainment of 
a correctness and purity ol" expression. Cicero informs us that the 
Gracchi^ the sons of Cornelia, were educated, non tain in gnnnio 
qua/n in sennorie inatris^ in the speech more than in the boboin of theij 
mother That urbanity which characterized the Roman citizens 
showed itself particularly in their speech and gesture. 

2. The attention to the language of the youth had another source- 
It was by eloquence, m9re than by any other talent, that the young 
Uoman could rise to the highest othces and dignities of the state. 
The studia forensia {forensic studies) were, therefore, a principal ob- 
ject of the Koman education. Plutarch intbrms us, that among the 
sports of the children at Rome, one was ple;iding causes belore a 
mock tribunal, and accusing and defending a criminal in the usual 
forms of judicial procedure. 

'3. The exercises of the bo<ly were likewise particularly attended 
to; whatever might harden tne temperament, and confer strength 
and agility. These exercises were daily practised by the youth, 
under the eye of their eldere, in the Campus Martius. 

4. At seventeen the youth assumed the manly robe. He was 
consigned to the care of a master of rhetoric, whom he attended 
constantly to the forum, or to the courts of justice; for, to be an 
accomplished gentlenjan, it was necessary for a Roman to be an ac- 
complished orator. The pains bestowed on the attainment of this 
ci»anicter, and the best instructions for its acquisition, we leam from 
the writings of Cicero, Q,uintilian, and the younger Pliny. 



SECTION XXXVI. 



OF THE PROGRESS OF LITERATURE AMONG THE ROMANS. 

1. Before the intercourse with Greece, which took place after 
the Punic wars, the Roman people was utterly rude and illiterate. 
As among all' nations the tirst appearance of the literary spirit is 
shown in poetical composition, tiie Roman warrior liad jjiobably, 
lilc" the Indian or the Celtic, his war songs, which celebrated his 
triumphs in battle. Rehgion likewise employs the earliest poetry 
of most nations; and if a people subsist by agriculture, a plentiful 
harvest is celebrated in the rustic song of the husbandman. The 
versus fescennini {J'escennine verses)^ mentioned by Livy, were probar 
bly of the nature of a poetical dialogue, or alternate verses sung by 
the labourers, in a stnun of coarse merriment and niiilery. This 
shows a dawning of the drama. 

2. About the 390th year of Rome, on occasion of a pestilence, 
lutiion£s (^drolls or stage dancers) were brought from Etruria, qui 
ad (ibicinis modos saltuntes^ hand indecoros inotus more Tosco dubant ; 
who danced to the tunes of a jnusician. and^ in die Tuscan foshion^ exhi- 
bitful inotious that were not ungraceful. Livy tells us that the Roman 
youth imitated these performances, and added to them rude and joc- 
ular verses, probably the fescennine dialogues. The regular drama 
was introduced at Rome from Greece by Livius Aodroaicus, A. U. C 



-2 ANCIK^T mSTOKY. 

514. The earliest K^mian plaj^ wlvc tliercfore, we may presume, 
translations from tlie Greek. 

Et post puuica bflla quietus quaerere coepit, 

Quid Sophocle?, et Thespis, ft iKschylus utile ferrent. 

Hor. Epist. Lib. II, i. 

And bcin^ al peace after the I'uuic wars, the Romans began to inquire 
whit advantages might be derived trom the writin^^s of Sophocles, I'hespit, 
And /Eichjlus. 

3. Of the early Roman drama, Ennius was a great ornament, and 
from his time the art made rapid advancement. The comedies of 
Plauliis, the conlempor.iry of Knnius, witii great strength and spirit 
ol dialogue, display a considerable knowledge of human nature, 
ami are read al this day with pleasure. 

4. Ca^Tilius improved so much oc the comedy of Plantus, that he 
is mentioned by Cicero as perhaps the best of the Koman comic 
writers. Of his compositions we have no remains. His patronage 
fostered the rising genius of Terence, whose lirsl comedy, the Aii- 
dria^ was performed A. U. C. 587. The merit of the comedies of 
Terence lies in that nature and simplicity which are observable in 
the structure of his fables, and m the delineation of his characters. 
'^I'hey are detkient, however, in comic energy ; and are not calcu- 
lated to excite ludicrous emotions. They are chielly borrowed from 
the Greek of Mcnander and Apollodorus. 

5. 'I'he Roman comedy was of four different species : the comeata 
ioo-uta or proftexlata^ the comedia taheniaria. the ailellan(e, and the 
tmmu The lirst admitted serious scenes and personages, and was of 
the nature of the modern sentimental comedy. ^ The second was a 
representation of ordinary life and mannei-s. The a(tellan(£ were 
pieces where the dialogue was not committed to writing, but the 
subject of the scene was prescribed, and the dialogue tilled up by 
the talents of the actors. The miini \vere i)ieces of comedy of the 
lowest species ; farces, or entertainments of buflfoonery ; t(^ougb 
sometimes aflmitting the serious, and even the pathetic. 

6. The Roman tragedy kept pace in its advancement with the 
comedy. The best of the Roman tragic nocls were Actius and 
Pacuvius, of whom we have no remains. '1 he tragedies published 
under the name of Seneca are generally esteemed the work of dil^ 
fcrcnt hands. Thev are none ot' them of superlative merit. 

7. Velleius Paterculus remarks, that the crra of the perfection 
of Roman literature was tiie age of ( icero, comprehending all the 
literary men of the preceding times whom Cicero might have seen, 
and alf those of the succeeding who might have seen him. Ciceio* 
^iuintilian. and Plinv celebrate, in high terms, the writings of the 
zliler Cato, whose principal works were historical, and have entirely 
)erishe(l. We have his fr.igments, de Re Jiustica {on agricvUure)^ in 

l/hirh he was imitated by Varro, one of the ear 'lest of the good 
wnters among the Romans, and a man of universal erudition. Of 
lh<; variety of his talents we may judge, not only from the splendid 
eu.ogium of Cicero, but from the circumstance ot Rliny having re- 
course to his authority in every book of his JNatural Ili>tory. 

8. Sallust, in order of tinie, comes next to Varro. This writer 
lutrotuced an inportant improvement on history, as treated by the 
trreek historians, by applying (as JJionysius oi Huiicaroassus say»^ 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 73 

Ike science of philosophy to the study of facts. Sallust is therefore 

to be considered as the father of philosophic history ; a species of 
writing which has been so successfully cultivated in modern times. 
He is an admirable writer for the matter of his compositions, which 
evince great judf:ment and knowledge of human nature, but by no 
means commendable for his style and manner of writing. He affects 
singularity of expression, an antiquated phraseology, and a petulant 
brevity and sententiousness, which has nothing of the dignity of the 
historical style. 

9. Caesar has much more purity of style, and more correctness 
and simplicity of expression ; but his Commentaries, wanting that 
amplitude of diction and fulness of illustration which is essential to 
hiatory, are rather of the nature of annals. 

10. In all the requisites of a historian, Livy stands unrivalled 
among the Romans ; possessing consummate judgment in the selec- 
tion of facts, perspicuity of arrangement, sagacious reflection, sound 
views of policy, with the most copious, pure, and eloquent expres- 
sion. It has been objected, that nis speeches derogate from the 
truth of history : but this was a prevalent taste with the ancient 
writers ; and as those speeches are Always known to be the compo- 
sition of the historian, the reader is not misled. As to the style of 
Livy, though in general excellent, we sometimes perceive in it, and 
most commonly in the speeches an affectation of the pointed sen- 
tences (the vibrantes sententiolcb) and obscurity of the declaimers, 
which evinces the pernicious influence acquired by those teachers 
at Rome since the time of Cicer:> and Sallust. 

11. In ihe decline of Roman hterature Tacitus is a historian of 
DO common merit. He succes^iully cultivated the method pointer' 
out by Sallust, of applying ph Josophy to history. In this he dis 
plays great knowledge of human nature, and penetrates, with sin- 
guliu- acuteness, into the becret springs of pohcy, and the motives 
<f actions. But bi« fault is, that he is too much of a politician, 
drav;ir;g his characters after the model of his own mind; ever as- 
signing actions and events to preconceived scheme and design, and 
allowing too little for the operation of accidental causes, which often 
have the greatest influence on human affairs. Tacitus, in his style, 
professedly imitated that of Sallust ; adopting all the ancient phra- 
seology, as well as the new idioms introduced into the Roman lan- 
guage by that writer. To his brevity and abruptness he added mos* 
of ihe foults of the declaiming school. His expression, therefore, 
though extremely forcible, is often enigmatically obscure; the 
worst property that style can possess. 

12. Among the eminent Roman poets (after the dramatic^ Lucre- 
tius deserves flrst to be noticed. He has great inequality, oeing at 
some times verbose, rugged, and perplexed, and at others displaying 
all the elegance as well as the tire of poetry. This may be in great 
part attributed to his subject. Philosophical disquisition is unsuitable 
to poetry. It demands a dry precision of thought and expression, 
rejecting all excursive fancy and ornament of diction. That luxuri- 
ance of imagery, which is the soul of poetry, is raving and imper- 
tinence when applied to philosophy. 

13. Catullus, the contemporary of Lucretius, is the earliest of the 
Roman lyric poets. His Epigrams are pointed and satirica\, but too 
licentious; his Idylla tender, natural, and picturesque. He flourished 
in the age of JuUus Caesar. 

14. In the succeeding age of Augustus, poetry attained to its higb- 

G lO 



^4 ANClt:NT HISTORY. 

•St elevation among the Romans. Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and Tibut 
Ills, were all contemporaries. Virgil is allotved the same rank among 
the Roman poets as Homer among the Greek. It Honier excel 
Vircriiin the suhlimc, the latter surpasses the tormer m the tender 
amreletfant. The tnm-cen.Unit merits of Homer. are sulliecl by oc- 
CHHonar defects. \ irgd is the model of a correct taste. I he dit- | 
Terence of matuKT in the HucoKcs, the deorgics, tmd the ^neid, 
shows that Virgil was capable of excelling in various departments ot . 
poetry • and such is the opinion of iMartial, who atlirms that he • 
could hlive surpassed Horace in lyric poetry, and Varius in tragedy. 

\o Horace excels as a Ivric poet, a satirist, and a critic. In his ^ 
ode« there is more variety than in those of either Anacreon or 
Pind<ir. He can alternately displav the sublimity of the latter, and 
the jocose vein of the former. His Satires have that characterisuc % 
slyness and obli(inity of censure, associated with humour and p eas- 1 
antrv, which strongly distinguish them from the stern and cuttmg 
sarcasm of Juvenal. As a critic, his rules are taken chietiy Irom 
Aristotle ; but they contain the elements of a .lUst taste in poetical j 
composition, and therefore do not admit ol variation. The batires 
of Juvenal, compared with those of Horace, are dehcient m tace- , 
tiousness and urbanity ; but they are superior in acuteness ot thought, 
and in manly vigor of sentiment. 

16. In variety of talent, without supreme excellence, and in ease ^ 
and elegance oi' numher-s,' no Roman poet has exceeded Ovid. In j 
his Metamorphoses, particularly, with great fan :y, we have speci- | 
mens of the pathetic, the descriptive, the eloquent, and even the . 
sublime His Elegies have more ol nature and ot real passion, 
than those of either Tii)ullus or Propertius. His anriatory verses j 
have much tenderness, hut are too frequently loose, and even grossi? I 

licentious. , , •*• r rm 1 

17 There is nothing more elegant than the compositions ot ii- ^ 
bullus, nothing more delicate than the turn of his expression; but . 
it is not the language of passion. The sentiments are tender, but ^ 
thekf power of atTecting the heart is weakened by the visible care j 
and solicitude of the poet for retined phraseology and polished num- ; 
bers; nor is there either much fancy or variety ol thought. A sir> j 
ele eleev exhibits the sentiments ot the whole. .. , 1 

18 Martial is the last of the Roman poets who can be mentioned j 
with hi^h approbation. His Epigrams, independent ot iheir art -md i 
ini:enuiFy. are valuable, as thro^ving light upon the Rorn-an mannei-s. 
He possesses, above every other poet, a ;ioii>cfeot expression. ^ 
which ischi3tiy observable in his serious epigrams. He is well char- ■ 
acterized by the younger Pliny. Ingniiosus. acer, et quiin scnbcndoet^ 
sa'is haberetelfellis, nee canJoris minus. Epist. 3. 2 1 . His xTirtn^.* are 
in<remouS and acuti ; ihey possess hummir and satirc,and 7io less candmt. 

To Luxuriance of ornament, and the iondness lor points, and br:l j 
liancy of thought and expression, are certain indicaUons ol the Ce- \ 
dine of good taste. These characters strongly mark the Lai in ^ 
poets of the succeeding ages. Lucan has some scattered examples j 
of genuine poetic imagerv, and Persius some happy strokes ot aio- 
niafed satire ; but they scarcely compensate the atTe ^ted obscnnty 
ol"one, and the bombast of the other. The succeeding poets, Statiws,t 
Silius Italicus, and Valerius Fl.-ccus, in their attempts at the m.et 
dillicult of all species of poetry the epic, have only more signally 
displayed the inferiority of thel* genius, and the manliest decay ol. 



the art 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 76 

SECTION XXXVIL 

STATE OF PHILOSOPHY AMONG THE ROMANS. 

1. The Romans, in the earlier periods of the republic, had little 
leisure to bestcw on the cultivation of the sciences, and had no idea 
of philosophical speculation. It was not till the end of the sixth 
century from the buildiy.g of the city, and in the interval between 
the war with Perseus and the third Punic war, that philosophy made 
its first appearance at Rome. A few learned Acnaeans, banished 
from their country, had settled in various parts of Italy, and apply- 
ing themselves to the cultivation of literature and the education 
of youth, diffused a taste for those studies hitherto unknown to the 
Romans. The elder citizens regarded those pursuits with an unfa- 
vounible eye. Jealous of the introduction of foreign manners with 
foreign studies, the senate banished the Greek philosophers from 
Rome. But an Athenian embassy, arriving soon after, brought 
thither Carneades and Critolaus, who revived the taste for the Greek 
philosophy, and left behind them many able disciples, who publicly 
taught their doctrines. 

2. It was natural that those systems should be most generally 
adopted which were most suitable to the national character. While 
the manners pf the Romans had a tincture of ancient severity, the 
stoical system prevailed. Scipio, Laelius, and the younger Cato rank 
among its chief partisans. 

3. The philosophy of Aristotle was little known in Rome till the 
age of Cicero. At that time Cratippus and Tyrannion taught his 
system with great reputation. Yet Cicero complains that the peri- 
patetic philosophy was little understood at Rome ; and therefore, he 
sent his son to study its doctrines in the schools of Athens. 

4. Lucullus, whose stay in Greece gave him an opportunity ol 
being acquainted with all the different sects, disseminated, on his 
return to Rome, a very general taste for philosophy. His patronage 
of learned men, and his liberality in allowing his libraiy to be open 
for the public use, contributed greatly to tne promotion of litera- 
ture. 

5. The Old and New Academy had each its partisans. Of the 
former, which may be termed the Stoico-Platonic, the most illus- 
trious disciples were Marcus Brutus and Terentius Varro. To the 
philosophical talents of Brutus, and the universal erudition of Varro, 
the writings of Cicero bear ample testimony. Cicero himself must 
be deemed the most eminent oi all the Roman philosophers. He is 
classed among the principal supporters of the New Academy ; 
though it seems to have been his purpose to elucidate the Greek 
philosophy in general, rather than to rank himself among the disci- 
ples of any particular sect. 

6. The cultivation of physics, or natural philosophy, seems te 
have been little attended to either by the Greeks or Romans. Un- 
less agriculture should be classed under this description, we know 
of no Roman authors, except Varro and the elder Pliny, who seem 
to have bestowed much attention on the operations of nature. The 
works of Varro have perished, except a few fragments. The Nat- 
ural History of Pliny is a most valuable store-house of the knowl- 
edge of the ancients in physics, econcsmics, and the arts and' sciences. 



76 -\NCIENT HISTORY. 

It U to be regretted that the style is unsuitable to the matter, being 
too trequently t^orid, declamatory, and obscure. 

7. The |>iulosophy of Epicurus was unknown in the early ages | 
of the Konian commonweaili). It was introduced with luxury, and 
kept pace in its advancement with the corruption of manners. Cin- 
neas having discoursed on the tenets of I'picurus at the table of 
Pyrrhus, 1-abricius exclaimeil. '^May tiie enemies of Rome ever 
entertain such principles I'' Vet these principles wtre. in a short 
time from that period, too current among the citizens of liome. 



SECTION XXXVIII. 

OF THE PUBLIC AND PRIVATE MANNERS OF THE R0MANS.1 

1. Thk manners of the Romans in the early ages of the republic 
were so ditl'erent from tliose of the latter times, that one should be ; 
led to suppose some very extraordinary causes to have co-openited 
to produce so remarkable a change ; yet the transition is easy to be 
accounted for. A spirit of temperance, of frugality, and probity, is \ 
the characteristic of every infant establishment, A virtuous simpli- i 
city of mimncrs, and a rigour of military discipline, paved the way i 
for the extension of the Roman arms, and i'or their prodigious con- j 
quests. These conquest introduced wealth, luxury, and corruption. 

2. In the early times of the r«»public the patricians, when in the 
country, forgot the distinction of ranks, and labo'ired in the caltiva- i 
tion of their fields, like the meanest plebeians. We have the exam- ^ 
plea of Cincinnatus, Curius, the ekler Cato, and Scipio Africanus. 
The town was visited only every ninth day, which was the nmrket 1 
day. In those times of virtuous simplicity, hays Sallust, Doini inilir i 
tixeque honi mores culebanlur. Diiabus arlibus^ audacia in bcllo^ ribi pax \ 
evenerat^ (xquitate^ scque remque publicum curuhant. Good manners were ! 
cultivated both in peace and war. By two mcuns^ valour in it'ar, and 
equity in peace^ t/iey stipporlcd themselves and the commonweaWi. But ■ 
when the Romans had extended their dominion, in consequence of this j 
very discipline and these manners, they imported with the wealth of j 
the conquered nations their tastes, their manners, and their vices. j 

3. The Romans had no natural taste, in the tine arts. On the con- 
quest of Greece an immense lield opened at once to their eyes, and 
the master-pieces of art poured in upon them in abundance. But 
they could not appreciate their excellences. The Roniiin luxury, as < 
far as the arts were concerned, was in general displayed in an i 
awkward, heavy, and tasteless magnificence. ' 

4. The public and private lit'o of the Romans will be beat eluci- 
dated by a short ;vccount of the manner in which the day was pass- | 
ed at Rome, l.>oth, by the liigher and lower ranks of the people. 
By a part ot the citizens the morning houi-s were spent in visiting 
the temples, by others in attending the levees of the great. The 
zlientes (clients) waited on their patroni (patrons) ; the patricians 
visited one another, or paid their compliments to the leaders of the 
republic. h*opularity was always the first object of ambition at 
Rome, jw paving the w ay to all advancement. 1' rom the levee they 
proceeded to the Ibrum, either to assist in the public business, or for 
amusement There the time was spent till noon, which was the 
hour of dinner among the Romans. Thie was chietly a very li«lit 
repast, of which it w^ not customary to invite any guests to pnrtate. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 77 

After dinner the youth repaired to the Campus Martius, where they 
occupied themselves in athletic exercises and sports till sunset The 
elder class retired for an hour to repose, and then passed the after- 
noon in their porticoes, galleries or libraries, where they enjoyed the 
conversation of their friends, or heard recitations of literary works ; 
others repaired to the theatres, or to the shows of the circus and 
amphitheatre. 

5. Combats of gladiators were introduced for the first time about 
the 400th year of the city. These and combats with wild beasts soon 
became a favourite amusement among the Romans. The spirit of 
luxury, which in general is not unfavourable to humanity, showed its 
progress among the Romans by an increasing ferocity and inhumanity 
of the public spectacles. Theatrical entertainments were in high 
request. (Sect. XXXM, § 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.) The taste for pantomime 
came to such a height, that the art was taught in public schools, and 
the nobility and people were divided into parties in favour of the 
rival performers : an abuse which called at length for the interposi- 
tion of the laws. 

6. From the porticoes, or from the theatre and amphitheatre, it was 
customary to go to the baths, of which there were many for the use 
of the public. The rich had baths in their own houses, vying with 
each other in this as in every other article of luxury or magnificence. 
From the bath they went immediately to supper, generally about the 
ninth or tenth hour, counting from sunrise. At table they reclined 
on couches. The luxury of the Roman suppers far exceeded every 
thing known among the mooems. An anteccenium of pickles and 
spices was presented to prepare and sharpen the appetite. Cook' 
ery became a science. The number and costliness of the dishes 
were incredible. The entertainment was heightened by every thing 
gratifying to the senses; by male and female dancers, musicians, 
pantomimes, and even shows of gladiators. 

7. In the end of the republic pleasure and amusement were the 
<larling object of all ranks of the citizens: they sought no more tlian 
paneni et circenses {bread and games in the circus). 



SECTION XXXIX. 

OF THE ART OF WAR AMONG THE ROMANS. 

1 . From the prodigious success which attended the arms oi tne 
Romans, and the dominion which they acquired over the greater 
part of the known world, it seems a natural inference that they must 
nave excelled all the contemporary nations in the military art. Vege- 
tius expressly assigns their extensive conquests to that cause alone 
It is the discipline of an army that makes a multitude act as one miin. 
It likewise increases the courage o& troops ; for each individual con- 
fides in the steady co-operation of his fellows. 

2. From the constant practice of athletic exercises, the Romans 
were inured from infancy to hardiness and fatigue, and bred to that 
species of life, which a soldier leads in the most active campaign io 
the field. 

3. The levies were made annually, by Uie tribes called out, and 
divided into their respective number of centuries; each century pre- 
senting by rotation, as many soldiere as there were legions intended 
to be raised; and the tribunes of the several legions taking their turn 

02 



78 ANCIKNT HlSTOUy. 

by rotation m the selection of the men presented by the centuries 
(Sect. XXi\', § 16.) The number of soldiers in the legion was vari' 
ous at iliffercnt periods, from 3,(XX) to lU,a)U and ll,tXX). 

•I. Among the ancient nations there were usually two diflereut 
arrangements of the troops in onler of battle. One the phalanx, 
or close arrangement in a rectangular form, intei-sected only oy 
^reat divisioiH ; a disposition commonly used by the Greeks, and 
by most of the baibarous nations. The other the quincunx or 
checjuer, consisting of small companies or platoons, liisposed in three 
straight lines, with alternate spaces between the companies equal 
to the ?pace occupied by each company. In the first line were the 
hastaiu, in the second the principes^ and in the third the triurii. On 
the danks of the first line were the cavalry, in detached companies; 
and in front of the line were,' the rc/i/es, or light-armed troops, who 
usually began with a skirmishing attack, and then were withdrawn, to 
make way for the main body to come into action. The advantiigea 
of this arningement were, tbat the line of battle could be three 
times formed with fresh troops, and tbat it >vas more adapted than 
any other for rapid changes of movement. In the Roman legion, 
the arms of the luistati ;\nd princij ts were the pilum or heavy jave- 
Un, and the sword and buckler; and of the triarii, the long spear, 
tvitb the sword and buckler. 

5. Notwithstanding these advantages the quinanix went into disuse 
toward the end of the republic, and from tbat time various arrange- 
ments of the legion were used according to circumstances. Ihe 
Roman tactics are supposed to have boen at their greatest pitch ot 
excellence during the Punic wars. Hannibal w;is a great master of 
the science of tactics ; and the Romans profited by the experience 
ol his ability. The battle of CannaB, as described by rolybius, 
affords signal evidence of the great talents of the Carthaginian gen- 
eral. Tlie description of that battle has been misrepresented by 
Folard ; but it is accurately explained In {\\(^ AU moires MUitaircs oi 
M. Giiiscbardt. If the quincunx disposition had been kept by tlie 
Roman army in that engagement, the event might have been ver^ 
different; tor it wfnild have disappointed the effect of an artful 
manoeuvre j)latmed by Hannibal, on observmg his enemy ""s aniiy 
arranged in the unusual order of the phalanx. 

6. The art oi intrenchment was carried to perfection by the Ro- 
mans, particularly by J uliis Caesar. With 60,000 men he defended 
himselt in his intrenchments before Alexia, while the lines of cir 
cumvallation were attacked by ^40,000 Gauls, and the lines of counter 
vallation by 80,000, witbout effect. I'hese intrenchments consisted 
of a ditch from nine to fifteen feet in depth and width, fenced on the 
inside by the mound of excavated earth, and on the outside by strong 
stakes with pointed branches. 

7. In besieging a town several camps were formed round tlie 
place, joined to one another by lines of circumvallation and coun- 
tervail;! tion. A mound of earth {agger) was raised, beginning by a 
gentle slope from one of the camps, and gradually rising in elevation 
a« it approached the city. The front, where the workmen were 
employed, was defended by a curtiiin of hides fixed on strong posts. 
On this mound the engines of attack, catapuUie and bulisUz^ were 
advanced, till they playea on tiie very spot which the besiegers wish- 
ed to aa«ail. The caUtpulta discharged heavy stones, the haliaUt 
arrows. The same machines were used by the besieged for annoy 
ing tlie enemy. When the engines on the terrace had driven the 



ANCIENT HISTOM. 79 

besieged from the walls, the battering-ram {aries) was then brought 
up under a peot-house Uestudo) ; and, if it once reached the wall, was 
geneially decisive oi' the fate of the town. The main object oi" the 
besiegeclwas therefore to prevent its approach by evor^ j)ower of 
annoyance. Stones, darts, and combustible matters were conlinually 
launched upon the assailants ; and sometimes a mine was dug iVcm 
the city to scoop away the teiTace and all its engines. These arts 
of attack and defence of fortitied places were in general use among 
the nations of antiquity, and continued down to i*iodern times, till the 
mvention of gunpowder. 

8. The naval military art was utterly unknown among the Ro 
mans till the tirst Punic war. A Carthaginian galley was the first 
mo<lel of a vessel of war. hi the space of two months they equipped 
a fleet of 100 gal lies of five banks of oars, and 20 of three banks. 
The structure of those gallies, and the mode of arranging the row- 
ers, may be learned from the ancient sculptures and medals. The 
combatant*: at sea assailed at a distance with javelins, missile com- 
bustibles, and sometimes with cato/^u/^te and balistas; but the serious 
attack was made in boarding, when the vessels were grappled by 
means of a crane let down from the prow. 

9. In the times of the empire, the Homans maintained their distant 
conquests, not only by their armies, uut by their fleets. The ships 
were moored in the large rivers and bays ; and both the legions and 
the fleets generally preserved a fixed station. 



SECTION XL. - 

REFLECTION'S ARISING FROM A VIEW OF THE ROMAS MIS 
TORY DURING THE COMMONWEALTH. 

1. The history of all nations evinces, that there is an inseparable 
connexion between the morals of a people and their political pros- 
perity. But we have no stronger demonstration of this truth than 
the annals of the Roman commonwealth. To limit to republics alone 
the necessity of virtue as a principle, is a chimerical notion, fraught 
with dangerous consequences. Quia leges sine morihus vatut profici- 
unt ? {laws witliout morals avail notking) is a sentiment equally appli- 
cableto all governments; and no political system, however excellent 
its fabnc, can possess any measure of duration, without that power- 
ful cement, virtue, in the principles and manners of the people. (Sect 
XIX, j^ 4.) 

2. The love of our country, and the desire for its rational Hberty, 
are noble and virtuous feelings; and their prevalence is ever a test 
of the integrity of the national morals. But no term has been more 

f)rostitute-d than the word liberty. In a corrupted people the cry for 
ibeity is heard the loudest among the most profligate of the commu- 
nity. With these its meaning has no relation to patriotism ; it im- 
ports no more than the aversion to restraint ; and the personal char- 
acter of the demag(»gue, and the private morals of his disciples, are 
always sufticient to unmask the^ counterfeit. The spirit of patriot- 
ism and a general corruption of manners cannot possibly be coexis- 
tent in the same age and nation. 

3. On the other hand, while the morals of a people are pure, no 
public misfortune is irretrievable, nor any political situation so des- 
perate, that hope may not remain of a favourable change. In such 
situations the spirit of patriotism pervading all ranks ofUie state Will 



CO ANCIENT HISTORY. 

sooD recover the national prosperity. The history of the Roman peo 
pie, and that of the Grecian slates, in various crises, both of honoui 
and of disgrace, affords proofs alilu* of tliis position and of its converse 

4. The national character of the Romans seenis to have under 

fone its most remarkable change for the worse from the time of the 
estruction of their rival, Carthage. Sallust asHgns the cause Jlnte 

Cartha^nein dtletam^ metua hostilis in bonis artibus civitatem rttinebat. 

Sed tibi ilkiforinido mentibus decessit^ scilicet ea qxicz stcxintUt res amant^ 

lascivia ataue mperbia invasere. Before the destruction of Carthage^ 

the fear of their enemy kept the people in the practice of virtue ; but xC'hen 
the restraint if fear ceased to influence their conduct^ they abaiuloned thetur- 
selves to profligacy and arrogance^ the usual concomitants of prosperity. 

5. In the Kist ages of the commonwealth, avarice and ambition^ 
unrestrained by moral principle, were the chief motives of the Ro- 
man conquests, it was suthcient reason lor going to war, that a 
country offered a temnting object to the rapacity and ambition of 
the military leaders. The conquest of Italy paved the way for the 
reduction of foreign nations. Hence the Romans imported, with their 
wealth, the manners, the luxuries, and the vices of the nations which 
they subdued. The generals returned not as tbrmerly, after a suc- 
cessful war, to the labours of the tield, and to a life of temperance 
and industry. They were now the governors of kingdoms and prov- 
inces ; and at the period of their command abroad, disdaining the 
restraints of a subject, they could be satisfied with nothing less than 
sovereignty at home. The armies, debauched by the plunder of 
kingdoms, were completely disposed to support them in all their 
schemes of ambition ; and tiie oopulace, won by corruption, alwayi 
took part with the chief who best could pay for their favour and 
support Force or bribery overruled every election ; and the in- 
haoitimts of distant states, now holding the right of citizens, were 
brought to Rome, at the command of the demagogue, to influence 
any popular contest, and turn the scale in his favour. In a govern- 
ment thus irretrievably destroyed by the decay of those springs 
which supported it, it was of httle consequence by what particular 
tyrant, usurper, or demagogue, its ruin was finally accomplished. 

6. From a consideration of the rise and fall of the principal states 
of antiquity, it has been a commonly received opinion, that the con- 
stitution of empires has, like the human body, a period of growth, 
maturity, decline, and extinction. But arguments from analogy are 
extremely deceitful, and particularly so when the analogy is from 
physical to moral truths. The human body is, from its fabric, natu- 
rally subject to decay, and is perpetually undergoing a change from 
time. Its organs, at first weak, attain gradually their perfect 
strength, and thence, by a similar gradation, proceed to decay and 
dissolution. This is an immutable law of its nature. But the springs 
of the body politic do not necessarily undergo a perpetual cnange 
from time. It is not regularly progressive from weakness to strongtl, 
and thence to decay and dissolution ; nor is it under the influence 
of any principle of corruption which may not be checked, and even 
eradicated, by wholesome laws. Thus the beginning of the cor- 
ruption of Sparta is attributed to Lysander's breach of the institu- 
tions of Lycurgus, in introducing gold into the treasury of tlie state 
instead of its iron money. But wiis this a necessary, or an unavoid 
able measure ? Perhaps a single vote in the senate decreed its adop- 
tion, and therefore another suflrage might have prevented, or long 
postponed, the downfal of the commonwealth. The Roman repul>» 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 81 

fie owed its dissolution to the extension of its dominions. If it had 
been a capital crime for any Roman citizen to have proposed to 
carry the arms of the republic bevond the limits of Italy, its consti- 
tution might have been preserved tor many ages beyond the p<:riod 
of its actual duration. ''Accustom your mmd," said Phocion to 
Aristias, "to discem^in the fate of nations, that recompense which 
the great Author of nature has annexed to the practice of virtue. 
No state ever ceased to be prosperou«, but in consequence of having 
departed from those institutions to which she owed her prosperity.^ 
History indeed has shown that all states and empires have had their 
period of duration ; but history, instructing us in the causes which 
nave produced their decline and fall, inculcates also this salutary 
lesson, that nations are fn general the masters of their own destiny, 
and that they may, and most certamly ought to, aspire at immortality. 
7. It was a great desideratum in ancient politics, that a government 
should possess within itself the power ol periodical retbrmalion ; a 
capacity of checking any overgrowth of authority in any of its 
branches, and of winding up the machine, or bringing back the con- 
stitution to its first principles. To the want of such a power in the 
states of antiquity (which they inefiectually endeavoured to supply 
by such partial contrivances as the ostracism and petalism) we may 
certainly ascribe, in no small degree, the decay of those states ; lor 
in their governments, when the balance was once destroyed, the 
evil grew worse from day to day, and admitted no remedy but a 
revolution, or entire change of the system. The British constitu- 
tion possesses this inestimable advantage over all the governments 
both of ancient and modem times, with the single exception of tho 
government of the United States of America, besides the perpetua* 
power of reform vested in parliament, the constitution may be puri- 
faed of every abuse, and brought baclPto its first principles, at the 
commencement of every reign. But of this we shall afterwards 
treat in its proper place. 



SECTION XLI. 
ROME UNDER THE EMPERORS. 

1. The battle of Actium decided the fate of the commonwealtn, 
*nd Octavius, now named Augustus, was master of the Roman 
empire. He possessed completely the sagacity of discerning what 
character was best fitted for gaining the affections of the people 
whom he governed, and the vei'satility of temper and genius to as- 
sume it. His virtues, though the result of policy, not of nature, were 
certainly favourable to the happiness, and even to the liberties of 
his subjects. The fate of Caesar warned him of the insecurity of a 
U8ur})ed dominion ; and therefore, while he studiously imitated the 
engaging manners and clemency of his great predecessor, he affect- 
ed a much higher degree of moderation, and respect for the rights of 
the people. 

2. The temple of Janus was shut, which nad been open for 188 
years, since the beginning of the second Punic war ; an event pro- 
ductive of universal joy. ''The Romans (says Condillac) now be- 
lieved themselves a free people, since they liad no longer to fight for 
their liberty." The sovereign kept up this delusion, by maintaining 
the ancient forms of the republican constitution, in the election of 

11 



Hi ANCIENT HISTORY. 

magistrates, &c., though they were nothing more than fomw. Bl 
evoi> preleiKled to consider his own function :is merely a temporary 
administration for the public benefit. Invested with the consulate 
and censorship, he went through the regular forms of periodical 
election to those othces, and at the end ot the seventh year of his 
government actually announced to the senate his resignation of all 
authority. The coasequence was a gene nil supplication of the sen- 
ate and people, that he would not abandon the republic, which he 
had saved from destruction. " Since it must be so," said he, " I accept 
the empire for ten years, unless the public tnmquillity shall, before 
the expiration of that time, permit me to enjoy retirement, which 
I passionately long for." He repeated the same mockery tive times 
in the course of his government, accepting the administration some- 
times for ten, and sometimes only for hve years. 

3. It was much to the credit of Augustus, that in the government 
of the empire he reposed unlimited confidence in Mecaenas, a most 
able minister, who had sincerely at heart the interest and happiness 
of the people. By his excellent counsels all public aflfairs were con- 
ducted, and the most salutary laws enacted for the remedy of public 
grievances, and even the correction of the morals of the people. 
Tj his patronage literature and the arts owed their encouragement 
and advancement. By his influence and wise instructions Augustus 
assumed those virtues to which his heart was a stranger, and 
which, in their tendency to the happiness of his suhjccts were 
equally effectual as if they had been the genuine fruits of his nature. 

4. On the death of Marcellus, the nephew and son-in-law of Au- 
gustus, and a prince of great hopes, 23 A. C, the emperor bestowed 
his chief favour on Marcus Agrippa, giving him his daughter Julia, 
the widow of Marcellus, ia marriage. Agrippa had considerable 
military talents, and was succlssful m accomplishing the reduction of 
?pa'5»> and subduing the revolted provinces of Asia. Augustus as- 
sociated Agrippa with himself in the office of censor, and would prob- 
ably have given him a share of the empire, if his death had not 
occasioned a new arrangement. Julia now took for her third husband 
Tiberius, who became the son-in-law of the emperor by a double 
tie, tor Augustus had previously married his mother Li via. This 
artiul woman, removing all of the imperial family who stood betwixt 
her and the object of her ambition, 'thus m;ule room for the succes- 
sion of her son Tibeiius, who^ on his part, bent all his attention to gain 
the favour and confidence ot Augustus. On the return of Tiberius 
from a successful campaign against the Germans, the people were 
m;ule to solicit the emperor to confer on him the government of the 
provinces and the command of the armies. Augustus now gradually 
withdrew himself from the cares of empire. He died soon atler at 
Nola, in Campania, in the 7(3th year of liis age, and the 44th of his 
imperial reigti, A. U. C. 767, and A. D. 14. 

5. A consi.lerable part of the lustre thrown on the reign of Augus- 
tus is owing to the splendid colouring bestowed on his character by 
the poets and other authors who adorned his court, and repaid his 
favours by their adulation. Other sovereigns of much higher merit* 
have been less fortunate in obtaining the applause of posterity. 

Illacrymabiles 

Urg^uentur, i»notiquc, lon*a 

Nocte, carent quia vate sacro. HoR. Car. Lib. IV, 9. 
Unlamenied and unknown they sink into oblivion, becauw they have do 
inspired bard to celebrate their praise. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 8^ 

One great event distinguished the reign of Augu«?tTis, the birtli of 
Dur Lord and Saviour Jtsus Christ, nliich, according to the be^f 
authorities, happened A. U. C. 754, and Ibur years before the vulgai 
date of the christian icra * 

6. Augustus had named Tiberius his heir, together with his moth- 
er Livia; and had substituted to them Drusus, the son of Tiberius» 
and Germanicus. Tiberius was vicious, debauched, and cruel ; ye' 
the ver> dread of* his character operated in securing an easy suc- 
cession to the empire. An embassy from the senate entreated hinn 
to accept the government, which he modestly affected to decline, 
but suffered himself to be won by their supplications. Notivithstiuid- 
ing these symptoms of moderation, it soon appeared that the power 
enjoyed by his predecessor was too limited for the ambition of Ti- 
berius. It was not enough that the substance of the republic was» 
gone ; the very appearance of it was now to be demolished. Thf* 
people were no longer assembled, and the magistrates of the state 
were supplied by the imperial will. 

6. Germanicus, the nephew of Tiberius, became the object of his 
jealousy, from the glory which he had acquired by his military ex- 
ploits in Germany, and the high favour in which he stood with the 
Koman people, lie was recalled in the midst of his successes, and 
despatched to the oriental provinces, where he soon after died; and it 
was generally believed that he was poisoned by the emperor's com- 
mand. 

7. iElius Sejanus, praslect of the praetorian guards, the favourite 
counsellor of Tiberius, and the obsequious minister of his tyranny 
and crimes, conceived the daring project of a revolution, whicn 
•hould place himself on the throne, by the extermination of the whole 
imperial family. Drusus, the son of the emperor, was destroyed by 
poison. Agrippina, the widow of Germanicus, with her elder son, 
was banished ; and the younger son was confined in prison. Tibe- 
rius wi\s persuaded by Sejanus, under the pretence ol the discovery 
of plots for his assassination, to retire from Home to the Isle of 
Capreae, and devolve the government upon his faithful minister. 
But while Sejanus, thus far successful, meditated the last step to the 
accomplishment of his wishes, by the murder of his sovereign, his 
treason was detected; and the emperor despatched his mandatetothe 
senate, which was followed by his immediate sentence and execution. 
The public indignation was not satisfied with his death . the populace 
tore his body to pieces, and fiung it into the Tiber. 

8. Tiberius now became utterly negligent of the cares of govern- 
ment, and the imperial power was displayed only in public execu- 
tions, confiscations, and scenes of cruelty and rapine. At length the 
tyrant flilling sick was strangled in his bed by Macro, the praetect of 
the praetorian guards, in the 78th year of his age, and the 23d of hia 
reign. 

9. In the 1 8th year of Tiberius, our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, 
the divine author of our religion, suffered death upon the cross, a 
sacrifice and propitiation for the sins of mankind, A. D. 33. 

10. Tiberius had nominated for his heir, Caligula the son of Ger- 
manicus, his grandson by adoption ; and had joined with him Tibe- 
rius the son ofDrusus, his grandson by blood. The former enjoyed, 
on his father''s account, the favour of the people ; and the senate, to 

'^ See Dr. Playfaifs System of Chronolo^i^y, p. 49, 50, a work of gjeat 
eseHrr!'. an 1 nrr.irficy. niifl hr f^r the bfst***-* that fubjcct. 



84 AJNUIEJNT HISTOKV. 

mtifr them, set asiile the right of his collongue, and conferred on 
him the empire undivided. The commencement of his reign was 
signalired by a few acts of clemency, and eren good policy. He 
restored the privileges of the comitia, and abolished arbitrai7 prose- 
cutions for crimes of state. But, tyrannical and cruel by nature, he 
substituted military execution for legal punishment. The provinces 
were loaded with the most oporcssive taxes, and dailj contisciitions 
filled the imperial coffers. T. he follies ami absurdities of Caligula 
were equal to his vices, and it is hard to say whether he was most the 
object of hatred or ot contempt to his subjects. He perished bj 
assassination in the fourth year of his reign, the twenty-ninth of his 
age, A. U. C. 794, A. D. 42. 

11. Claudius, the uncle of Caligula, was saluted emperor by tlie 
praetorian guards, who had been the murderers of his nephew. He 
was the son of Octavia, the sister of Augustus ; a man of weak in- 
tellects, and of no education. His short reign was marked by an 
enterprise of importance. He undertook the reduction of Britain, 
and after visiting the island in person, left his generals, Plautius and 
Vespasian, to prosecute a war which was carried on for several years 
with various success. The Silures or inhabitants of South Wales, 
under their king Caractacus (Caradoc), made a brave resistance, but 
were finally defeated ; and Caractacus was led captive to Rome, 
where the magnanimity (f his demeanour procured him respect ana 
admiration 

12. The civil administration of Claudius was wo;\k and contempt- 
ible. He was the slave even of his domestics, and the dupe of hi« in- 
famous wives Messalina ana Agrippina. The formei. abandoned to 
the most shameful profligacy, was at length but to death on suspi- 
cion of treasonable designs. The latter, who was the daughter ol 
Grermanicus, bent her utmost endeavours to secure the succession to 
the empire to her son Domitius Oenobardus, and emplDyed every 
engine of vice and inhumfinity to remove the obstacles to the accom- 
plishment of her wishes. Having at length prevailed on Claudius to 
adopt her son, and confer on him the title of Caesar, to the exclusion 
of his own son Britannicus, she now made room for the immediate 
elevation of Domitius. by poisoning her husband. Claudius whm 
put to death in the 15th year of his reign, and the 63d cf his age. 



SECTION XLll. 

/ 1. The son of Agrippina assumed ihc title ol' Nero Claudius. He 
had enjoyed the beneht of a good education under the philosopher 
Seneca, but reaped from his instructions no other fruit than a pedan- 
tic affectation of taste and learning, with no real pretension to either. 
While controled by his tutor Seneca, and by Burrhus, captain of 
the praetorian guards, a man of worth and ability, Nero maintained 
for a short time a decency of public conduct ; l)ut the restraint was 
intolerable, and nature soon broke out. His real cJiaracter was a 
compound of every thing that is base and inhuman. In the murder 
of his mother Agrippina ho revenged the crime which she had 
committed in raising him to the throne ; he rewarded the fidelity 
of Burrhus, by poisoning him ; and as a last kindness to his tutor 
Seneca, he allowed him to choose the mode of his death. It was his 
darling musement to exhibit on the stage and amphitheatre as an 



ANCIENT HISTOKV. 85 

actor, masician. or gladiatoi. At length, become the object ot 
universal ha^reu and contempt, a rebellion of his subjects, headed by 
V^index. an illustrious Gaul, hurled this monster from the throne. 
He had not courage to attempt resistance ; and a slave, r.t his own 
request, despatched him with a dagger. Xero perished in the 30th 
year of his age, after a reign of fourteen years. A. D. 69. 

2. Gralba, the successor of Xero, was ot an ancient and illustriois 
family. He was in the 73d year of his age when the senate, ratify- 
ing the choice of the pnetorian bands, proclaimed him einperoi 
But an impolitic rigour of discipline soon disgusted the army ; the 
avarice of his disposition, grudging the populace their favourite 
games and spectacles, deprived him of their affections; and some 
miquitous prosecutions and contiscations excited general discontent 
and mutiny. Galba, adopted and designed for his successor the abk 
and virtuojs Piso; a measure which excited the jealousy of Otho, 
his former favourite, and led him to iorm the daring plan of raising 
himself to the throne by the destruction of both. He found the 
praetorians apt to his purpose. They proclaimed him emperor, and 
presented him, as a grateful ofifering. the head? of Galba and t*iso, 
who were slain in quelling the insurrection. Galba had reigne 
seven months. Major prnato visus^ dum prhatus fuiu et ouinium coth 
setisu capax imperii, nisi i/nperasset. Tacitus. He appeared to be grtaier 
Uuin a private man. xvhile he xi:as in a prizaie station ; and by the consent 
of ail u'cw capable nf governing, if he had not governed. 

3. Otho had a tormidable rival in \'itellius, who ha J been pro- 
claimed emperor by his army in Germany. It is hard to say which 
of the competitors was. in point of abilities, the more despicable, or 
in character the more infamous. A decisive battle was fought at 
Bedriacum, near Mantua, where Otho was defeated, and in a fit of 
despair ended his life by his own hand after a reign of three months, 
X. D. 70. 

4. The reign of Vitellius was of eight months' doration. He is 
said to have proposed Nero for bis model, and it was just that he 
should resemble him in his fate. Vespasian had obtained from N'iro 
the charge of the war against che Jews, which he had conducted 
with ability and success, and %% jis proclaimed emperor by his troops 
in the east A great part of Italy submitted to \'espasian"s generals ; 
and Vitellius meanly capitulated to save his life, by a resignation of 
the empire. The people, indignant at his dastardly spirit, compelled 
him to an effort of resistance ; but the attempt wiis fruitless. Priscus, 
OQ3 of the generals of Vespasian, took possession of Rome ; and 
Vitellius was massacred, and his body flung mto the Tiber. 

3. \ espasian, though of mean descent, was worthy of the empire, 
iftul reined with high populariiy lor ten years. He possessed great 
clemency of disposition. His manners were affable and engaging, 
arwd his mode of life was characterized by simplicity and Irugality. 
He respected the ancient forms of the constitution, restored the sen- 
ate to its deliberative rights, and acted by its authority in the admirv 
istiation of all public atoirs. The only blemish in his character was 
a tincture of avarice, and even that is greatly extenuated bv the 
laudable and patriotic use which he made of his revenues. C'nder 
his reign, and by the arms of his son Titus, was terminated the war 
against the Jews. They had been brought under the yoke of Rome 
t>v Pompey, who took Jerusalem. They were governed for some 
UrTie by Herod, as viceroy under Augustus. The tyranny of his son 
Archefaus >vasthe cause 'of his banishment, and of the reduction of 
H 



8G A^•C1ENT HISTORY. 

Tu«'aea into the ordinary condition of a Roman province. The. Jews 
rel 3lled on every slight occasion, and Nero had sent Vespasian to 
re( uce them to order. He had just prepared for the siege of Jeru- 
sal m, when he was called to Rome to assume the government of the 
en pire. Titus wished to spare the city, and tried every means 
to prevail on the Jews to surrender; hut in vain. Their ruin was 
de .reed hy Heaven. After an ohstinate hlockade of six months 
J€ -usalcm was taken by storm, the temple burnt to ashes, and the 
ci f buried in ruins. The Roman empire was now in profound 
p« ice. \ espiisian associated Titus in the imperial dignity, and 
!«o-jn after died, universally lamented, at the age of sixty-nine, A. 
D. 79. 

6. The character of Titus was humane, munificent, dignified, and 
splendid. His short reign was a period of great happiness and 
prosperity to the empire, and his government a constant example o( 
virtue, justice, and beneficence. In his time happened that dreadful 
firuption of Vesuvius, which overwhelmed the cities of Herculaneum 
*nd Pompeii. The public losses from these calamities he repaired 
by the sacrifice of his fortune and revenues. He died in tlie third 
vear of his reign, and fortieth of his age ; ever to be renumbered 
oy that most exalted epithet, deucicE hurnani generis {the delight of 
rnankini). 

7. Domitian,the brother of Titus, was suspected of murdering him 
by poison, and succeeded to the empire, A. D. 81. He was a vicious 
and inhuman tyrant. A rebellion in Germany gave him occasion to 
signalize the barbarity of his disposition; and its consequences were 
long felt in the sanguinary punisnmcnts inllicted under the pretence 
of justice. The prodigal and voluptuous spirit of this reign was a 
singular contrast to its tyranny and inhumanity. The people were 
loaded with insupportable taxes to furnish spectacles and games for 
their amusement. The successes of Agricola in Britain threw a 
lustre on the Roman arms, no partof whicn reflected on the emperor, 
for he treated this eminent commander with the basest ingratitude. 
After fifteen tedious years this monster fell at last the victim of assas- 
sination, the empress herself conducting the plot for his murder, A 
D. 96. 

8. Cocceius IServa, a Cretan by birth, was chosen emperor by the 
senate, from respect to the probity and virtues of his character, 
lie was too old tor the burden of government, and of a temper too 
placid for the restraint of rooted corruptions and enormities. His 
reign was weak, ineflicient, and contemptible. His only act of real 
merit as a sovereign, was the adoption ol'the virtuous Tnijan as his 
ajKxesyor. Nerva died after a reign of sixteen months, A. D. 98. , 

9. Ulpius Trajanus possessed every talent and every virtue that 
can adorn a sovereign. Of great military abilities, and an indefatiga- 
ble spirit of enterprise, he raised the Roman arms to their ancient 
splendour, and greatly enlarged the boundaries of the empire. He 
subdued the Dacians, conquered the Parthians, and brought under 
subjection As.syria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia FeUx. Nor was he less 
eminent in promotuig the happiness of his subjects, and the internnl 
prosperity of the empire. His largesses were humane and munifi- 
cent He was the friend and support of the virtuous indigent, and 
the liberal patron of ever>' usefiil art and talent. His bounties wen- 
eupnlied by well judged economy in his private fortune, arid a wis<*. 
tiihumistralioi) of the public finances. In his own life he wa« a man 
of simple rn^uuiPi-s. njodest, affable, fond of the familiar i;irfir.>f!!«r 



ANCIEjST H13T0KV 8l 

of his friend?, and sensible to all the social nnd bcnevofenf jfflectons. 
He merited the surname universally bestowed on him, Trajowis 
Optimus. He died at the ige of sixty-throe, after a glorious rei^nuf 
nineteen years, A. D. 118. 

10. iElius Adrianus, nephew of Trajan, and worthy to fill his place, 
was chosen emperor by the army in the east, and his tit'.e ivas 
jicknowledgcd by all orders of the slate. He adopted a ^licy MiTer- 
ent from that of his predecessor. Judging the limits of the f mpire 
too extensive, he abandoned all the conquests of Trajan boi aiding 
the eastern provinces by the Euphrates. He visited in person all the 
provinces of the empire, reforming in his progress all abuseei, reliev- 
ing his subjects of every oppressive burden., rebuilding tho ruined 
cities, and establishing every where a regular and mild adi ministra- 
tion, under magis'.rates of approved probity and humanity. ] fe gave 
!i discharge to the indigent debtor's ot the state, and appointed liberal 
institutions for the education of the children of the poor. To the 
talents of an able politician he joined an excellent taste in tho liberal 
\\vl<. His reign, which was of twenty-two yeare' duration, was an aera 
both of public happiness and splendour. In the last year of his Mfe 
he bequeathed to the empire a double legacy, in adopting for his 
immediate successor Titus Aurelius Antoninus, and substitu ing An- 
nius Verus to succeed upon his death. These were the Anionines, 
vvho during forty years ruled the Roman empire with consummate 
wisdom, ability, and virtue. Adrian died A. D. 138, at the age of 
sixty-two. 

SECTION XLlll. 

AGE OF THE ANTO NINES, &c. 

1. Thf happiest reigns furnish the fewest ^events lor the pen of 
History. Antoninus was the father of his people. He preferred 
peace to the ambition of conquest ; yet in every necessai >-' war 
the Roman arms had their wonted renown. The British province 
wns enlarged by the c nquests of Urbicus, and some formidable 
rebellions were subdued i'n Germany, Dacia, and^ the east. The 
domestic administration of Vac sovereign was dignified, splendid, and 
humane. With all the virtues of Numa, his love of religion, peace, 
and justice, he had the superior advantage of diffusing these blessings 
over a great portion of the world. He died at the age of seventy- 
four, after a reign of twenty-two years, A. D. 161. 

2. Annius Verus assumecl, at his accession, the name of Marcus 
Aurelius Antoninus, and bestowed ou liis brother Lucius Verus a joint 
administration of the empire. The former was as eminent for the 
worth ani] virtues of his character, as the latter was remarkable ibr 
proHigacy, meanness, and vice. iVIarcus Aurelius was attached botl 
by nature and education to the Stoical philosophy, which he has ;ul 
niirably taught and illustrated in his Mexlitaiions. His own life w:i> 
the best commentary on his precepts. The Parthians were repulsed 
in an attack upon the empire, and a rebellion of the Germans wn«^ 
subdued In these wars the mean and wor< bless Verus brought di* 
grace upon the Roman name in every region where he commanded 
but foit^nately relieved the empire of its fears by an early death. 
The residue of the reign oi' Marcus Aurelius was a continued ble.ss- 
mg to his subjects. He reformed the internal policy of the state, 
regulated the government of the provinces, and visited himself, for 



88 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

(he purposes of beneficence, the most distant quarters of his domin- 
ions. "He iippeared," s;ivs an ancient author, " like some benevo- 
lent deity, diffusing ;iroun(l him universal peace and happiness." He 
died in Pannonia, in the 59th year of his age, and 1 9th of his reign. 
A. D. 180. 

3. Commodus, his most unworthy son, succeeded to the empire 
on his death. He resembled in character his mother l*"austina, a 
woman infamous for all manner of vice. Her protligacy was known 
to all but her husband Marcus, by whom she was regarded as a para- 

f'.tm ol virtue. Commodus had an aversion to every rational and 
iberal pursuit, and a fond attachment to the sports of the circus and 
amphitheatre, the hunting of wild beasts, and the combats of boxers 
anil gladiators. The measures of this reign were as unimportant as 
the character of the sovereign was contemptible. His concubine and 
some of his chief ofhrers prevented their own destruction by assas- 
sinating the tyrant, in the 32d year of his age, and 13th of his 
reign, A. D. 193. 

4. The praEtorian guards gave the empire to Publius Helvius 
Pertinax, a man of mean birth, who had risen to esteem by his vir- 
tues and military talents. He applied himself with zeal to the cor- 
rection of abuses; but the austerity of his government deprived him 
of the affections of a corrupted people. He had disappointed the 
army of a promised reward, and, after a reign of eignty-six days, 
was murdered in the imperial palace by the same hands whicli had 
placed him on the throne. 

5. The empire was now put up to auction by the praetorians, and 
was purchased by Didius Julianus ; while Pescenius Niger in Asiji, 
Clodius Albinus in Britain, and Septimius Severus in lllyria, were 
each chosen emperor by the troops which they commanded. Se- 
verus marched to Rome, and, on his approach, the praetorians aban- 
doned Didius, who Had failed to pay the stipulated price for his ele- 
vation : and the senate formally deposed to put him to death. Seve- 
rus being now master of Rome, prepared to reduce the provinces 
which had acknowledged the sovereignty of Niger and Albinus. 
These two rivals were successively subdued. Niger was slain in 
battle, and Albinus fell by his own hands. The administration of Se- 
verus was wise and equitable, but tinctured with despotic rigour. 
It was his purpose to erect the fabric of absolute monarchy, and all 
his institutions operated with able policy to that end. He possessed 
eminent military talents. He gloriously boasted, that, having re- 
ceived the empire oppressed with foreign and domestic wars, he left 
it in profound, universal, and honourable peace. He carried with 
him into Britain his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, whose unpromis- 
ing dispositions clouded his latter days. In this war the Caledonians 
under Fingal are said to have defeated, on the banks of the Carron, 
(Mrcicul^ the son of the king of the world. Severus died at York, in 
:he 6(.Uh year of his age, after a reign of eighteen yeai"s, A. D. 211. 

6. The mutual hatred of Caracalla and Geta was increased by 
their association in the empire ; and the former, with brutal inhu- 
manity, caused his brother to be openly murdered in the arms of his 
mother. His reign, which was of six years' duration, and one con- 
tinued series of atrocities, was at length terminated by assassination, 
AD. 217. 

7. Those disorders in the empire which began with Commodus 
continued for about a century, till the accession of Diocletian. That 
interval was filled by the reigns of Heliogabalus, Alexander Severus, 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 69 

Maiimin* Gordian, J)ecius, Gallus. Valerianus, Gallienus, Claudius, 
Aurelianus, Tacitus, Probus, and Canis ; a period of which the an- 
uaU tumish neither auiu^ment nor useful intormatioo. The single 
excepiioQ i< the reign of Alexander Severus, a mild, beneticent, ;ind 
euligntened prince, who^ character shines the more from the coa- 
trast of those who preceded and followed him. 

8. Diocletian began his reign A. D. 284, and introduced a new 
system of administration, dividing the empire into four govenmients, 
under as many princes. Maximian shared with him the title of 
Augustus, and Galerius an.'.Constantius were declared CcEsars. Eiich 
ha(f his separate department or province, all nominally supreme, but 
in reality under the direction of the superior talents and authority of 
Diocletian : an unwise policy, which depeoJed for its ediicacy on 
individual ability alone. Diocletian and Maximian, trusting to the 
ccHitinuance of that order in the empire which their vigour had 
established, retired from sovereignty, and left tiie government in the 
hands of the Caesars; but Constantius died soon after in Britain, and 
his son Constantine was proclaimed emperor at York, though Gale- 
rius did not acknowledge his title. Maximifin, however, having once 
more resumed the purple, bestowed on Constimtine his daughter in 
marriage, and thus invested him with a double title to empire. On 
the death of Maximian and G-alerius. Coa-tantine had no other com- 
petitor but Maxentius, the son of the ibrmer, and the contest bet^veen 
them was decided by the sword. Maxentius fell in battle, and Geo- 
stantine remained sole master of tlie empire. 

9. The administration of Constantine ^vas, in the beginning of bis 
reign, mild, equitable, and politic. Though zealously attached to 
the christian faith, he made no violent innovations on the religion of 
the state. He introduced order and economy into the civil govern- 
ment, and repressed every species of oppression and corruption. 
But his narvirai temper was severe and cruel, and the latter part of 
his reign was as much det'ormed by intolerant zeal and sanguinary 
rigour, as the iormer had been remarkable for equity and benignity. 
From this unfavourable change of character he lost 'the affections of 
his subjects ; and, from a feeling probably of reciprocal disgust, he 
removed the seat of the Romjm empire to Bvzantium, now termed 
Constantinople. The court followed the sovereign; the opulent 
proprietors were attended by their slaves and retainers. Rome was 
m a few years greatly depopulated, and the new capital swelled at 
ooce to enormous magnitiide. It was characterized by eastern 
splendour, luxury, and roluptuousness : and the cities of Greece 
were despoiled tor its embellishments. Of the internal policy of 
the empire we shall treat in the next section. In an expediii-m 
against the Persians, Constantine died at Nicomedia, in the 50th 
year of his reign, and oSd of his age, A. D. 337. In the Uioe of 
Constantine the Goths had made several irruptions on the empire, 
and, though repulsed and beaten, began gradually to encroach on 
ihe proyinces. 

H2 12 




^ ANCIENT HISTORY. 



SECTION XLIW 

STATE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT THE TIME OF CON- 
STANTINF. HIS SUCCESSORS. 

1. In lieu of tho ancient republican tli^itinctions, which were 
founded cfuctly on personal merit, a rigid suboniinalion of rank and 
office now went through all the orders of the sUite. The magw- 
trates were divided into three chisso^, distinguished hy the ur mean- 
ing titles ot, l.thc illustrious; 2, the respectable; 3, the cUirUsmd, 
Ihe epithet ol lUustrimis was bestowed on, 1. the consuls and patri- 
cians; 2, the praetorian prtpfects of Rome and Constantinople ; 3, the 
masters-general of the cavalry and infantry ; 4, the seven ministers 
ot the palace. Tho consuls were created by the sole authority ol 
the empcrcr: their digniiy was ine(h<:iei.t ; ihey had no appropriate 
function m the state, and their names served only to give the legal 
date to the year. The dignity of patrician w:is not, as in ancient 
times, a hereditary distinction, but was bestowed, ;is a title of honour, 
by the emperor on his tavouriles. From the time of the abolition of 
the pi-aetorian bands by Constantino, ihe digniiy of prsetorian pra&. 
lect was conferred on the civil governoi-s of the" four departments of 
the empire. These were, the East, lilyria, Italy, and the Gauls. 
Itiey had the supreme adininislr.ilion of justice and of the limmces, 
the power of supplying all llie inferior magistracies in their district, 
and an appellative juiisdiction Irom all iis tribunals. Independent 
ot their authority, Rome and Constantinople had each its own prav 
feet, who was the chief magistrate of tht; city. In the second class- 
the respectable, were the proconsuls of Asia, Achaia. and Africa, 
and the military comite^ and t/ucti, generals of' ihe imperial armies. 
The tliird cl;iss, chri:>stini^ comprehended the inferior goveniors 
and naagistrates of the provinces, responsible to the prasfects and 
their deputies. 

2. The intercoui-se between the court and provinces was main- 
t-uned by the construction of roads, and the institution of regular 

Costs or couriers; under wMch denomination were ranked tlie nuni- 
erless spies ol government, whose dutv was to convey all sort of 
intelhgence from the remotest qujirter'of the empire to its chief 
seat. Every institution was calculated to support the fabric of des- 
potism. Torture was employed for the discovery of crimes. Taxes 
and impositions of .ner^ nature were prescribed and levied by the 
sole authority of the emperor. The quantity and rate were fixed by a 
census made over all the jTovinces, and part w;is generally paicf in 
mone;j-. part in the prodtice of the lands; a burden frequently found 
80 grievous as to prompt to the neglect of agriculture. Every ol>- 
joct of merchandise and nianulactuie was likewise higl.ly taxed. 
Subsidies, moreover, were exacted from all the cities, under the 
name of free git'ts, on various occiisions of public concerns ; as the 
acces.«ion of an emperor, his consulate, the birth of a prince, a victory 
over the barbarians or an> other event of similar importance. 

3. An impolitic disiincliun was made !«etween the tjoops stationed 
in tne distant i)rovinces and Ihose'in the heai1 of the empire. The 
latter, termed palatines^ enjoyed a higher pay and more peculiar 
favour, and, having less employment, spent their Ume in idlenefw and 
luxury : while the former, termed the borderers^ who, in fact, had the 



.\.NC1ENT IIISTUKY f>l 

febne of the empire, aod were exposed toperj^etual hard service, had, 
with an inferior reward, the mortitication of feeling thenwelres re- 
garded as of meaner niok than their fellow -soldiers. Con«t;mtine like- 
wise, from a timid policy of guarding against mutiiJes of the troops, 
reduced ihe legion from its ancient complement of o.tKX), 6,UU(li 
7,(XX), and 8,000, to 1,000 or 1,500; and debased-^he body of the 
army by the intermixture of Scytliians, Goths, and Germans. 

4. This immense mass of heterogeneous p>arts, which internally 
Laboured with the seeds of dissolution and corruption, was kept to* 
eether for some time by the vigorous exertion ot despotic autlioi tj. 
The tiibric was splendid and august : but it wanted both that energy 
of constitution and that real dignity, which, in former times, it derive<l 
from the exercise of heroic and patriotic virtues. 

5. Cunstantine, with a destructive policy, had divided the empire 
among five princes, three of them his sons, and two nephews ; bat 
CoDi^tantius, the youngest of the sons, finally got rid of all his coin- 
petit >rs, and ruled the empire alone with a weak and impotent scep- 
tre. A variety of domestic broils, and mutinies of the tr<-K)ps against 
their generals^ had left the ivestem frontier to ihe nwrry of the bar- 
barian nations. The Franks, Saxons, Alemanni, and Sarmatians, laid 
wasto all the fine countries watered bv the Rhine, and the Persians 
made dreadful incTirsions on the provinces of the east. Constantiu? 
indolently v>*asted his time in theologic<d controversies, but was pre- 
vailed on to adopt one prudent measure, the appohitment ol his 
cousin Julian to the dignity of Caesar. 

6. Julian possessed many heroic qualities, and his mind was formed 
by nature tor the sovereignty of a great people : but. educated at 
Athens, in the schools of the Platonic philosophy, he had unfortunatelx 
conceived a rooted antipathy to the doctrines' of Christianity. With 
every talent of a genera!, and po«essing the confidence and affec- 
tion of his troops, he once more restored the gloty of the Roman 

rms, and successfully repressed the invasions of tlie barbariaosi. 

lis victories excited the jealousy of Constantius, who meanly re- 
solved to remove from his command the better part of his troops. The 
consequence was a declaration of the array, that it ^N-as tlieir choice 
tliat Julian should be their emperor. Constantius escaped the igno- 
miny that awaited him by d\'ing at this critical juncture, and Julian 
was immediately acknowledged sovereign of the Roman empire. 

7. The retbr'mation of civil abuses tormed the first object of his 
attention, which he next turned to the reformation, as he thought, 
of religion, by the suppression of Christianity. He began by refonn- 
in| the pagan theology, and sought to raise the character of its 
priests, by inculcating "purity of lite and sanctity of morals; thus 
bearing involuntiiry testimony 'to the superior excellence, in those 
respects, of that religion which he laboured to abolish. Without 
persecuting he attacked the christians by the more dangerous policy 
of treating them with contempt, and removing them, as visionaries, 
from all employments of public trust He refused them the benefit 
of the laws to dfecide their differences, because their religion forbade 
all dissensions ; and they Avere debarred the studi'^* of Uterature and 
philosophy, which they could not learn but from pagan authors. He 
was himselt', as a pagan, the sla\e of the most bigoted superstition, 
believing in omens and auguries, and fancying himself favoured uith 
an actual intercourse with the gods and goddesses. To avenge the 
injuries which the empire had sustained from the Persians, Julian 
tDarched into the heart of Asia, and was tor some time in the train 



92 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

of conquest, when, in a fatal encaeement, though crowned with 
victory, he was slain, at the age of thirty-one, after a reign of three 
years, A. D. 363. 

8. The Konian army was dispirited by the death of its commander. 
They chose for their emperor Jovian, a captain of tlie domestic 
guards, and purchased a free retreat from the dominions of Persia 
by the ignominious surrender of hve provinces, which had been ceded 
by a former sovereign to Galerius. The short reign of Jovian, a 
period of seven months, was mild and equitable. He favoured Chris- 
tianity, and restored its voUries to all their privileges as subjects. 
He died suddenly at the age of thirty-three. 

9. Valentinian was chosen emperor by the army on the death of 
Jovian; a man of obscure birth and severe manner?, but of consider- 
able military tidents. He associated with himsell^ in the empire hia 
brother Valens, to whom he gave the dominion of the eastern prov- 
inces, reserving to himself the western. The Persians, under Sapor, 
were making inroads on the former, and tlie latter was subject to 
continual invasion from the northern ba.'bariims. They were suc- 
cesstully repelled by Valentinian in many battles ; and his domestic 
administration was wise, equitable, and politic. The christian reli- 
gion was favoured by tne emperor, though not promoted by the 
persecution of its adversaries; a contrast to the conduct of his 
orother Valens, who, intemperately supporting the Arian heresy, set 
the whole provinces in a Hame, and drew a swarm of invaders upon 
the empire in the guise of friends and allies, who in the end entirely 
subverted it. These were the Goths, who, migrating from Scandi 
navia, had, in the second century, settled on the banks of ttie Palus 
Moeoljs, and thence gradually extended their territory. In the reign of 
Valens they took possession of Dacia, and were known by the distinct 
appellation of Ostrogoths and Visigoths, or eastern and western Goths ; 
a remarkable people, whose manners, customs, government, iuid 
laws, are afterwards to be particularly noted. 

10. "Valentinian died on an expedition against the Alemanni, and 
was succeeded in the empire of the west by Gratian, his eldest son, 
a boy of sixteen years ot age, A. D. 3G7. Valens, in the east, was 
the scourge of his people. The Huns, a new race of barbarians, of 
Tartar or Siberian origin, now poured down on the provinces both 
of the west and east The Goths, comparatively a civilized people, 
fled before therti. The Visigoths, who were tirst attacked, requested 
protection from the emoire, and Valens imprudently gave them a 
settlement in Thrace. The Ostrogoths made the same request, and- 
on refusal, forced their way into the same province. Valens gave 
tliein battle at Adrianople. His army was defeated, and he was slair 
in the engagement. The Goths, unresisted, ravaged Achaia and Pan 
Donia. 

11. Gratian, a yonth of great worth, but of Uttle energy of char- 
acter, assumed Theodosius as his colleague. On the early death of 
Gratian, and the minority of his son Valentinian II, 1 heodosius 
governed, with great ability, both the eastern and western empire. 
The character of Theodosius, deservedly sumamed the great, was 
worthy of the best ages of the Roman state. He successfully repell- 
ed the encroachments of the barbarians, and secured^ oy wholesome 
laws, the prosperity of his people. He died, alter a reign of 
eighteen years, assigning to his sons, Arcadius and Honorius, the 
.separate sovereignties ofeast and west, A. D. 395. 



ANC ENT HISTOllV. 



SECTION XLV. 



PROGRESS OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION, FROM ITS INSTI- 
TUTION TO THE EXTINCTION OF PAGANISM IN THE 
REIGN OF THEODOSIUS. 

1. The reign of Theodosius was signalized by the downfal of tlie 
pigaiT superstition, and the full establishment of the christian religii>n 
lo the Roman empire. This great revolution of opinions is highly 
worthy of attention, and naturally induces a retrospect to the condi- 

-on ot the christian church from" its institution down to this period. 

It has been frequently remarked (because it is an obvious truth), 
that at the time of our Saviours birtn a divine revelation seemed to 
be more peculiarly needed ; and that, from a concurrence of circum- 
stances, the state of the world was then uncommonly favourable for 
the exteasive dissemination of the doctrines which it conveyed. The 
union of so many nations under one power, and the extension of civ- 
ilization, were tavourable to the progress of a religion which pre- 
scribed universal charity and benevolence. The gross superstitions 
of paganism, and its tendency to corrupt instead of purifying the 
morals, contributed to explode its influence with every thinking mind. 
Even tne prevalent philosophy of the times, epicurism, more easily 
understood than the refinements of the Platonists, and more grateful 
than the severities of the Stoics, tended to degrade human nature to 
the level of the brute creation. The christian religion j thus neces- 
sary for the reformation of the world, found its chief partisans in those 
who were the friends of virtue, and its enemies among the votaries 
of vice. 

2. The persecution which the christians suffered from the Romans 
has been deemed an exception to that spirit of toleration which 
they showed to the religions of other nations ; but they were toler- 
ant only to those whose theologies were not hostile to their own. 
The religion of the Romans was interwoven with their political con- 
stitution. The zeal of the christians, aiming at the suppression of all 
idolatry, was naturally regarded as dangerous to the state ; and hence 
they were the object of hatred and persecution. In the first century 
the christian church suffered deeply under Xero and Domitian 
yet those persecutions had no tendency to check the progress of itt 
doctrines. 

3. It is matter of question what was the form of the primitive 
church, and the nature of its government ; and on this head much 
difference of opinion obtains^ not only between the catholics and prot 
estants, but between the diflerent classes of the latter, as the Luthei- 
ans and Calvinists. It is moreover an opinion, that our Saviour and 
his apostles, confining their precepts to the pure doctrines of religion, 
have left all christian societies to regulate their frame and govern- 
ment in the manner best suited to the civil constitutions of the coun- 
tries m which they are established. 

4. In the second century the books of the New Testament were 
collected into a volunie by the elder fathers of the church, and re- 
ceived as a canon of faith. The Old Testament had been translat- 
ed from the Hebrew into Greek, by order of Ptolemy Philadelphu> 
284 years before Christ. The early church suffered much from an 
absurd endeavour of th** more learned of its votaries to reconcile its 



^-l ANCIUNT HISTORY. 

doctrines to the tenets of the pagan pliilosophers: hence the sects of 
the Gnostics and Ammonians, and the Platonising christians. In the 
second century the Greek churches began to form provincial associ 
atioiis, and to esta»)lish gencnd rules of go\ eniment and discipline. 
Assemblies were held, termed xynodoi and cottciliu^ over which a me- 
tropolitan presided. A short lime after arose the superior order of 
patriarch, presiding over a large district of the christian world ; and 
a subordination taking place even among these, the bishop of Home 
was acknowledged the chief of the patriarchs. Persecution still at- 
tended the early church, even under those excellent princes, Trajan. 
Adrian, and the Antonines; and, in the reign of Sevenis, all the prov- 
inces ol the empire were stained with the blood of the martyrs. 

5. The third century was more favour.ible to the progress of Chris- 
tianity and the tranquillity of its disciples, in those times it suflered 
less from the civil arm than from the pens of the pagan philosopers, 
1 orphyry, Fhilostnitus, &.c. • but these attacks called forth the zeal 
and talents of many able defenders, as Origen, Uionysius, and Cy- 
prian. A part of the Gauls, Germany, and Britain, received the light 
of the gospel in this ceuiury. 

6. In the fourth century the christian cl'urch was alternately per- 
secuted and cherished by the Roman emperoi-s. \mong ts oppres- 
sors we rank Diocletian, Galerius, and Julian; among its fivourers. 
Constantine and his sons, V'alentinian, \ alens, Gratian, and the excel- 
lent Theodosius, in whose reign the pagan superstition came to its 
final period. 

7 From the age of Numa to the reign of Gratian the Romans 
preserA edjhe regular succession of tlie several sacerdotal colleges 
tne pontilTs, augui-s, vestals, JJauanes^ satii. &,c., whose authority, 
though weakened in the latter ages, was still protected by tlie laws. 
Kven the christian emperors held, like their pagan predecessors, the 
office of vontifex iiuixvuiis. Gratian was the tii-st who ret used that 
ancient dignity as a profanation. In the time of Theodosius the 
cause of Christianity and of {)aganism was solemnly debated in the 
Roman senate between Ambrose, archbishop of Milan, the champion 
of the former, and Symmachus, the defeiuler of the huter. The 
cause of Christianity was triumphant, and the senate issued its de- 
cree for the abolition of pagani^jm, whose downtal in the capital was 
soon followed by its extinction in the jirovinces. Theodosius, with 
able policy, permitted no persecution of the ancient religion, which 
perished with more rapidity, because its fall was gentle and \m- 
resisted. 

8. But the christian church exhibited a superstition in some re- 
spects little less irrational than polytheism, in the wci-ship of saint* 
and relics; and many novel tenets, unlbunded in the piecepts ol 
our Saviour and his apostles, were manifestly borrowed from the 
nagan schools. The doctrines of the i'latonic philosophy seem to 
nave led to the notions of an intermediate state A purification, ce- 
libacy of the priests, ascetic morlitications, pmances, and monastic 
seclusion. 



AiNClEJST HIsrOlJY. 

SECTION XLVl 

EXTINCTION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE WEST. 

1. In the reigria of Arcadius and Honorius, the sons and successorB 
ol Theoclosius, the barbarian nations established themselves in the 
frontier provinces both of the east and we.«t. Theodosius had com- 
mitted the government to Kutinus and Stilicho during the nonage of 
his sons; and their fatal dissensions gave every advantage to the 
enemies of the empire. The Huns, actually invited by Rufinus, 
ovei-spread Armenia, Cappadocia, and Syria. The Goths, under 
Alaric, ravaged to the borders of Italy, and laid waste Achaia to the 
PeiOpoanesus. Stilicho, an able general, made a noble stand against 
these invaders ; but his plans were iVustrated by the machinations 
of his rivals, and the \veakness of Arcadius, who purchased an 
ignominious peace, by ceding to Alaric the whole of Greece. 

2. Alaric, now styled king of the Visigoths, prepared to add Italy 
to his new dominions. 1-le passed the Alps, and vyas carrying all 
before him, Avhen, amused by the politic Stilicho with the prospect 
of a new cession of territory, he was attacked unawares, and defeated 
by that general, then commanding the armies of Honorius. The 
emperor triumphantly celebrated, on that occasion, the eternal deleat 
of the Gothic nation; an eternity bounded by ihe lapse of a few 
months. In this interval, a torrent of the Goths breaking down upon 
Germany forced the nations whom they dispossessed, the Suevi, 
Alani, and Vandals, to precipitate themselves upon Italy. They 
joined their arms to those of Alaric, who, thus reinforced, determined 
to overwhelm Rome. The policy of Stilicho made him change his 
purpose, on the promise of 4,000 pounds weight of gold ; a promise 
repeatedly broken by Honorius, and its violation tinally revenged by 
Alaric, by the sack and plunder of the city, A. D. 410. With gene- 
rous magnanimity he spared the lives of the vanquished, and, with 
singular liberality of spirit, was anxious to preserve every ancient 
edhice from destruction. 

:3. Alaric, preparing now for the conquest of Sicily and Africa, 
died at this aera of his highest glory; and Honorius, instead of proht- 
in-g by this event to recover his lost provinces, made a treaty with 
his successor Ataulfus, gave him in marriage his sister Flacidia, and 
secured his friemdship by ceding to him a portion of Spain, while a 
great part of what remained had before been occupied by the Van- 
dals. He allowed soon after to the Burgundians a just title to their 
conquests in Gaul. Thus the western empire was passing by de- 
grees trom the dominion of its anrjent masters. 

4. The mean and dissolute Arcadius died in the year 408, leavuig 
fhe eastern empire to his infant son Theodosius II. Theodosius was 
ft weak prince, and his sister Pulcheria governed the empire, with 
prudence and ability, for the space of forty years. Honorius died in 
the year 423. The laws of Arcadius and Honorius are, with a few 
exceptions, remarkable for their wisdom and equity ; which is a 
sin{»ular circumstance, considering the personal character of those 
princes, and evinces at least that they employed some able ministers. 

r>. The V^andals, under Genseric, subdued the Roman province 
in Africa. The Huns, in the east, extended their conquests from 
the borders of China to thf' Baltic sea. Under Attiia they laid waste 



9C ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Muesia and Thrace ; aiid Tiieodosiu;', after a mean attempt to mur 
der the barbarian general, ingloriousiy submitted to pay him an an- 
nual tribute. It ivas in Uiis crisis of univeni^al decay that the Briloiu 
implored the llomans tr. delend them against the I'lcts and Scots, but 
received for answer, that they had nothing to bestow on them but 
compassion. The Britons, in despair, sought aid from the Saxons 
and Angles, who seized, as their property, tlio country which they 
were invited to protect, and tbumled, in the tilth and sixth centuries, 
the kingdoms of the Saxon heptarchy. (See Part 11. Sect Xll, 6 b.) 
ti. Attila, with an army of 500,000 men, threatened the total de- 
struction of the empire. He wiis ably opposed by Actios, general of 
yalentinian 111., now emperor of the west. \ alentinian was shut up 
ii' Konie by the arms of^ tl»e barbarian, and at length compelled to 
purcluise a peace On the death ol Attila his dominions were dis- 
membered by his sons, whose dissensions gave temporary relief to 
the falling empire of Home. 

7. After V alentinian 111. we have in the west a succession of 

Srinces, or rather names, for the events of their reigns merit no 
etail. In the reign of Romulus, surnamed Augustulus, the son ot 
Orestes, the empire of the w est came to a final period. Odoacer, 
prince of the Heruli, subdued Italy, and spared the life of Augustulus, 
on condition of his resigning the throne, A. D. 476. From the build- 
ing of Rome to the extinction of the western empire, A. JD. 476, is 
a period of 1224 years. 

8. We may reduce to one ultimate cause the various circum- 
stances that produced the decline and fall of this once magnificent 
fabric. The ruin of the Roman empire was the inevitable cor*e- 
quence of its greatness. The extension of its dominion relaxed 
tne vigour of its frame ; the vices of the conquered nations infected 
the victorious legions, and foreign luxuries corrupted their command- 
ers ; selfish interest supplantt d the patriotic affection ; the martial 
spirit was purposely debased by the emperors, who dreaded its 
effects on their own power ; and the whole mass, thus weakened 
and enervated, ie.W an easy prey to the torrent of barbarians which 
overwhelmed it. 

9. The Herulian dominion in Italy was of short duration. Theo- 
doric, prince of the Ostrogoths (afterwards deservedly surnamed 
thegreal\ obtained permission of Zeno, emperor of the east, to at- 
tempt the recovery of Italy, and a promise of its sovereignty as the 
reward of his success. The whole nation of the Ostrogotlis attend- 
ed the standard of Theodoric, who wa"=. victorious in repeated en- 
gagements, and at length compelled Odoacer to surrender all Italy to 
ttie conqueror. The Romans had t;»s(ed happiness under the govern- 
ment of Odoacer; but their happ'n-ess was increased under the do- 
minion of Theodoric, who possessed every talent and virtue of a sov- 
ereign. His equity and clemency rendered him a blessing to his 
subjects. He allied himself with all the surrounding nations, tl)e 
Franks, Visigoths, Burgundians, and \'andals. He left a peaceable 
sceptre to his grandson Athnlaric, during whose infancy his mother 
Amalasonte governed with such admir.ible wisdom and moderation, as 
left her subjects no real cause of regret for the loss of her father. 

10. While such was the state of Gothic Italy, the empire of the 
cast was under the government of Justinian, a prince of mean ability, 
vain, capricious, and tyrannical. Vet the Roman name rose for a 
while from its abasement by the merit of his generals. Belisarius was 
tlie support of his throne; yet Justinian treated him with the moai 



ANCIENT HIS TORY. 97 

shocking ingratitutle. The Persians were at this time the moat for- 
midable enemies of the empire, under their sovereigns Cabades and 
Cosrhoes ; and from the latter, a most able prince. Justinian meanly 
purchjised a peace, by a cession of teiTitory, and an enormous trib- 
ute in gold. The civil factions of Constantinople, arising from the 
most contemptible of causes, the disputes of the performers in the 
circus and amphitheatre threatened to hurl Justinian from the 
throne, but were fortunately composed by the arms and the policy of 
Belisarius. This great general overwhelmed the Vandal sovereignty 
of Africa, and recovered that province to the empire. He wrested 
taly from its Gothic soyereigUj and once more restored it for a short 
time to the dominion of its ancient masters. 

11. Italy was recovered to the Goths by the heroic Totila, who 
besieged and took the city of Rome, but forebore to destroy it at 
(he request of Belisarius. The fortunes of Belisarius were now in 
the wane. He was compelled to evacuate Italy, and, on his return 
to Constantinople, his long services were repaid with disgrace. He 
was superseded in the command of the armies by the eunuch Narses, 
who defeated Totila in a decisive engagement, in which the Gothic 
prince was slain. Narses governed Italy with great abiUty for thir- 
teen years, when he was ungratefully recalled by Justin 11. the suc- 
cessor of Justinian. He invited the Lombards to avenge his injuries ; 
and this new tribe of invaders overran and conquered the country, 
A. JD. 568. 



SECTION XLVII. 

OF THE ORIGIN, MANNERS, AND CHARACTER OF THE 
GOTHIC NATIONS, BEFORE THEIR ESTABLISHMENT IN 
THE ROMAN EMPIRE, 

1. The history and manners of the Gothic nations are curious 
objects of inquiry, from their influence on the constitutions and na- 
tional character of most of the modern kingdoms of Europe. As tlje 
present inhabitanis of these kingdoms are a mixed race, compounded 
of the Goths and of the nations whom they subdued, the laws, man- 
ners, and institutions of the modern kingdoms are tne result of this 
conjunction ; and in so far as these are diilerent from the usages prev- 
alent before this intermixture, they are, in all probability, to be 
traced t>om the ancient manners and institutions of those northeni 
tribes. We purpose to consider the original character of the 
Gothic nations, and tiie change of their manners on their establisli- 
ment in the Roman empire. 

2. The Scandinavian chronicles attribute to the ancient inhabitants 
of that country an Asiatic origin, and inform us that the Goths were 
a colony of Scytliians, who migrated thither from the banks of the 
Black sea and the Caspian : but these chronicles do not fix the period 
of this migration, which some later writers suppose to have been 
1 ,000 years, and others only 70, before the christian ajra. OcUn, the 
chief deity of the Scandinavians, was the god of the Scythians. 
Sigga, a Scythian prince, is said to hav^e undertaken a distant expedi- 
tion, and, after he had subdued several of the Sarmatian tribes, to 
have penetrated into the northern parts of Gei-msny, and thence 
into Scandinavia. He assumed the honours of divinity, and the title 
of Odin, his national god. He conquered Denmark, Sweden, and 

] 13 



W .\IVC1ENT HISTORY. 

Norway, and gave wise and salutary laws to the nations which he ^ 
had siihdued by his arms. 

3. 'I'he agreerncnl in manners between the Scythians and the | 
■inricnl Scandiiun ian nations, corroborates ihe accounts given in the ' 
n«irihL*m chionit los iX the identity of their origin. The description 

M ihe n)annei> ot* llie Germans hv Tacitus (though this people was 
probably not of Scylbi;u), [jut of Celtic origin) may, in many parties I 
ulai>, be applied to tlx ancient nnticns < f bcandinaxia ; and the ! 
simc description ccincide* renuirkaldy with the account given by 
HeiodoUis of the manners of the fccylhian.-^. Their life was spent < 
hi hunting, pasturage, and predatory war. Their dress, their weap- | 
ons, tlu ir food, their resnect lor their wcmen, their religious wor- j 
ship, were the same, riicy despised learning, and had no other ] 
i*ecords for many ages thnu the songs (;f their bards. 

4. 'J'he theology of the ir'ciindinaviaiis was most intimately con- 
n.^cted with their manners. They held three great principles or ,^ 
fundamenlal doctrines o! lOligion: *■' I'o serve tne Supreme heing 1 
uilh pr.iyer and sacrilke ; to do no wrong or unjust action; and to ' 
be intiei id in light.'' These piinciples are ihe key to the KdJa^ or 
Siicred book of ihe Scandinavians, wldcb, though il contains the su!)- 
stance of" a very ancient religion, is not a work of high antiquity, 
being comj iled in the thirteenth century by Snorro Sturlesoii. ; 
supreme judge of h.eland. Odin, characteiized as the terrible ami 
severe god, ihe liither of carnage, the avengei, is the principal deity i 
of tlie bcandinaviims : frc m \\Ticse urii n with I re;i, ihe heavenly ', 
mothei, .*:pning various subordinate di\iuilies; as Thor, who per- ^ 
peliKdl> wjirs against Lcke and his e\il giants, %vl;o envy the pcwfr 

of Odin, ;uid seek to destroy his works. Among liic interior deities .' 
are the virgins of the Vallii'dla, whos(^ oflice is lo mir)ister to the he- 
roes in paradise. The favourites of Odin are all who die in battle, or, , 
what i> ec|ually meritorious, by tbeir own hand. The liniid wretch, 
who allows himself to perish by disease or iige, is unworthy of the 
3oys of paradise. These joys are, fighting, ceaseless slaughter, and j 
drinking beer out of the skulls of their enemies, with a renovation 
of lite, to furnish a perpetuity of the same pleasures. 

5. As the Scandinavians believed Ibis world to he the work of , 
some superior intelligences, so they held all nature to be constantly 
ur:der the regulation of an almighty will and power, ami subjeci \ 

o a fixed and unalterable destiny. These notions had a wonderful , 
eflect on the national manners, and on the conduct of imliviilnals. 

'I'he Scandinavian placed his sole delight in war : he entertained an I 

absolute contempt of danger and cf <lealh, and his glory was estimat- ' 
cd by the number which he had slain in battle. The' dealh-song ol 

Hrgncr Lodbrok^ who comlbrts hims<-ll in his last agonies by iccount- 1 

ing all the acts of carnage which he had committed in his life-time, i 

is a faithful picture of the Scandinavian character. -| 

6. We have remarked the great similarity of tnp mannei-s of the ] 
Scandinavians and the ancient Germans. '1 hese nations seem, how- i 
ever, to have had a dillerent origin. The Germans, as well as the I 
Gatds, were branches of that great original nalinn termed CW/cc, vyho j 
inhabited most of the countries oi'Lurope south of ihe Baltic, belbre 
tliey were hivaded by the northern tribes from Soandiiravia. The 
('elta; were all of the druidical religion, a system diflerent from the < 
belief and worship of the Scandinavians, but founded nearly on the 
9«n.e principles; and the Goths, in their progress, intermixing willi | 
Uie Germans, could not fail to adopt, in part, the notions of a icmdred 



AJNCIENI^ mSTORy. 99 

religion. Druidism acknowledged a god who delighted in blood 
shed, taught the immortalityof the soul, and inculcated the contempt 
of danger and of death. 'lacitus remarks that the ancient Germans 
had neither temples nor idols. The open air was the temple of the 
divinity, and a consecrated grove the appropriated place for prayer 
and sacrifice, which none but the priests were allowed to enter. 
The chief sacrifices were human victims, most probably the prison- 
ers taken in war. The druids heightened the "anctity of their char- 
acter by concealirig the mysteries of their woi"ship. They had the 
highest influence over the mmds of the people, and thus found it 
easy to conjoin a civil authority with the sacerdotal; a policy vvhicb 
in the end led to the destruction of the druidical system ; for thfgp 
Komans found no other way of securing their conquests over any o 
the Celtic nations, but by exterminating the druids. 

7. Whatever difference of manners there may have been amon-^ 
the various nations or tribes of Gothic origin, the great features (1 
their character appear to have been the same. Nature, education, 
and prevailing habits, ail concurred to form them tor an intrepid 
and conquering people. Their bodily frame was invigorated by 
the climate which they inhabited; they were inured to danger ant) 
fatigue ; war was their habitual occupation ; they believed in an un- 
alterable destiny, and were taught by their religion thai a heroic 
sacrifice of life gave certain assurance of eternal happiness How 
could a race of mec 'H) characterized fail to be the conquerors of tht 
world? 



SECTION XLVlll. 

OF THE MANNERS, LAWS, AND GOVERNMENT OF THE 
GOTHIC NATIONS, AFTER THEIR ESTABLlSHiVIENT IN THE 
ROMAN EMPIRE. 

1. It has been erroneously supposed that the same ferocity of 
manners, which distinguished the Goths in their original seats, at- 
tended their successors ifi their new establishments in the provinces 
of the Roman empire. Modern authors have givon a currency to 
this false supposition. Voltaire, in describing the middle ages, painti- 
the Goths in all the characters of horror ; as " a troop of hungry 
wolves, foxes, and tigers, driving before them the scattered timid 
herds, and involving all in ruin and desolation." The accounts of 
historians most worthy of credit will dissipate this injurious preju- 
dice, and show those northern nations in a more favourable point of 
view, as not unworthy to be the successors of the Romans. 

2 Before their settlement in the southern provinces of Europe^ 
the Goths were no longer idolaters, but christians : and their mo 
rality was suitable to the religion which ihey professed. Salvianus, 
oishop of Marseilles, in the hfth century, dra^vs a parallel between 
the manners of the Goths and of the Romans, highly to the credit ol 
the former. Grotius, in his publication of Procopius and Jomandes, 
remarks, as a strong testimony to their honourable character as a 
nation, that no province once subdued by the Goths ever voluntarily 
withdrew itsell from their government. 

3. It is not possible to produce a more beautiful picture of an 
excellent administration than that of the Gothic monarchy in Italy 
under Theodoric the great Though master of the country by 



100 ANCIENT HlSTOUr. I 

conquest, yet he wiia regarded by his suhjects with <>c aflection ot 
a native sovereign. He retained the Ivoinan law}*, k-Tid, as nearly 
aji possible, the ancient political regulations. In ijnpp.>iug all civil '. 
othces of state he preferred the native Kouians. It w;^ his care to i 
preserve every monument ol' the ancient grandeur ot' the empire^ 
ami to enr.liellish the cities by new works of beauty anc utility, lo , 
the imposition and levying ol taxes he showed the most humane in- ] 
diligence on every occasion of scarcity or calamity. His laws were | 
dictated by the most enlightened prudence and benevc'ence, and , 
framed on that principle wnich he nobly inculcated in his iistructious 
lo the Koman senate, ''" Heiiii^ni principui cat., non lam delici i xclk pw \ 
nire., quiun tul'cre."' It is the duty o/ a Lems^n prince to be iiapused to \ 
prevent ruiher than to jmnish offemes. The historians of fhe times ^ 
delight in lecc unting the examples of his munilicence and \ umanily. • 
Partial as he Aas to the Arian heresy, many even of the v atholic | 
fathers have d me the most ample iuslice to his merits, acknoi - hedging 
that, under hi-< reign, the church enjoyed a high measure A pro*- j 
perity. Such was Theodoric the great, who is justly temie.i by Si- ^ 
donius ApoUinaris, Ronianoi deciiji coluinenqne gentis {llie glory and tlie , 
support of' the Roman nation). | 

4. But a single example could not warrant a general inf<?rence 
with regard to the merits of a whole ii(!ople. TJie example of ; 
Theodoric is not single. If it does not lind a complete paralk'l, it , 
is at least nearly approached to in the similar charactei-s of Ai.uic, | 
Amaiasonte, and Totiia. Alaric, coinpelkd l)y his enemy's breach, - 
of faith to revenge liimsolf by the sack of Rome, showed even in \ 
that revenge a noble exam])lc of humanity. No blood was shed 
without necessity ; the churches v/ere inviolable asylums; the hbn .| 
our of the women w;is preserved ; tbe treasures oY the city were 
aaved from plunder. Amaiasonte, the daughter oi' Theodoric. 
repaired to her subjects the loss of her fathei-, by the equity and 
wisdom of her administration. She trained her son to the stuoy of 
literature and of every polite accomplishment, as the best means of j 
reforming and enliglitening his peo{)le. Tolila, twice master of 
Rome, which he won by his arms after an obstinate resistance, imi- 
tiited the example of Alaric in his clemency to tbe vanquished, and 
in his care to preserve every remnant of ancient magniticence trom 
destruction. He restored the senate to its authority, adorned Rome 
with useful edifices, regulated its internal policy, and took a iioble 
pride in reviving the splendour and dignity of the empire. Habitayjt 
zitm Romanis^ says a contemporary authoi*, lanquum pater aim ^liis. 
He lived xvith the Roinans (ls a father u'i/A hia children. 

5. The stem of the Gothic nation divided itself into two great 
oranches, the Ostrogoths, who remaineil in Pannonia, and the West- ( 
rogoths or Visigoths, so termed from their migrating thence to the 
west of Europe. Italy was possessed by the la'tler under Alaric, and 
oy the former under Theodoric. The' \'isigotbs, ailer tlie death of 
Alaric, wahdrew into Gaul, and obtained from Honorius the province i 
of Aquitaine, of which Thoulouse was the capital. When expelled 1 
from that province by the Franks, they crossed the Pyrenees, ; 
and, settling in Spin, made Toledo the capital of their kingdom. , 
The race of the \ isigoth princes was termed the Bnlti^ that ot the 
(Jslrogolhs the Anudi. The Ostrogoths enforced in their dominions | 
the observance of the Roman laws; the Visigoths adhered to a code I 
compiled by their own sovereigns, and founded on the ancient man- j 
ners and usages of their nations. From this code, therefore, we may 



AJNCIENT HISTORY. 101 

derive much information relative to the genius and character of this 
ancient people. 

6. It is enacted by the lam's o/* the Visigoth that no judge shall 
becide in any lawsuit, unless he tind in that book a law applicable to 
the case. All causes that fall not under this description are reserved 
for the decision of the sovereign. The penal laws are severe, but 
tempered with great equity. No punishment can afl'ect the heirs of 
the criminal : Omnia criinina suos sequantur auctores^ — et ilk solusjudi- 
ceiur culpabilis qui culpanda commiserit^ et cnmen cum illo (juijecerit 
moriaiur. All crimes shall attach to their autliors^ — and he alo^u shall bt 
judged culpable^ who Iiath committed offences^ and the crime sfwU die with 
him who hath committed it. Death ^vas the punishment of the murdei 
of a freeman, and perpetual infamy of the murder of a si ive. Pe- 
cuniary tines were enacted for various subordinate offences, accord- 
ing to their measure of criminality. An adulterer was delivered in 
bondage to the injured husband ; and the free woman who had com- 
mitted adultery with a married man, became the slave of his wife. 
No physician was allowed to visit a female patient, except in the 
presence of her nearest kindred. The lex talionis {the law ofretali(y 
lion) was in great observance tor such injuries as admitted it. It was 
even carried so tar, that the incendiary of a house was bunit alive. 
The trials by judicial combat, by ordeal, and by the judgment ol 
God, which were in frequent use among the Franks and Normans, 
had no place among the Visigoths. Montesquieu has erroneously 
asserted, that in all the Gothic nations it was usual to judge the 
litigants by the law of their own country ; the Roman by the Roman 
law, the Frank by the law of the Franks, the Aleman by the law 
ol the Alemans, On the contrary, the Visigoth code prohibits the 
laws of all other nations within their territories. JYolumus sive Ro- 
inanis legibus, sive alienis institutionibiis^ amplius convexari. We wnll not 
be controlled Iry the Roman laws^ nor by foreign institutions. 1'he laws 
of the Franks and Lombards are remarkable for their wisdom and 
judicious policy. 

7. The government of the Goths, after their settlement in the 
Roman provirices, was monarchical. It was at first elective, and 
afterwards became hereditary. The sovereign on his death-bed 
appointed his successor, witli the advice or consent of his grandees. 
Illegitimacy did not disqualify from succession or nomination to the 
throne. 

8. The dukes and counts were the chief officers under the Gothic 
government. The duke [dux exercitus) was the commander m chiel 
of the troops of the province ; the count {comes) was the highest 
civil magistrate. But these offices freqrently intermixed their func- 
tions, the count being empowered, on sudden emergencies, to assume 
a military command, and the duke, on some occasions, warranted to 
exercise judicial authority. In general, however, their departments 
were distinct. Of comites there were various orders, with distinct ofh- 
cial powers; as, comes^ cubiculi, chamberlain, comes stabuli^ constable, &c. 
These various otlicei's were the proceres or grandees of the kingdom, 
by whose advice the sovereign conducted himself in import-mt mat- 
ters of government, or in the nomination of his successor; but we do 
not find that they had a voice in the framing uf laws, or in liie im- 
position of taxes ; and the prince himself had the sole nomination to 
all offices of government, magistracies, and dignities. 

12 



10-2 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

• • •!> 
SECTION XLIX. 

METHOD OF STUDYING AxNCIExNT HISTORY. 

1. A GKNFjiAL and concise view of ancient history may be acquired 
jy tlie penis.il of a very tew books ; as that nart ol llic Coursd' Etudt 
of' the Abbe Coiuiiilac wiiich regards tlie history of the nations ol" 
antiquity ; the Elements of General History by the Abbe Millot, part 
1st; the Epitome of Turselline, with the notes ol' i/Agi.eau, part 
1st; or the excellent Compevdiuin liisioritt 6'nner,sfl/w, by professor 
Oflbrliaus of Groningen The two first of these works have the 
merit of uniting a spirit of retlection with a judicious selection of 
events. The notes <.f L'Agneau to the Epitome of Turselline con- 
tain a great store of geographical and biographical information. 
The work of OtTerhaus is peculiarly valuable, as uniting sacred with 
profane history, and containing most ample references to the ancient 
authors. The Discours sitr I'Hisioire Unirerselle^ by the bishop 
of Meaux, is a work of high merit, but is not adapted to convey in- 
formation to the uninstructed. It is more useful to those who have 
already studied history in detail, for uniting in the mind the great 
current of events, and recalling to the memory their order and con- 
nexion. 

But the student who wishes to derive the most complete advan- 
tage from history, must not confine himself to such general or com- 
pendious views ; lie must resort to the original historians of ancieq* 
times, and to the modem writers who have treated with amplitude 
ol particular periods. It may be useful to such students to point 
out the order in which those historians may be most profitably 
perused. 

2. Next to the historical books of the Old Testament, the most 
ancient history worthy of perusal is that of Herodotus, which com 
prebends the annals of Lydia, Ionia, Lycia, Egypt, Persia, Greece, 
and Macedonia, during above 2:30 years preceding 479 A. C. 

Book 1. History of Lydia from ^lygcs to Croesus. Ancient Ionia. 
Manners of the Persians, Babylonians, &,c. History of Cyrus the 
Elder. 

B. 2. History of Egypt, and Manners of the Egyptians. 

E. 3. History of Camoyses. Pei-sian Monarchy under Darius 
Hystaspes. 

B. 4. History of ScythiiL 

B. 5. Persian Embiissy to Macedon. Athens, LacedxmoD, Corinth, 
at the same ])eriod. 

B. 6. Kings of Lacedapmon. War of Persia against Greece, to the 
battle of Marathon. 

B. 7. The same War. to the battle of Thermopylae. 

B. 8. The Naval Battle of Salamis. 

B. 9. The Defeat and Expulsion of the Persians from Greece. 

(The merits of Herodotus are shortly characterized in Sect 
XXII, ^ 1.) 

3. A more particular account of the periods treated by Herodotus 
may be found in Justin, lib. 1, 2, 3, and 7: in the Cyropedia of Xeno- 
nhon ; in the Lives ol' Aristides, Thenustocles, Cimon, Miltiades, i\nd 
Pausanias, written by Plut;irch and Cornelius Nepos; and in ihe 
lives of Anaximander, Zeno, Empedocles, Pleraclitus, and Democri- 
tus, by Diogenes Laertius. 



AJVCIENT HISTORY. 

4. The Grecian history is tjilten up by Thucydides from the 
period where Herodotus ends, and is continued for seventy ycnrs, to 
the twenty-tirsl of the Pelopomiesiiin war. (This work chaiaclerized. 
Sect. XXll, 6 2.) This perioii is more amply illustrated by perusing 
Lhe 11th ancf 12th books ol" Diodorus Siculus; the Lives of Alcibia- 
des, Chabrias, Thnisybulus, and Lysias, by PluUirch and Nepos; the 
2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th books of Justin; and the 14th and loth cliapters 
of the 1st book of Orosius. 

5. Next to Thucydides the student ought to pemse the 1st and 
2d books of Xenophon's History of Greece, which comprehends the 
narrative of the Peioponnesian war, with the contemporary history of 
the Medes and Persians ; then the expedition of Cyrus {.InabasU)^ and 
the continuation of the history to its conclusion with the ba'tle ol 
i\Iantinea. (Xenophon characterized, Sect. XXll, § 3.) For illustrat 
ing this period we have the Lives of Lys:uider, Agesilaus, Artaserxes. 
Conon, and Datames, by Plutarch and iNepos; the 4th, 6th, and Gth 
books of Justin ; and tlie 13th and 16th books of Diodorus Siculus. 

6. After Xenophon let the student read the loth and 1 Gth books 
of Diodorus, which contain the history of Greece and Persia, from 
the battle of .Mantinea to the reign of Alexander the great. (Diodorus 
cliaracterized, Sect. XXll, § 3.) To complete this period let him 
read the Lives of Dion, Iphicrates, Thnotheus, Phccion, and Timo- 
leon, by Nepos. 

7. For the history of Alexander the great we have the admind)le 
works of Arrian and C-^uintus Curtius. (Arrian characterized. Sect 
XXll, § 8.) Curtius possesses great judgment in the selection ol 
facts, with much elegance and perspicuity of diction. He is a good 
moralist and a good patriot; but his passion for embellishment 
derogates from the purity of history, and renders his authority sus- 
pi ious. 

3. For the continuation of the history of Greece from the death 
of Alexander, we have the 18th, 1 9th, and 2Uth books ol Diodorus; 
the history of Justin from the 13th book to the end; and the Live.s 
of the principal personages written by Plutarch. The history oJ 
Justin is a jidicious abridgment of a much larger work by Trogus 
Pompeiiis, which is lost. Justin excels in ihe delineation of charac- 
ters, and in • urity of style. 

9. 1 have m^ntioned'the Lives of PluUirch and Cornelius Nepo« 
as the best supplement to the account of particular periods of ancien> 
history. It is the highest praise of Plutarch that his writings are 
admirable for their morality, and furnish instructive lessons of active 
virtue. He makes us f.unili irly acquainted with the great men of 
antiquity, and chieMy (telights in paiiKing their private character and 
manners. The short Lives written by Nepos show great judgmijnt, 
and a happy selection of such facts as display the genius ami char.ic 
ter ol his heroes. They ar.f written with purity and elegance. 

10. For the Roman history in its early periods we have the An 
tiquilies of Dionysius of Haiicarnassus, which bring down the hi.* 
tory of Rome to 412 A. U. C. They are cluelly valnaole, as ilhn 
Irating the manners and customs, the rites civil ami religious, and iht: 
laws of tha Rom >n state. But the wtiter is too apt to fr.ime hy|)«>ili- 
eses, and to give views instead of narratives. We expect fhe.sL* m 
the modern writers who treat of ancient times, but cannot tolerate 
them in the sources of history. 

11. The work of Livy is liir more valuable than that of Dio- 
Djsios. It is a perfect model of history^ both as to matter and compo- 



104 ANCIENT HISTORY 

siUon- (Characterized, Sect. XXXVI, § 10.) Of 132 books only 36 
remnin, and those are interrupted by a considcrahle chasm. The 
rn>t decade (or tei) books) treats of a period of lt'»U years ; the sec- 
ond decade, containing seventy-tive years, is lost ; the third coni.ains 
the second Punic war, inchuling eighteen years ; the fourth contains 
llie war against Philip of Macedon, and the Asiatic war against Anti- 
ochusj a space of twenty-three jears. Of the tifth decade there are 
only tive books ; and the remainder, whicli reaches to the death of 
Dnisus, 74G. A. U. C. together with the second decade, have been 
fiupplied by Freinshemius. To supply the chasm of the second de- 
cade the student ought to read, togetlier with the epitome of those 
lost books, the first and second books of Poly bius ; the 17th, 18th, 
2!2d, and 23d books of Justin; the lives of Marcellus and Fabiu« 
Maximus by Plutarch ; and the Punic anrl lllyrian wars by Appian. 

12. The history of Polybius demands a separate and attentive 
perusal, as an admirable compendium of political and miUtary in- 
struction. Of forty books of general history we have only tive en- 
tire, and excerpts of the following twelve. Polybius treats of the 
history of the Romans, and of the nations with whom they were at 
war, from the beginning of the second Punic war to the beginning of 
the war with Macedonia, comprising in nil a period of about hfty 
years. Of the liigh estimation in which Polybius was held by the 
authors of antiquity we have suthcient proof in the encomiams be- 
stowed on him by Cicero. Strabo, Josephus, and Plutarch ; and in the 
use which Livy has made of his history, in adopting his narratives 
by a translation nearly literal. 

13. The work of Appian, which originally consisted of twenty 
books, from the earliest period of the Roman history down to the 
age of Adrian, is greatly mutilated ; and there remains only his 
account of the Syrian, Parthian, Mithridatic, Spanish, Punic, and 
lllyrian wars. His narrative of each of these wars is remarkably 
distinct and judicious ; and his composition, on the whole, is chaste 
and perspicuous. After the history of Appian the student should re- 
sume Livy, from the beginning of the third decade, or 21st book, to 
the end. Then he may peruse with advantage the Li\es of Hanni- 
bal, Scipio Africanus. Flaminius, Paulus iEmilius, the elder Cato, the 
Gracchi, Marius, Sylla, the younger Cato, Sertorius, Lunillus, Julius 
Caesar, Cicero, Pompey, and Brutus, by Plutarch. 

14. Sallusfs histories of the Jug^urthine war and of the conspiracy 
of Catiline come next in order, (ballust chamcterized. Sect. XaXV'I, 
N 8.) Then follow the Commentaries of Caesar, rein;irkable lor 
perspicuity of narration, and ^ happy union ol brevity with elegant 
gimplicity of style. (Sect. XXXIV, ^ 9.) The epitomes of Florus jind 
of veleius Paterculus may be perused with advantage at this period 
of the course. The latter is a model for abridgment of history, in 
Jie opinion of the president Henault. 

15. For the history of Rome under the hrst emperors we have 
Suetonius and Tacitus ; and for the subsequent reigns, the .«eries of 
the minor historians, termed Historict Augusta: Scnptores [xinters uj 
au;rust history), raid the Byzantine writers. Suetonius gives us a 
.leries of detached characters, illustrated by an artful selection ol facts 
dnd anecdotes, nither than a regular history. His work is chietlv 
valuable as descriptive of Roman manners. His genitis has too much 
of the caustic humour of a satirist. Tacitus, with greater powers 
and deeper penetradon, has drawn a picture of the times in stem 
and gloomy colours. (Sect, XXXVI, ^11.) From neither of these his- 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 105 

toriaos will the ingenuous mind of youth receive moral improvement, 
or pleasing and benevolent impressions ; yet we cannot deny theii 
higli utility to the student of politics. 

16. If we except Herodian, who wrote with taste and judgment, ii 
is doubtful whether any of the subsequent writers of the Roman 
history desen^e a minute perusal, it is therefore advisable for the 
student to derive his knowledge of the history of the decline and 
fall of the Roman empire from modern authors, resorting to the 
original writers only for occasional information on d'jtached points of 
importance. For this purpose, the General History by Dr. Howel 
is a work of great utility, being written entirely on the basis of the 
original historians, whose narrative he generally translates, referring 
constantly to his authorities in the margin. In this work the student 
will rind a valuable mass cf historical information. 

17. The reader having thus founded his knowledge of general his- 
tory on the original writers, will now peruse with great advantage 
the modern histories of ancient Greece and Rome by Mitford, Gillies, 
Gast, Hooke, Gibbon, and Furgusson ; and will find himself qualified 
to form a just estimate of their merits, on which it is presumptuous 
to decide without such preparatory knowledge. 

18. The greatest magtizine of historical information which has 
ever been collected into one body, is the English Universal History; 
a most useful work, from the ampUtude of its matter, its general 
accuracy, and constant reference to the original authors. VVe may 
occasionally consult it with great advantage on points where deep 
research is necessary ; but we cannot read it with pleasure as a con- 
tinued work, from its tedious details and harshness of style, its abrupt 
transitions, and the injudiciou? arrangement of many ot its parts. 

19. Geography and chronology have been justly termed the ligliu 
of history. VVe cannot peruse with advantage the historical annals 
ol any country without a competent knowledge of its geographical 
situation, and even of its particular topography. In reading the de 
scription of any event the mind necessarily forms a picture of the 
scene of action ; and it is surely better to draw the picture with truth 
from nature and reality, than talsely from imagination. Many actions 
and events are likewise intimately connected with the geography and 
local circumstances of a country, and are unintelligible without a 
knowledge of them. 

20. The use of chronological tables is very great, both for the 
purpose of uniting in one view the contemporary events in different 
nations, which often have an inliuenoe on one another, and for re- 
calling to the memory the order and series of events, and renewing 
the impressions of the objects of former study. It is extremely use- 
ful, after perusing the history of a nation in detail or that of a certain 
a^e or period, to run over briefly the principal occurrences in a table 
ot chronology. The most perfect works of this kind are the chio- 
nological tables of Dr. Flayfair, which unite history and biography; 
the tables of Dr. Blair ; or the older tables by Tallent* 

END OF PART FIRST. 

* A list of the best translations of the principal books above mentioned. 
Herodotus, translated hy Beloe, 4 vols. 8vo. 
Xenophon's Cycropedia by Cooper, 8vo. 
Xenophon's Anabasis, by Spelman, 2 vols. 8vo. 
Xenopbon^s History of Greece, by Smith, 4to. 

14 



* 

PART SECOND. 
MODERN HISTORY. 



SECTION I. 



OF ARABIA, AND THE EMPIRE OF THE SARACENS. 

1. Thk fall of the western empire of the Romans, and the final sub- 
jugation of Italj bv the Lombards, is tlie aera from which we date the 
commencement of Modern History. 

The eastern empire of the Romans continued to exist for many 
ages alter this period, still magnificent, though in a state of compar- 
ati*''. weaivness aiid degenenicy. Towards the end of the sixth cen- 
tury a new dominion arose in the east, which was destined to produce 
H wonderful change on a great portion of the globe. 

The Arabians, at this time a nidc nation, living chiefly in indepen- 
dent tribes, who tniced their descent from the patriarch Abraham, 
professed a mixed religion, compounded of Judaism and idolatry. 
*lecca, their holy city, rose to eminence from the donations of pil- 
grims to its temple, in which was deposited a black stone, an object 
of high veneration. Mahomet was born at Mecca, A. D. 571. Of 
mean descent, and no education, but of great natural talents, he sought 
to raise himself to celebrity, by feigning a divine mission to propagate 
a new religion for the salvation of mankind. He retired to the des- 
ert, and pretended to hold conferences with the angel Gabriel, who 
delivered to him, from time to time, portions of a sacred book or Co- 
ran^ containing revelations of the will of the Supreme Being, and of 
the doctrines which he required his prophet to communicate to the 
world. 

2. I'his religion, while it adopted in part the monility of Christian- 
ity, retained many of the rites of Judaism, and some of the Arabijui 
superstitions, as the pilgrimage to Mecca ; but owed to a certain spirit 

Plutarch, by Langhome, 6 vols. 8vo., or 6 vols. 12mo. Wrangham'i 

edition. 
Thucydides, by Smith, 2 vols. 8vo- 
I)iony-»iiis Halicarnassus, by Spelman, 4 vols. 4to 
Polybius, by Hampton, 4 vols. Uvo. 
Livy, by Daker, 6 vols. 8vo. 

Sail list, by Murphy, 8vo. ; by Stuart, 2 vols. 4to. ; by Rote, 8ro, 
Tacitus, by Murphy, 8 vols. 8vo. ; Irish edition, 4 vols. tivo. 
i:'i,etc::iu8, by Thompson, 8vo. 
Diodorus ijicubis, by Booth, I'olio. 
Arrian, l)y Rook, 2 vols. 8vo. 
Q. Curtius, by Digby, 2 vola. 12ino. 
Jastin, by Tumbull, 12mo. 



MODERIS HISTORIC. 107 

of Asiatic voluptuousness its chief recoinmenfiation to ifc« votaries. 
The Coran Uut;ht the belief of one God, whose will and power vvere 
constantly exerted lowanlb ttio liappiness of his cre.itnrei; that llie 
duty of man w;is to love his neighhours, as^^ist the poor, protoci ihp 
injured, to he humane to inferior animals, and to pniy seven timos a 
dav. The pious mussulman was allowed to have four wives, and Jis 
many concubines as he chose ; and the pleasures of love wore prom- 
ised 'as the supreme jovs of paradise. To revive the improsMon of 
these laws, ivhich God'had engraven originally in the hearts ot men, 
he had sent I ->m time to time his prophets upon earth, Abraham, 
Moses, Jesus v^hrist, and xAIahomet ; the last the greatest, to whonr. 
all the world should owe its conversion to the true religion. By 
producing the Coran in detached parcels. Mahomet had it iu his pow- 
er to solve all objections by new revelations, 

3. Dissensions and popuUvr tumults between the believers and inli- 
dels caused the banishment of Mahomet tVom Mecca. His tiight, 
called the hegyra^ A. D. 622, is the asra of his glory. He retired to 
Medina, and was joined by the brave Omar. He propagated his doc- 
trines with great success, and mnrched with his Ibllowei-s in arms, and 
took the city of Mecca. In a tew years he subdued all Arabin ; and 
then attacking Syria, took several of the Roman cities. In the midst 
of his victories he died at the age of sixty-one, A. D. 632. He had 
nominated Ali, his son-in-law, his successor; but Abubeker, his tather- 
in-law, secured the succession by gaining the arniy to his interest. 

4. Abubeker united and publisned the books of the Coran, and 
prosecuted the conquests of Mahomet. He delcated the army of He- 
rdclius,took Jerusalem, and subjected all the country between Mount 
Libanus and the Mediterranean! On his death Omar was elected to 
the caliphate, and in one campaign deprived the Greek empire of 
Syria, rhcenicia. Mesopotamia, nnd ChaldcEa. In the next campaign 
he subdued to tl>e mussulman dominion and religion, the whole em- 

Eire of Persia. His generals at the same time conquered Egypr. 
ibya, and Numidia. 

5. (3tman, the successor of Omar, added to the dominion of the 
caliphs Bactriaua, and part of Tartary, and ravaged Rhodes and the 
Greek islands. His successor was Ali, the son-in-law of Mahomet, a 
name to this day revered by the Mahometans. He transferred Ine 
seat of the caliphate from Mecca to Couffa, whence it was afterwards 
removed to Bagdat. His reign was glorious, but only of live years' 
duration. In the space of half a century from the beginning of the 
conquests of Mahom3t, the Saracens niisad an empire more extensive 
than what remiiined of the Roman. Nineteen Ciiliphs of the race ol 
Omar [Oin/nuides) reigned n succession, after which began the <ly- 
nasty of the ..iycwsiiie, descengea by the male line from Mahomet. 
Alminzor, second caliph of this race, removed the ?Cat of empire to 
Bagdat. and introduced learning and the culture of the sciences, 
which his successors continued to promote with equal zeal and liber- 
ality. Haroun Alraschid, who flourished in the beginning of the ninth 
cenlury, is celebrated as a second Augustus. The sciences chieti}; 
cultivated by the Arabians were, medicine, geometrv,aiul;ustronomy, 
Thev improved the oriental poetry, by add^ig regularity to its faiicj 
and luxuriancy of imagery. 



108 MODERN HISTORY. 

SECTION II. 
MONARCHY OF THE FRANKS. 



# 



1. The Franks were originally those tribes of Germans who inhab- 
ited the districts lying on the Lower Rhine and We&cr, and who, in 
the time of Tacitus, p:is!«ed under the names of Chauci, Cherusci, 
Catii. Sicambri, &.C. They assumed or received the appellation ot 
F'ratiKs^ or freemen, from their temporary union to resist the domin- 
ion of the Roman*^. legendary chronicles record a Pharan>ond and 
a Meroveus; the latter the head of the lirst race of the kings of Krance, 
termed the Merovmt^ian ; hut the authentic history of the Frank*, 
commences only with his grandson Cloyis, who lx»gan his reign in 
the year 481. hi the twentieth yejir of his age Ciovis achieved the 
conquest of Gaul, hy tlie defeat of Syagrius the Roman governor, 
and marrying Clotilda, tlaughler of Chilperic king of Burgundy, soon 
added that province to his dominions, hy dethroning his father-in-law. 
He was converted by Clotilda ; and the Franks, till then idolaters, be- 
came christians, after their sovereign's example. The Visigoths, 
proiessing Arianism, were m.rsters at this time of Aquitaine, the coun- 
try between the Rhone and Loire. The intenjperate zeal of Clovia 
prompted the extirpation of those heretics^ who retreated across 
the Pyrenees into Spain ; and the ])rovinces ol Aquitaine became part 
of the kingdom of the Franks. Tliey did not long retain it, for The- 
odoric the grea*. defeated Ciovis in the battle of Aries, jmd added 
Aquitaine to his dominions. Ciovis died A. D. 51 1. 

2. His four sons divided the monarchy, and were perpetually at 
war with one another. A series of weak and wicked princes succeed- 
ed, and Gaul for some ages was characterized under its Frank sover- 
eigns by more than ancient barbarism. On the death of Dagobert II, 
A. D. 638, who left two infant sons, the government, during their mi- 
nority, fell into the hands of their chief officers, termed mayors of the 
palace ; and these ambitious men lounded a new power, which for 
some generations held the Fnuik sovereigns in absolute subjection, 
and let\ them little more than the title of king. Austrasia and Neus- 
tria, the two great divisions of the Frank monarchy, were nominally 
governed by Thierry, but in reality by Pepin Heristel, mayor of the 
palace, who, restricting his sovereign to a small domain, ruled France 
for thirty years with great wisdom and good policy. His son, Charles 
Martel, succeeded to his power, and under a similar title governed for 
twenty-six yeai-s with equal ability and success. He was victorious 
over all hi.-^ domestic toes. His arm's kept in awe the surrounding 
nations, and he delivered Fnuice from the ravages of the Saracens, 
whom ne entirely ileleated het\veen Tours and Foictiers, A. D. 7J2. 

3. Charles Martel bequeatlrtil the government of I Vance, as an un- 
disputed inheritance, to his two sons, Pepin le brefand Carloman, 
who governed, under the same tithi of mayor, one Austrasia, and the 
other Neustria and Hurgundv. On the resignation ol" Carloman, Fepin 
succeeded to the sole administration. Ambitious of aiKling the title 
of king to the power which he already enjoyed, he proposed the 
question to pope Zachary, whether he or his sovereign Childeric 
was most worthy of the throne ? Zachary. who had his interest in 
view, decided that Pepin had a right to acid the title of king to the 
oflice ; and Childeric was contined to a monastery for life. With 



MODEllN HISTORY 109 

Tiim ended the first or Merovingian race of the kings of France, 
A.D.751. 

4. Pepin recompenseil the service done him by the pope, by turn 
iag his arms against the Lombards. He deprived them of the exar- 
chate of Ravenna, and made a donation of thotand other considemble 
territories to the holy see, which were the first, as is alleged, of its 
temporal possessions. Conscious of his defective title, it was the 
principal object of Pepin le bref to conciliate tlie affeciions of the 
people whom he governed. The legislative power among the l''n»nk? 
was vested in the people assembled in their champs ae. Mars. Under 
the Merovingian race the regal authority had sunk to nothing, while 
the power ol the nobles had attained to an inordinate extent. Pepin 
found it his best policy to acknowledge and ratilV those rights, which 
he could not without danger have invaded ; and thus, under the char- 
acter of guardian of the powers of all the orders of the state, he exalt 
ed the regal office to its proper elevation, and founded it on the se- 
curest basis. On his death-bed he called a council of the gmndees 
and obtained their consent to a division of his kingdom between his 
two son^ Charles and Carloman. He died A. D. 768, at the age of 
fifty-three, after a reign of seventeen years from the death of Chil- 
deric 111, and an administration of twenty-seven from the death of 
Charles Martel. 



SECTION 111. 

REFLECTIONS ON THE STATE OF FRANCE DURING THE 
MEROVINGIAN RACE OF ITS KINGS. ORIGIN OF THE 
FEUDAL SYSTEM. 

1. The manners of the Franks were similar to those of the other 
(Tcrmanic nations described by Tacitus. Though under the command 
of a chief or king, their government was extremely democratical, and 
they acknowledged no other than a military subordination. The legis- 
lative authority resided in the general assembly, or champs de Mars. 
held annually on the 1st day of March, a council in which the king 
had but a single suffrage, equally with the meanest soldier. But, 
when in arms against the enemy, his power was absolute in enforcinfj 
military discipline. 

2. After the establishment of the Franks in Gaul some changes took 
place from their new sitwation. They reduced the Gauls to absolute 
subjection ; yet they letl many in possession of their lands^ because the 
new country was too large for ite conquerors. They left them like- 
wise the use of their existing laws, which were those of the Roman 
code, while they themselves were governed by the sa/iaue and ripua- 
rian laws, ancient institutions in observance among the h ranks before 
they left their original seats in Germany. Hence arose that extraor- 
dinary diversity of local laws and usages in the kingdom of France, 
which continued down to modern times, and gave occasiwi to number- 
less inconveniences. 

3. The ancient Germans had the highest veneration for the priests 
or druids. It was natural that the Franks, after their conversion to 
Christianity, should have the same reverence for their bishops, to 
whom accordingly they allowed the first rank in the national as- 
sembly. These bishops were generally chosen from among the na- 
tive Gauls ; for, having adopted from this nation their new religion- 
it was natural that their priests should be chosen from the same peo- 



-i*o Modern history. 

pie. The Influence of (he clergy contributed much to ameliorate 
the condition of the conquered (Jaui.s, and to jjimiani/e Iheir conquer 
ors; and in a short «pace of lime the two nations wore thoroughly in- 
corponited. 

\. At this period a new system of policy is visible among this unit- 
ed j>eople, which by degrees extended itself over most of the nalioni 
of Kurope. This ir' Lie feudal ^slein. By this expression is properly 
meant that tenure or condition on which tiie proprietoi-s of lan(l held 
their poss(;.%sions, viz., an obligation to perlorm military service, 
whenever required by the chief or overlord to whom they owed al- 
legiance. 

Many modem writers attribute the origin of this iastitution or poli- 
cy to the kings of the Franks, who, after the conquest of Gaul, are 
supposed to nave divided the lands among their followers, on this 
condition of military service. But this notion is attended with insur- 
mountable diihcuities. For, in the fii"st nlacc,it proceeds on this false 
siipposition, that the conquered lands belonged in proper ty to the king, 
and that he had the right of bestowing them in gilts, or (iividing tliem 
among his followers; whereas it is a certain liict. that among the 
Franks the partition of conquered lands was made by lot, as was the 
ilivision even of the spoil or booty taken in battle ; and that the king's 
share, though doubtless a larger portion than that of his captains, was 
likewise assigned him by lot. Secondly, if we should suppose the king 
to have made those gifts to his captains out of his own domain, the 
creation of a very few bene/icia {benefices) would have rendered him 
a poorer man than his subjects. We must therefore have recourse 
to another supposition for the origin of the tiefs; and we shall find 
that it is to be traced to a source much more remote than the con 
^uest of Gaul by the Franks. 

3. Among all barbarous nations, with whom war Is the chief occu- 
iXition, we remark a strict subordination of the member's ol a tribe to 
♦ heir chief or leader. It Wc.s observed by Caesar as peculiarly strong 
among the Gaulish nations, and as subsisting not only between the 
soldiers and their commander, but between the inferior towns or vil- 
mges, and the canton or province to wbich they belonged. In peace 
every man cultivated his land, free of all taxation, and subject to no 
other burden but that of military service, when required by his chief 
When the province was at war, each village, though taxed to furnish 
only a certain number of soldiers, was bound to send, on tbe day ap- 
pointed for a general muster, all its males capable of bearing arms; 
and from these iL« rated number was selected by the chief of the prov- 
ince. This ciientcla [vaswUio-e) subsisted among the Franks as well 
as among the Gauls, it subsisted among the Romans, who, to check 
the inroads of the barbarian nations, and to secure their distant con- 
uuest:*, were obliged to ir.ainlain fixed garrisons on their frontiers. 
To each othcer in those giirisons it was customary to assign a por- 
tion of land ;is the pledge and pay of his service. These gills wei'e 
termttd beneficia^ and their proprietors btncficiarii. Flin. Lp. lib. 10, 
ep. '52. The bencficia were at tirst granteclonly for life. Alexander 
Severus allowed them to descend to heirs, on the like condition oi 
military service. 

6. VVhen Gaul was overrun by the Franks, a great part of the lands 
was potjssessed on this tenure by the Roman soldiery, .xs the rest was 
by the native Gauls. The conquerors, accustomed to the same poli- 
cy ■='0'iji liturally adopt it in the partition of their new conquests; 
» V. JOiiS^ \* receiving his share, becoming bound to military service. 



MODEKJN HISTORY. Ill 

a« a condition necessarily annexed to territorial property. With 
respect to those Gauls who retained their possessions, no other 
change was necessary but to exact the same obligati )n ot" milijtary 
vassalage to their new conquerors, which they had rendered to theii 
former masters the emperors, and, before the Roman conijuest, to 
their native chiefs. Thus no other change took place but that ol 
the overlord. The systeon was the same which had prevailed for 
ages. 

7. But these beneficing or tiefs, were personal grants, revocable by 
the sovereigii or overlord, and reverting to him on the death of the 
vassal. The weakness of the Frank kings of the Merovingian race 
emboldened the possessors of fiefs to aspire at independence and 
security of property. In a convention held at Andeli in 587, to treat 
of peace between Gontran and Childebert II., the nobles oI liged 
these pnnces to renounce the right of revoking their benefices, 
which henceforward passed by inheritance to their eldest male issue. 

8. It was a necessary consequence of a fief becoming perpetual and 
hereditary, that it should be capable of subinfeudation ; and that the 
vassal himself, holding his land of the sovereign by the tenure of 
military service, should be enabled to create a train of inferior vas- 
sals, by giving to them portions of his estate to be held on the same 
condition, of following his standard in battle, rendering him homage 
as their lord, and paying, as the symbol of their subjection, a small 
annual present, either ot money or the fruits of their lands. Thus, 
in a little time, the whole territory in the ieudal kingdoms was either 
held immediately and in capite of the sovereign himself, or mediately 
by inferior vassals of the tenants in capite. 

9. It was natural in those disorderly times, when the authority of 
government and the obligation of general laws were extremely weak, 
that the superior or overlord should acquire a civil and criminal 
jurisdiction over his vasswls. I'he cornites. to whom, as the chiei 
magistrates of police, the admmistration of justice belonged of right, 
paid little attention to the duties of their office, and shamefully abused 
their powers. The inferior classes naturally chose, instead of seek- 
ing justice through this corrupted channel, to submit their lawsuits to 
the arbitration of their overlord ; and this jurisdiction, conferred at first 
by the acquiescence of parties, came at length to be regarded as 
founded on strict right. Hence arose a perpetual contest of jurisdic- 
tion between the greater bar )ns in their own territories aun the es- 
tablished judicatories; a natural cause of that extreme anarchy and 
disorder which prevailed in France during the greater part of the 
Merovingian period, and sunk ihe regal authority to the lowest pitch 
of abasement. In a government of which every part was at variance 
with the rest, it was not surprising that a new power should arise, 
which, in able hands, should be capable of bringing the whole under 
subjection. 

10. The mayor of the palace, or first officer of the household, 
gradually usurped, under a series of weak princes, the whole 
powers of the sovereign. This office, from a personal dignity, be- 
came hereditary in the family of Pepin Heristel. His grandson, 
Fepin le bref^ removed from the throne those phantoms of the Me- 
rovingian race, assumed the title of king, by the authority of a pa- 

Bil decree, and reigned for seventeen years with di|»nity and success, 
e was the foundej- of the second race of the French monarchs 
known by the name of the Carlovingian. See Kett'S Elements of « 
General Knowledge, vol. I. 



il2 MODERN HISTORY. 

SECTION IV. 
CHARLEMAGNE. THE NEW EMPIRE OF THE WEST. 

1. Petin le bref\ with the consent of his nobles, divided, on his 
death-bed, the lungdom of France between his sons, Charles and 
Carloman, A. D. 7G8. The latter died a few years after his father, 
and Charles succeeded to the undivided sovereignty. In the couilse 
of a reign of forty-tive yeai-s Cliarknuignc (^foi so he was de- 
servedly styled) extended the limits uf his empire beyond the Dan- 
ube ; subdued iJacia, Dalmatia, and Istria ; conquered and subjected 
all th*^ barbarous tribes to the banks of the Vistula ; made himself mas- 
ter of a great portion of Italy ; and successfully encountered the arms 
of the Suracens, the Huns, the Bulgarians, and the Saxons. His 
war with the Saxons was of thirty years' duration, and their final 
conquest was not achieved without an inhuman waste of blood. At 
the request of the pope, and to discharge the obligation of his father 
Pepin to the holj see, Charlemagne dispossessed Desiderius king of 
the Lombards of all his dominions, thougn allied to him by marriage ; 
and put a tinal period to the Lombard dominion in Italy, A. D. "tlA. 

2. He made his entry into Rome at the festival of Easter, was 
there crowned king of France and of tlie Lombards, and was, by 
pope Adrian I, invested with the right of ratifying the election of 
the popes. Irene, empress of the east, sought to ally herself witli 
Charlemagne, by the marriage of her son Constantine to his daugh- 
ter; but her subsequent inhuman conduct, in putting Constantine to 
death, gave ground to suspect the sincerity of her desire for that 
idliance. 

3. in the last visit of Charlemagne to Italy he was consecrated 
emperor of the west by the hands of pope Leo III. It is probable 
that if he had chosen Rome for his residence and seat of government, 
and at Iws death had transmitted to his successor an undivided domin- 
ion, tlie great but fallen empire of the west might have once more 
been restored to lustre and respect. ^ But Charlemagne had no fixed 
capital, and divided, even in his lifetime, his dominions among his 
children, A. D. 306. 

4. The economy of government and the domestic administration 
of Charlemagne merit attention. Pepin le href had introduced the 
system of annual assemblies or parliaments, htld at first in March, 
and afterwards in ^lay, where the chief estates of clergy Jind nobles 
were called to deliberate on the public affairs and the wants of the 
people. Charlemagne apointed these assemblies to be held twice in 
the year, in spring and in autumn. In the latter assembly all affairs 
were {prepared and digested; in tlie tbrmer was transacted the busi- 
ness ol legislation ; and of this assembly he miide the people a party, 
by admitting from each province or district twelve cleputies or rep- 
resentatives. The assembly now consisted of three estates, each of 
which formed a separate chamber, and discussed apart the concerns 
of its own order. They afterwards united to communicate their 
resolutions, or to deUi>ei-ate on their common interests. The sove- 
reign was never present, unless when called to nktiiy the decrees of 
the assembly. 

5. Charlemagne divided the empire into provmces, and the prov- 
inces into distiicts, each comprehending a certain number of coun- 



MODERN HISTORY. 113 

ties. ITie districts were governed by royal envoys, chosen from the 
clergy and nobles, and bound to an exact visitation of their territories 
every three months. These envoys held annual conventions, at 
whic'h were present the higher clergy and barons, to discuss the 
aflairs of the district, examine the conduct of its magistrates, and 
redress the grievances of individuals. At the general assembly, oi 
champ de Mai^ the royal envoys made their report to the sovereign 
and states; and thus the public attention was constantly directed to 
uli the concerns of the empire. 

6. The private character of Charlemagne was most amiable and 
despectable. His secretary, Eginhart, has painted his domestic lilie 
in beautiful and simple colours. The economy of his family Is char- 
acteristic of an age of great simplicity ; for his daughters were as- 
siduously employed in spinning and housewifery, and the sons were 
trained by their father in the practice of all manly exercises. This 
illustrious man died A. ]X 814, in the seventy-second year of his age. 
Contemporary with him was Haroun Alraschid, caliph of the Snra- 
cens, equally celebrated for his conquests, excellent policy, and the 
wisdom rnd humanity of his government. 

7. Of all the lawful sons of Charlemagne, Lewis the debonnaire 
was the only one who survived him, and who tnerefore succeeded 
without dispute to all the imperial dominions, exce])t Italy, which 
the emperor had settled on Bernard, his grandson by Fepin, his 
second son. 



SECTION V. 

MANNERS, GOVERNMENT, AND CUSTOMS OF THE AGE OF 
CHARLEMAGNE. 

1. In establishing the provincial conventions under the royal 
envoys, Charlemagne did not entirely abclish the authority of the 
ancient chief magistrates, the dukes and counts. They continued 
to command the troops of the province, and to make the levies in 
stated num'3ers from each district. Cavalry were not numerous in 
the imperial armies, twelve forms being taxed to furnish only one 
horseman with his armour and accoutrements. The province sup- 
plied six months' provisions to its complement of men, and the king 
maintained them during the rest of the campaign. 

2. The engines for the attack and defence of towns were, as in 
former times, the ram, the balista, catapulta, testudo, Lc. Charle- 
magne had his ships of war stationed in the mouths of all the larger 
rivers. He bestowed great attention on commerce. The merchants 
of Italy and the south of France traded to the Levant, and exchanged 
the commodities of Europe and Asia. Venice and Genoa were 
rising into commercial opulence; and the manufactures of wool, glass, 
and iron, were successfully cultivated in many of the principal towns 
in the south of Europe 

3. The value of money was nearly the same as in the Roman 
empire in the age of Constantine the great. The numerary Uvre, 
in the age of Charlemagne, was supposed to be n pound of silver, in 
value about 3U sterling of English money. At present tlie livre is 
worth 10 l-2d. English. Hence we ought to be cautious m torming 
our efctimate of ancient money from its name. From the want of 

5 



114 MODERI^ HISTORY . j 

fhii caution have arisen the most erroneous ideas of the commerce, | 

richos and strength ol" the anrjent kingdoms. ! 

4. The CtipituUiruL {s'lUuit-huohi) of Charlcm;igne, compiled into a 

hody A. D. 827, were recovered from oljlivion in 1531 and 1545 1 

Ttiey present ma'iy circumstances illustrative of the manners of the j 

tim^vs. Unless in great cities there were no inns: the laws ohiiged 1 

every man to give accommodation to travellers. The chief towns j 

were huilt of wood. The stale of tin; mechanic arts was verv low \ 

in t^urope. The Saracens had made more progress in them. Taint- | 

mg and sculpture were only preserved from absolute extinction hy ! 

the existing remains of ancient art. Charlomii-^ne appears to have , 

tjoen anxious for the improvement ol" music ; and the Italians are said | 

lo have instructed his trench performei-s in llie art of playing on the | 

Drgan. Architecture ;vas studied and succes.sfully cultivated in that ■ 

btyle termed the Gothic, which adinits of great beauty, elegance, i 

and magnificence. The composition of .Mosaic appears to have been | 
an iiiveniion of those ages. 

5- The knowledge of letters was extremely low, and confined to a ! 
few of the ecclesiiisticr.. Charlemagne gave the utmost eixourage- 

rneoi to literature uul the sciences, inviting into his dominions of ^ 
France, men eminent in those denartments from iudy, and from the 
Britannic isles, which, in tlio<e thirk ages, preserved more of the 

light of learning than any of the western kmgdoms. ^^ jVcqite erita ' 

iUetuLi has drhannix^ Scotix^ et [li'jerniic, qiv£ sUulio liberuliuin arimm J 
CO tempore anteceUeh-ait retiqui^ occidentxilio ,s vcgnis ; et cura vrccsertim 

irLomidioruin^ qrd litcrarum gioriuiii^ alibi aid Uinguentem aut aepressain^ , 
in lis regioiiibiis itauigre suscitabunt utque lucliantur.^' Munit. Anliu. 
Ital. Diss. Isi. ''* 1 nui3t not omit the praise due to tlngkiniU ScotUma^ 

and Ireland^ -johick at ticut time excelled tlic other u'estern kingdoms in the ' 
ttiLly o/' the liberal arts ; and especialli/ to the //iou/iA-, by zv/iose care and 
diligence Vie honour <f liierature, -ojhich in other countries -jl'os either 
langimhing or depressed^ zcas revived and j)rottctcd in theses I'he 
sca'-^ity of books in those tinu-s, and the nature of their sulijecta. 
as legends, lives of the saints, &,c., evince the narrow diffusion of 
literature. 

0. The pecuniary fines for homicide, the cdeal or judgment of ] 

God, and judicial combat, were striking peculiarities in lie laws and ' 

manners of the northern nations, and particularly of the Franks. By . 

this wa.like, barbarous people, revenge was esteemed honourable and i 

meritorious. The high-spirited w.u'rior chastised or vindicated with , 

his own h.md the injuries which he had received or indicted. TiSe j 

rnai^islrate iaterfereil, not to punish, hut to reconcile, and was satisfied | 

if tie could persuade the agijressor to pay, and the injured piirty lo ' 
\ccept, thi' moilerate fine which wiis imposed as the price of blood, 

find of which the measiu'e was estimated according to the rank, the j 

sex. and the country of the person slain. But increasing civilization ] 

nhoiished ihosj barl) nous distinctions. We have remarked the equal | 

sevtrily of the l.iws of the Visigoths, in the crimes of murder and i 

robbery; and even ama.ig the br.mks, in Ihi age of Charlemagne, | 
deliberate murder was punished with death. 

7. By th.jir ancient laws, a party accused of any crime w;i3 al- I 

lowed to produce omjiurgators, or a certain numl)ei of witnesses. ! 
according lo the measure of the offv .ice ; and if these declared 

upon oath their belief of his innocence, it was held a suliicienl excnr- ; 
paiion. Seventy-two compurgators were required to acquit a mur- 
derer or an incendiary. The Hagrant per}urie« occasioned by tbifi 



MODERN HISTORY. 115 

absurd practice probably gave rise to the trial by ordeal, which was 
termed, as it was believed to be, the judgment of God. The crimi- 
nal was ordered, at the o)3tion of" the judge, to prove his innocence 
or giiilt, bv the onleal ot cold water, of boiling water, or red hot 
iron. iJe was tied hand and foot, and thrown into a pool, to sink or 
sv.im ; he was made to fetch a ring from the bottom of a vessel of 
boiling water, or to walk barefooted over burning ploughshares. His- 
tory records examples of those wonderful experiments having been 
made without injury or pain. 

8. Another peculiarity of the laws and maimers of the northern 
nations was judicial combat. Both in civil suits and in the trial of 
crimes, the party destitute of legal proofs might challenge his antag- 
onist to mortal combat, and rest the cause upon its issue. This san- 
guinary and most iniquitous custom, which may be traced to this day 
in the practice of duelling, had the authority of law in the court of 
the constable and marshal, even in the last century, in France and 
England. 



SECTION VI. 

RETROSPECTIVE VIEW OF THE AFFAIRS OF THE CHURCH 
BEFORE THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 

1. The Arian and Pelagian heresies divided the christian church 
for many ages. In the fourth century, Arius, a presbyter of Alexan- 
dria, maintained the separate and initerior nature of the second per- 
son of the trinity, regarding Christ as the noblest of created beings, 
through whose agency the Creator had formed the universe, liis 
doctrine was condemned in the council of Nice, held by Constantine 
A. D. 325, who afterwards became a convert to it. I'or many cen- 
turies ii had an extensive influence, and produced the sects of the 
Eunomians, Semi-Arians, Eusebians, &-c. 

2. In the beginning of the fil\h century Pelagius and Caslestius, 
the former a native of Britain, the latter of Ireland, denied the doc- 
trine of original sin, and the necessity of divine grace to enlighten 
the understanding, and purify the heart ; and maintained the sufh- 
ciency of man's natural powers for the attainment of the highest 
degrees of piety and virtue. These tenets were ably combated by 
St. Augustine, an(' condemned by an ecclesiastical council, but have 
ever continued to find many supporters. 

3. Th'* most obstinate source of controversy in those ages was tlie 
worship of images ; a practice which was at first opposed by the 
clergy, but was afterwards, from irnerested motives, countenanced 
and \ indicated by them. It was, however, long a subject of division in 
the church. The emperor Leo the Isaurian, A. D. 727, attemj)ted 
to suppress this idolatry, by the destruction of every statute and pic- 
ture found in the churches, and by punishment of their worshippers: 
but tlii'^ inteniperate zeal rather increased than repressed the super- 
stition. His son Constantine Copronymus, with wiser policy, pro- 
cured its condemnation by the church. 

4. From the doctrines of the Platonic and Stoic philosoj)hy, 
which recommended the purification of the soul, by redeeming it 
from its subjection to the senses, arose the system of penances, mor- 
tilicalion, religious sequestration; and monachism. After Constantine 
had put an end to the persecution of the christians, many conceived 



116 MODERN HISTORY. 

it a duty to procure for themselves voluntary grievances and suffer- 
ings. They retired into caves and hermitages, and there practised 
tlie most rigorous inorlitications of the ti«jsh, by lasting, scourging, 
vigils, ^c. This ])hrensy first showed itsolfin Egypt in the fourth ' 
century, whence it spread over all tliv? oast, a great part of Africa, 
ami within the limits of the l)is!;opric of Rome. In the time of The- i 
odosius these devotees began to lorm communities or ccenobicu, each ■ 
associate binding himself by oath to observe the rules of his order. ' 
St. Benedict introduced monachism into Itidv, under the reign of 
Totila ; and his order, tlie Benedictine, soon became extremely nu- 
merous and opulent. Many rich donations were made by the devout 
and charitable, who believed that they profited by the prayers of the i 
monks. Benedict sent colonies into Sicily and France, whence they 
soon spread over all Europe. 

5. In the east, the monachi solitarii (solitjfry monks) were first incor- 
porated into ccenobia by St. Basil, bishop of Caesar(>i, in the middle of 
the fourth century ; and some time beibre tliat period the first monas- , 
teries tor women were founded in Egypt by the sister of St. Facomo. " 
From these, in the following age, sprung a variety of orders, under 
different rules. The rule of the canons regular was framed after the * 
model of the apostolic lite. To chastity, obedience, and poverty, the 
mendicants added the obligation of begging alms. The military reli- ; 
gious orders were utdcnown till the age of the holy wars. (Sect. XVII, 

6 3.) The monastic fraternities owed their reputation chietly to the 4 
little hterary knowledge which, in those ages of ignorance, they ex J 
clusively possessed. (For the origin of monachism, see Varieties of '< 
Lite rat -.re.) ^ < 

6. In the fifth century arose a set of fanatics termed stylites, or pil- 
lar-saints, who passed their lives on the tops of pillars of various height ! 
Simeon of Syria Uved thirty -seven years, and died on a pillar sixty j 
feet high. This phre'isy prevailed in the east for many centuries. | 
(For a curious account of the fanaticism of the Hindt)0s, see TennantV 
Indian Recreations.) 

7. Auricular contession, which had been abolished in the east in 
the fourth century, began to be in use in the west in the age of Char- : 
lemagne, and has ever since prevailed in the Romish church. The | 
canonization of saints was, for near twelve centuries, practised by ev- 
ery bishop. Pope Alexander HI, one of the most vicious of men, 
first claimed and assumed this right, as the exclusive privilege of the | 
successor of St. Peter. 

8. The conquests of Charlemagne spread Christianity in the north 

of Europe; but all beyond the limits of his conquests was irlolatrous. ' 

Britain and Ireland had received the light of Christianity at an earlier ' 

period ; but it was afterwards extinguished, and again revived under ' 
the Saxon heptarchy. 



SECTION VII. 

EMPIRE OF THE WEST UNDER THE SUCCESSORS OF CHAR- 
LEMAGNE. 



1. Tnt empire of Charlemagne, raised and supported solely by his 
abilities, fell to pieces under his weak posterity. Lewis (/e (lebcmnaire). 
the ouly survivor of his lawful sons, was consecrated emperor and 
king of the Franks at Aix la Chapelle, A. D. 816. Among the first 



MODERN HISTUKV. in 

acts of his reign was the partition of his dominions anivong his children. 
To Pepin, his second son, he gave Aquitaine,a third part of the south 
of France; to Lewis, the youngest, mvaria ; and he associated his 
eldest son Lotharius with himseli in the government of the rest. The 
three princes quarrelled amons: themselves, agreeing in notliing hut 
in hostility against their fiither. They made open war against him,, 
supported by pope Gregory IV. The'pretence was, that the emper- 
or having a younger son, Charles, born after this partition of his 
states, wanted to give him likewise a share, Avhich could not be done 
but at the expense of his elder brothers. Lewis was compelled to 
surrender himself a prisoner to his rebellious sons. They contined 
him for a year to a monasterv', till, on a new quarrel between Lewis 
the younger and Pepin, Lotharius once more restored his lather lo 
the throne: but his spirits were broken, his health decaved, and he 
finished, soon after, an inglorious and turbulent reign, A. U. 84U. 

2. The dissensions of the brothers still continued. Lotharius, now 
emperor, and Pepin his brothers son, having taken up arm.s against^ 
the two other sons of Lewis le debonnaire^ Lewi? of Bavaria and 
Charles the bald, were defeated by them in the battle of Fontenai, 
where 100,000 are said to have fallen in the field. The church in 
those times was a prime organ of the ci\ il policy. A council of bish- 
ops immediately assembled, and solemnly deposed Lotharius. Al the 
same time they assumed an equal authority over his conquerors, 
whom they pennitted to reign, on the express condition of submissive 
obedience to the supreme spiritual authority. Yet Lotharius, though 
excommunicated and deposed, found means lo accommodate matters 
with his brothers, who agreed to a new partition of the empire. By 
the treaty of Verdun, A. D. 843, the western part of France, termed 
Neustria and A^uitaine, was assigned to Charles the bald ; Lotharios, 
with the title of emperor, had the nominal sovereignty of Italy, and 
the real territory ot Lorraine, Franche Compte, Provence, and the 
Lyonnois; the share of Lewis was the kingdom of Germany. 

3. Thus was Germany finally separated from the empire of the 
Franks. On the death of Lotharius, Charles the bald assumed the 
empire, or, as is said, purchased it from pope John Vlli, on the con- 
dition of holding it as a vassal to the holy see. This prince, at^er a 
weak and inglorious reign, died by poison, A. D. 877. He was the 
fii-st of the French monarchs who made dignities and titles hereditary. 
Under the distracted reigns ol' the Carlovingian kings, the nobles at- 
tained great power, and commanded a formidable vassalage. Thev 
strengthened themselves in their castles and ibrtresses, and bid defi- 
ance to the arm of government, while the country was ravaged and 
desolated by their feuds. 

4. In the reign of Charles the bald, France was plundered by the 
Normans, a new race of Goths from Scandinavia, who had begun 
their depredations even in the time of Charlemagne, and were only 
checked in their progress by the terror of his arms. A. D. 843 they 
sailed up the Seine, and plundered Rouen ; while another fleet enter- 
ed the Loire, and laid waste the country and its vicinity, carrying, 
together with its spoils, men, women, and children, into canti'viiy. 
In the following year they attacked the coasts of England, t ranee 
and Spain, but were repelled from the hist by the good conduct aac 
courage of its Mahometan rulers. In 845 they entered the Kibe, 
plundered Hamburgh, and penetrated far into Germany. Eric, king 
of Denmark, who commanded these Normans, sent once more a fleet 
into the Seine, which advanced to Paris. Its inhabitants ded, and the 



118 MODKRN HISTORY. 

city was burnt. Another fleet, witli little resistance, pillaged Boor- 
Hraiix. To avert the nrms of these nivagers, Charles the hahl hril»*^d 
them with money, and his successor, Charles the gross, yielded them 
a part of his Flemish dominions. These ivere only incentives to 
fresh depredation. Paris w.ys attitcked a second lime, hut gallantly 
defended hj count Odo or Eudes, and the venerable hishap Goslin. 
A truce was a second time concluded ; hut the barbarians only chang- 
ed the scene of their attack : they besieged Sens, and plundered 
Burgundy. An assembly of the states held at Mentz deposed the 
unwortiiy Charles, and conferred i\\e crown on tne more <lesprving 
l^uues : who, during a r^ign often years, bravely withstood the Nor- 
mans. A great part of the states of France, however, refused his 
title to the crown, and gave their allegiance to CIrarles sumamed the 
simple. 

5. Rollo, the Norman, in 9 1 2, compelled the king of France to 
yield him a large portion of the territory of Neustria, and to give 
nim his daughter In marriage. The new kingdom was now called 
Normandy, of which Rouen was the capital. 



SECTION VIII. 

EMPIRE OF THE EAST DURING THE EIGHTH AND NINTH J 
CENTURIES. , 

1. While the new empire of the west, was thus rapidly tending - 
to dissolution, the empire of Constantinople still retained a vest'ge (3 i 
it^ ancient grandeur. It had lost its African and Syri:in dependencies, i 
and was plundered by the Saracens on the eastern frontier, and rav- \ 
aged on the north and west r)y the Abari and Bulgarians. The capi- ^ 
tal, though splendid and refined, was a constant scene of rebellions '• 
^nd conspiracies ; and the imperial family itself exhibited a series ot 
the most horrid crimes and atrocities. One emperor was put to ' 
death in revenge of murder and incest ; i.nother was poisoned by his i 
queen ; a third was assas.sinated in the bath by his own domestics ; a J 
fourth tore out the eyes of his brother; the empress Irene, respecta- 
ble for her talents, was infamous for the murder of her only son. 
Of such complexion was that series of princes w ho swaytd the scep- 
tre of the east nearly 200 years. 

2. In the latter part of ihis period a most violent controversy was 
maintained respecting the worship of images, which were alternately , 
destroyed and replaced according to the humour of tiie sovereign, i 
The female sex was their most zealous supporter. This was not the | 
only subject of division in the christian church ; the doctrines of Man- 
iches were then extremely prevalent, and the sword was frequent- i 
ly erriployed to support and propagate their tenets. 

3. The misfortunes of the empire were increased by an invasion ' 
of the Russians from the Palus Monotis and Euxine. In the reign of I 
Leo. named the philosopher, the Turks, a new race of barbarians, of 
Scythirin or Tartarian breed, began to make efiectual inroads on its I 
territories. About the same time its domestic calamities were aggra- 
vated by the separation of the Greek from the Latin church, of | 
which we shall treat under the following section. 



MODERN HISTOKY. 119 

SECTION IX. 
STATE OF THE CHURCH IN THE EIGHTH AND NINTH 

c:enturies. 

1. The popes had begun to acquire a temporal authority under 
Pepin U bref and Charlemagne, from the donations of territory 
m;Kle by those princes,, and they were now gradually extending a 
spriritual jurisdiction ovei all the christian kingdoms. Nicholas 1. 
proclaimed to the whole world his paramount judgment in appeal 
trom the sentences of all spiritual judicatories; his power ol as- 
sembhng councils of the church, and of regulating it by the canons 
of those councils ; the right of exercising his authority by legates in 
ail the kingdoms of Europe, and the control of the pope over all 
princes and governors. Literary imposture gave its support to these 

firetcnces. Certain spurious epistles were written in the name of 
sidorus, with the design of proving the justice of the claims of the 
pope , and the forgery'of those epistles was not completely exposed 
till the sixteenth century. Among the prerogatives of the popes was 
tiie regulation of the marriages of all the crowned heads, by the 
extreme extension of the proliibitions of the canoL law, with which 
they alone had the power of dispensing. 

2. One extraordinary even4; (if true) afforded, in the ninth cen- 
tury, a ludicrous interruption to the boasted succession of regular 
bisliops from the days ot rift. Peter, the election of a temale pope, 
who is said to have ably governed the church for three years, till 
detected by the birth of a child. Till the reformation by Luther 
this event wiis not regarded b_y the catholics as incredible, nor dis- 
graceful to the church : since that time its truth or ialsehood has 
been the subject of keen controversy between the protestants and 
catholics ; and the evidence for its falsehood seems to preponderate. 

3. The church was thus gradually extending its induence, and 
its head arrogating the control over sovereign princes, who, by a 
singular interchange of character, seem, in those ages, to have 
fixed their chief attention on spiritual concerns. Kings, dukes, and 
counts, neglecting their temporal duties, shut themselves up in clois- 
ters, and spent their lives in prayers and penances. Ecclesiastics 
were employed in all the departments ol" secular government; and 
they alone conducted all public measures and state negotiations, 
which of course they directed to the great objects of advancing the 
interests of the church, and estabi'shing the paramount authority ol 
the holy see. 

4. At this period, however, when' the popedom seemed to have 
attained its highest ascendancy, it suffered a severe wound in that 
remarkable schism which separated the patriarchates of Rome and 
Constantinople, or the Greek and Latin churches. The Roman pon- 
tift' had hitherto claimed the right of nominating the patriarch of 
Constantinople. The emperor Michael III. denied this right, and de- 
posing the pope's patriarch, Ignatius, appointed the celebrated Photius 
in his stead. Pope Nicholas 1. resented this affront with a high spirit, 
and deposed and excommunicated Photius, A. D. 863, wlio, in hid 
turn, pronounced a similar sentence against the pope. The church 
was divided, each patriarch being supported by many bishops and 
their dependent clergy. The Greek and Latin bishops had long 



isJU MODEIiJS HISTOKY. 

diflfered in many points of pr.ictice ami discipline, iis the celibacy of 
the clergy, the shaviiit; of their heards, &c:; hut in reality the prime 
source olMivision was ilie anihilion ol'lhr rival pontills, and the jeal- 
ousy of the Greek emperors', nnuilliug to admit the control of 
Home, and obstinately asserting t;\t'rv preiogative which they con- 
ceiveil to be annexed to the capital of the Roman empire. As; nei- 
ther parly uotild yield in' its pretensions, the division ol the Greek 
and Latin churche.s became from this lime nermanent. 

5. Amid tht)se ambitious contests lor ecclesiastical nower and pre- 
eminence, the christian religion itself was disgniced, both by the 
pn.ctice and by the principles of its teachers. Worldly ambition, 
gro^s voluptuousness, and grosser ignorance, chanicterized all ranks 
of the clergy ; and the open sale of benetices placed them often in 
the hands of the basest and most protligate of men. Yet the charac- 
ter of Pholius forms an illustrious exception. Though bred a states^ 
man and a soldier, and in both these respects of great reputation, he 
atUuned, by his singular abiUlies, leariung, and worth, the highest 
ilignity of the church. His Bibliotlieca is a monument of the most 
various knowledge, erudition, and critical judgment 



SECTION X. i 

OF THE SARACENS IN THE EIGHTH AND NINTH CENTURIES. ' 

1. In the beginning of the eightli century tne Saracens subverted \ 
the monarchy of the Visigoths in Spain, and easily overran the coun- j 
try Thev had lately founded in Africa the empire ol Morocco, | 
which was"'governed by Muza, viceroy of the caliph Valid Almanzor, I 
Muza sent Ins general Tariph into Spain, who, in one memorable 
battle, fought A. D. 713, stripped the Gothic king Rodngo ol his ; 
crown and life. The conquerors, satisfied with the sovereignty ot ' 
the country, left the vanquished Goths in possession of their proper- 
ly, laws, and religion. Abdallah the Moor married the widow ol ; 
Ro'lrigo, and the two nations formed a perfect union. One small j 
part oT the rocky country of Asturia alone adhered to its christian I 
prince, Pelagius, who maintained his little sovereignty, and transmit- | 
led it inviolate to his successors. . • . „ u . ' 

2 The Moors pushed their conquests beyond the Pyrenees; but ! 
division arising among their emirs, and civil wars ensuing, Lewis i 
Ic dcbonnaire took advantage of the turbulent state of the country, 
and invaded and seized Barcelona. The Mooiish sovereignty in the 
north of Spain was weakened by throwing ofl its dependence on j 
the caliphs; and in this juncture the christian sovereignty ot the 
A^turias under Alphonso the chaste, began to make vigorous en- ^ 
croachmenls on the territory of the Moors. Navarre and Arragon, , 
roused by this example, chose each a chrisUan king, and boldly as- - 
sened their liberty and independence. ' 

3. While the Moors of Spain were thus losing ground in the norths 
Uiev were highly nourishing in the southern parts ot the kingdom.,! 
Abualrahman, the last heir of the family of the Ommiades (the 
Acassida> now enjoying the caliphate), was recognized as the true 
tenresentative of the ancient line by the southern Moors. He hxe<l 
the seat of his government at Cordova, which, for two centuries trom j 
that lime, was the capital of a splendid monarchy. Ihis period, 
from the middle of the eighth to the middle of the tenth century, 



MODERN HISTORY. 121 

is the most brilliant aera of Arabian magnificence. Whilst Haroun 
Alraschid made Bagdat illustrious by the splendour of the arts and 
•ciences. the Moors of Cordova vied with their brethem of Asia 
in the same honourable pursuits, and were undoubtedly at this period 
the most enlightened of the states of Europe. Under a series of 
able princes they gained the highest reputation, both in arts and 
arms, of all the nations of the west. 

4. The Saracens were at this time extending their conquests m 
almost every quarter of the world. The Mahometan religion was 
Drofessed over a great part of India, and all along fhe eastern and 
Mediterraneim coast of Africa. The African Saracens invaded 
Sicily- and projected the conquest of Italy. They actually laid 
siege to Rome, which was nobly defended by pope Leo IV. They 
A^ere repulsed, their ships were dispersed by a storm, and their army 
was cut to pieces, A. D. 848. 

5. The Saracens might have raised an immense empiie, if they 
had acknowledged only one head ; but their states were always dis- 
united. Egypt, Morocco, Spain, and India, had all their separate 
sovereigns, who continued to respect the caliph of Bagdat as the 
successor of the prophet, but acknowledged no temporal subjectioD 
to his government 



SECTION XI. 

EMPIRE OF THE WEST AND ITALY IN THE TENTH AND 

ELEVENTH CENTURIES. 

1. The empire founded by Charlemagne now subsisted only in 
name. Arnold, a bastard son of Carloman, possessed Germany. 
Italy WTis divided between Guy duke of Spoletto and Berengarius 
duke of Priuli, who had received these duchies from Charies the 
bald. France, though claimed oy Arnold, was governed by Eudes 
Thus the empire in reality consisted only of a part of Germany, 
while France, Spain, Italy, Burgundy, and the countries between the 
Maes and Rhine, were all subject to ditferent powers. The emper- 
ore were at this time elected by the bishops and grandees, all ol 
whom claimed a voice. In this manner Lewis the son of Arnold, 
the last oi the blood of Charlemagne, was chosen emperor after the 
death of his father. On his demise Otho duke of Saxony, by his 
credit with his brother grandees, conferred the empire on Conrad 
duke of Franconia, at whose death Henry sumamed the fowler, son 
of the same duke Otho, was elected emperor, A. 1>. 918. 

2. Henry I. (the fowler), a prince of great abilities, introduced 
order and good government into the empire. He united the gran- 
dee:?, and curbed their usurpations ; built, embellished, and fortified 
the cities ; and enforced with great rigour the execution of the laws 
in the repression of all enormities. He had been consecrated by 
his own blehops, and maintained no correspondence with the see or 
Kome. 

3. His son Otho (the great), A. D. 938, again united Italy to the 
empire, and kept the popedom in complete subjection. He made 
Denmark tributary to the imperial crown, annexed the crown ol Bo- 
hemia to his own dominions, and seemed to aim at a paiamouut 
authority over all the sovereigns of Europe. 



IM MODEFil^ HISTORY. 

4. Otho owed his ascendancy in Italy to the disorders of the pa- 
pucy. Konnosus, twice excommunicalecJ by pope John VIII., had 
kiiivcjlal llif triple crown. On liis dcatii l>is rival, pope Stopheo 
\ li., cau^♦ed Iws liody to be Aug out ot tlie grave, and, alter trial for 
his cnmes, conileinned it to l)e linn* into the Tiber. The friends ol 
Kormosii^ had interest to procure tl»e depbsition of Stephen, wiio 
was str.inglod in prison, riiey sont;ht anil tbnnil his l)ody, ami 
buried it. A succeeding pope, .Sergius 111., a|;ain dug up this ill-fated 
carcase, ami threw it iulo the 'i'ibcr. Two inf.mious women, Marozia 
anil Theodora, managed for many years the popedom, and tilled the 
chair of St. Peter with their own gallants, or their adulterous ofl- 
spring. Such was the state of the holy see, when Berengarius duke 
of Priuli disputed the sovereignty of Italy with Hugh of Aries. 
The Italian slates and pope John XII., who took prt against Beren- 
garius, invited (Jiho to compose the disorders ot the country. He 
entered Italy, defeated Berengarius, and was consecrated emperor 
by the pope, with the titles of Caesar and Augustus; in return for 
which honours he confirmed the donaiions made to the holy see by 
hu predecessors, Pepin, Chailemagne, and Lewis the debonnuire, 
A. X). 962. 

5. But John XII. was false to his new ally. He made his peace 
with Berengarius, and both turned their arms against the entperor. 
Otho tiev> back to Home, and revenged him.-.elf by the trial and 
deposition of the pope ; but lie had scarcely left the city, wlieo 
Jonn, by the aid of his party, displaced his rival Leo' V 111. Otho 
once more returned, anci look exemplary vengeance on his enemies, 
by hanging one half cf the senate. Calling together the iateran 
f'^uncil. lyi created a new pope, and obtained from the assenrbled 
lishops a solemn acknowledgment of the absolute right of the em- 

fieror to elect to the papacy, to give the investiture of the crown oi 
taly, aud to nominate to all vacant bishoprics ; concessions observed 
no longer than while the emperor wits present to enforce them. 

6. Such was the state of Kome and Italy under Otho the great; 
and it continued to be much the same under his successors for a cen- 
tury. The emperors asserted their sovereignty over Italy and the 

Kopedom, though with a constant resistance on the part of the 
.omans, and a general repugnance of the pope, when once establisb- 
ed. In those ages of ecclesi;istical prothgacy it was not unusual to 

f)'jt up the popedom to sde. Benedict \ 111. and John XIX., two 
»roihers, publicly bought the chair of St. iN;ter, one alter the other; 
and, to keep it in their fimily, il ;vas purchased afterwards by their 
friends tor Benedict I\., a child of twelve years of age. Three 
jHipes, each pretending regular election and ec^ual right, agreed tii^t 
to divide the revenues between them, and atlerwards sold all theii 
shares to a fourth. 

7. The emperor Henry 111., a prince of great ability, strenuously 
vindicated his light to supply the poutidcal chair, and created three 
successive popes without opposition. 



MODERN HISTORY. 123 



SECTION Xll. 



HISTORY OF LRITAIN FROM ITS EARLIEST PFJIIOD DOWN 
TO THE NORMAN CONQUESl . 

1. The history of Britain has been postponed to this time, that it 
may be considered in one connected view Irom its earliest period to 
the end ot~ the Anglo-Saxon government 

We strive not to pierce through that mist of obscurity which veils 
the original population of the British isles ; remarking only, as a mat- 
ter of high probability, that they derived their tirst inhabitants from 
the Celta; otGaul. Their authentic history commences with the first 
Roman invasion; and we learn trom Csesar and Tacitus, that the 
ctKintry was at that period in a stiite very remote from barbarism. 
It was divided iHto a number of small independent sovereignties, each 
prince having a regular army and a fixed revenue. The manners, 
language, and religion of the people, were the same as those of the 
Gallic Celtae. The religion was the druidical system, who.^ in- 
fluence penaded every department of the government, and, by its 
power over the minds of the people, supplied the imperfection of 
taws. 

2. Julius Caesar, after the conquest of Gaul, turned bis eyes 
towards Britain, tie landed on the southern coast of the island, 53 
A. C. ; and meeting with most obstinate resistance, though on the 
whole gaining some advantage, he tbund himself obliged, after a 
5hor| campaign, to withdraw for the winter into Gaul. H& returned 
in the toUowing summer with a great increase of force, an army ot 
20,000 foot, a competent body of horse, imd a fieet of 800 sail. The 
independent chiefs of the Britons united their Ibrces under Cassibe- 
lanus king of the Trinobantes, and encountering the legions with 
great resolution, displayed all the ability of practised warriors. Rut 
the contest was vain. Caesar advanced into the country, burnt Veru- 
lamium, the capital of Cassibelanus, and, after ibrcing the Britons 
into articles of submission, retumed to Gaul. 

'3. The domestic disorders of Italy gave tranquillity to the Britons 
for near a century ; but, in the reign of Claudius, the conquest of the 
island was determined. The emperor landed in Britain and com- 
Delled the submission of the south-easteni provinces. Osiorius Scapula 
defeated Caractacus, who was sent prisoner to Rome. Suetonius 
Paulinus, the general of Nero, destroyed 31ona (Anglesey, or as 
others think, r»lan), the centre of the druidical superstition. The 
I:eni (inhabitants of Nortblkrand Sutiblk), under their qijeen Boadicea, 
attacked several of the Roman settlements. London, with its Roman 
garrison, was burnt to ashes. But a decisive battle ensued, in which 
80,000 of the Britons lell in the field, A. D. 61. Thirty years after 
in the reign of Titus, the reduction of the island was completed by 
the Roman general. Julius Agricola. He secured the Roman prov 
ince against invasion from the Caledonians, by walls and garrisons; 
and reconciled the southern inhabitants to the government of their 
conquerors, by the introduction of Roman arts and improvements. 
Under Scverus the Roman province was extended tkr into the north 
of Scotland. 

4. With the decline of the Roman power in the west, the 
southern Britons recovered their liberty, out it was only to become 



124 MODERN HISTOKY. 

the object of incessant predatory invasion from their bretliren of the 
north. The Romans, after rebuilding tlie wall of Severus, finally bid 
adieu to Rritain, A. J). 448. The I'icts and Caledonians now broke 
down upon the south, niva{j;int:: and dfsolatiiif; the country, without a 
purpose of conquest, and merely, as it appears, for the supply of their 
temporary wants. After repeated application for aid Irom Rome 
without success, the Rritons meaidy solicited the Saxons for succour 
and protection. 

5. The Saxons received the emba.«^sy with great satisfaction. Brit- 
ain hail been long known to them m their piratical voyages to its 
coasts. They landed to the amount of 1,OOU, under the command of 
Ilengist and Horsa, A. D. 45U; and joining the South Britons, soon 
compelled the Scots to retire to their mountains. They next turned 
their thoughts to the entire reduction of the Britons, and received 
large reinforcements of their countrymen. After an obstinate contest 
of near 150 years, they reduced the whole of England under the Sax- 
on government Seven distinct provinces became as many indepen- 
dent kingdoms. 

6. The history of the Saxon heptarchy is iminteresting, from its 
obscurity and confusion. It is sullicient to mark the duration of the 
several kingdoms, till their union under Egbert. Kent began in 455, 
and lasted, under seventeen })rinces, till 827, when it was subdued by 
the West Saxons. Under Ktholbcrt, one of its kings, the Saxons 
were converted to Christianity by the monk Aug\istine. Northumber- 
land began in 597, and lasted, un<ior twenty-three kings, till 792. 
East Anglia began in 575, and ended in 793. Meroia subsisted from 
582 to 827. Essex had fourteen princes, from 527 to 747. Sussex 
had live kings before its reduction under the dominion of the West 
iaxons, about 600. Wessex (the country of the West Saxons) iTegan 
m 519, and had not subsistei) above eighty years, when Cadwalla, 
king of Wessex, conquered Sussex, and annexed it to his dominions. 
As there was no lixed rule of succession, it was the policy of the Sax- 
on princes to put to tleatii all the rivals of ilieir intended successor. 
From this cause, and trom the passion for C('lil»acy,the royal lamilies 
were nearly extinguished in the kingdoms ot" the heptarchy; and Eg- 
bert, prince of the West Saxons, remained the sole surviving descendant 
of the Saxon couqueroi-s of Britain. This cii'cumslance,so favourable, 
to his ambition, prompted him to attempt the conquest of the heptar- 
chy; and he succeeded in the enterprise. By fiis victorious arms 
and judicious policy all the separate slates were united into one great 
Kingdom, A. D. 827, near 400 years alier the iirst arrivu! of the Sax- 
ons in Britahj, 

7. England, thus united, was fir frorn enjoying tranquillity. The 
piratical Normans or Danes hiul lor lifty years desolated her coasts, 
and continued, i'or some centuries alter thi^ period, lo be ;i jierpetual 
scourge to the country. Tiuier Alfred (the great), grandson of i*^g- 
berl, the kingdom was from this cause reduced to extreme wretched- 
ness. The heroic Alfred in one year dei'eated the JDanes in eight bat- 
tles; but a new irruption of their countrymen Ibrced him to solicit a 
peace, which these j)irates cor.stantly interrupted by new hohtilities 
Alfred was compelled to seek his safety tor many months in an obscure 
quarter of the country, till the disorder's of the Danish army offered 
a fair opportunity of attacking them, which he improved to the entire 
defeat oi his enemies. lie might have destroyed them all, but chose 
rather to spare and to incorporate them with his English subjects. 
This clemency did not restrain their countrymen from attempting a 



MODERN HISTORY. 12b 

flew inyasion. They were again defeated with immense loss; and 
the extreme severity which it was necessary to cxerci«e against the 
vanquished, had the efiect of suspending the Danish depredations for 
several wars. 

8. Alfred, whether considered in his public or private character, 
deserves to be reckoned among the best and greatest of princes. He 
united the most enterprising and heroic spirit with consummate pru- 
dence and moderation, the utmost vigour of authority with the most 
engaging gentleness of manner, the most exemplary justice with the 
greatest lenity, the talents of the statesman and tlie man of letters 
with the intrepid resolution and conduct of the general. He found 
the kingdom in the most miserable condition to which anarchy, di> 
mestic barbarism, and foreign hosiility, could reduce it : he brought 
it to a pitch of eminence surpassing, in many respects, the situation of 
its contemporary nations. 

9. Alfred divided England into counties, with their subdivisions of 
nundreds and tithings The tithing or decennary consisted of ten 
families, over wnich presided a tithing-man or borg-holder ; and ten 
of these composed the hundred. Every house-holder was answerable 
for his family, and the tithing-maii lor all within his tithing. In tlie 
decision of diflerences the tithing-man had the assistance of the rest 
of his decennary. An appeiil lay from the decennary to tiie court of 
the hundred which was assembled every four weeks ; and the cause 
was tried by a jury of twelve freeholders, svvorn to do impartial jus- 
tice. An annual meeting of the hundred was held for the regulation 
of the police ot the district. The county-court, superior to that ol 
tlie hundred, and consisting of all the freeholders, met twice a year 
alfter Michaelmas and Easter, to determine appeals from the hundreds, 
and settle disputes between the inhabitants of different hundreds. 
Th€ ultimate appeal t>om ail these courts lay to the king in council; 
and the frequency of these appeals prompted Alfred to extreme cir- 
cumspection in the appointment cf his judges. He composed for the 
regulation of these courts, and of his kingdom, a body of laws, the 
basis of the common la'-v ot^ England. 

10. Alfired gave every encouragement to the cultivation of letters, 
as the best means of eradicating barbarism. He invited, fi-om every 
quarter of Europe, the learned to reside In his dominions, establishe'd 
schools, and is said to have founded the university of Oxtord. He 
was himself a most accomplished scholar for the age in which he 
lived, as appears from the works which he composed : poetical apo- 
logues, the translation of the histories of Bede and Orosius ; and of Bo- 
ethius on the consolation of philosophy. In every view of his char- 
acter we must regard Alfred the great as one of the best and wisest 
men that ever occupied the regal seat. He died at the age of tifty- 
three, A. D. 301, alter a glorious reign of twenty-nine years and a 
half 

1 1 . The admirable institutions of Alfred were partially and feebly 
enforced under his successors ; and England, still a prey to the rava- 
ges of the Danes and intestine disorder, relapsed into confusion and 
barbarism. The reigns of Edward the elder, the son of Alfred, and 
of his successors, Athel-tan, Edmund, and Edred, were tumultuous and 
anarchical. The clergy began to extend their authority over the 
throne, and a series of succeeding princes were the obsequious slaves 
©1 their tyranny and ambition. In the reign of Ethelred, A. D. 981, 
the Danes seriously projected the conquest of England; and led by 
Sweyn king of Denmark, an 1 Olaus king of Norway, noade a more 

L2 



126 IMODERIN HISTORY. 

formidable descent, won several important battles, and were restrain- 
ed from the destruction of London only by a dastardly submission, 
and a promise of tribute to be paid4)y the inglorious Ethehed. The 
English nobility were ashamed of their prince, and, seeing no other 
relief to the kingdom, made a tender ot the crown to the Danish 
monarch. On the deatli of Sweyn, Ethelred attempted to regain his 
kingdom, but found in Canute, the son of Sweyn, a prince determined 
to supcort his claims. On the death of Ethelred, his son Edmund 
Ironside gallantly but inefiectually opposed Canute. At length a 
partition of the kingdom was made between Canute and Edmund, 
which, after a few months, the Danes annulled by the murder of 
Edmund, thus securing to their monarch Canute the throne of all 
England, A. D. 1,017. Edmund left two children, Edgar Alheling, 
^nd Margaret, afterwards wife to Malcolm Canmore, kmg of Scot- 
land. 

12. Canute, the most powerful monarch of his time, sovereign of 
Denmark, Norway, and England, swayed, for seventeen years, the 
sceptre of^ England with a firm and vigorous hand. He was severe 
in the beginning of his reign, while his government was insecure 
but mild and equitable when possessed of a settled dominion He 
left, A. D. 1,036, three sons, Sweyn, who was crowned king of Nor- 
way, Harold, who succeeded to the throne of England, and Hardi- 
canute, sovereign of Denmark. Harold, a merciless tyrant, died in 
th3 fourth year of his reign, and was succeeded by Hardicanute, 
who, after a violent administration of two years, died in a tit of de 
bauch. The English seized this opportunity of shaking off the 
Danish yoke, and conferred the crown on Edward, a younger son of 
Elhelied. rejecting the preferable right of Edgar Atneling, the son 
of Edmund, who, unfortunately for his pretensions, was, at this time 
abroad in tlungary. Edward, suriiamed the confessor, A. D. 1,041, 
reigned weakly and ingloriously for twenty-five years. The rebel- 
tious attempts of Godwin, earl of Wessex, aimed at nothing less than 
a usurpation of the crown; and on his death, his son Harold, cherish- 
irg secretly the same views of ambition, had the address to secure to 
his interest a very formidable party in the kingdom. Edward, to de- 
feat these views, bequeathed the crown to William duke of Norman- 
dy, a prince whose great abilities and personal prowess had rendered 
his name illustrious over Europe. 

13. On the death of Edward the confessor, 1,066, the usurper 
Harold took possession of the throne, which the intrepid Norman 
determined immediately to reclaim as his inheritance of right. He 
made the most formidable preparations, aided, in this age of" roman- 
tic enterprise, by many of the sovereign princes, and a vast body oi 
the nobility, from the different continental kingdoms. A Norwegian 
fleet of 300 sail entered the Humber (a river on the eastern coast 
of England). The troops were disembarked, and, after one success- 
ful engagement, were defeated by the English army in the interest 
of Harold. William lande-d his anny on the coast of Sussex, to the 
amount of 60,000 ; and the English, under Harold, flushed with their 
recent success, hastily advanced to meet him, being imprudently re- 
solved to venture all on one decisive battle. The total rout and dis- 
comfiture of the English army in the field of Hastings, on the 14th 
day of October, 1,066, and the death of Harold, after some fruitleso 
attempts of further resistance, put William duke of Normandy in 
possession of the throne ot' England 



MODERN iilSTORY. m 

SECTION XIII. 

OF THE GOVERNMENT, LAWS, AND xMANNERS OF THE 
ANGLO-SAXONS. 

1. The government, laws, and manners of the Anglo-Saxons have 
become a subject of inquiry to modern writers, as being supposed to 
have bud influence in the formation of the British constitution. 
The government of the Saxons was the same as that of all the an- 
cient Germanic nations, and they naturally retahied, in their new 
settlement 'n Hrilain. a polii:y similar to their accustomed usages. 
Their subordination was chiefly military, the king having no mnix; 
authority than w hat belonged to the general, or military leadtT 
There was no strict rule of succession to the throne ; for though the 
King WHS generally chosen from the family of the last j^rince, yel 
the choice usually fell on the person of the best capacity for govern- 
ment. In some instances the destination of the last sovereign regu- 
lated the choice. We know very little of the nature of the Anglo- 
Saxon government, or of the distinct rights of the sovereign and 
people. 

2. One institution common to all the kingdoms of the heptarchy was 
the wittenagemot, or assembly of the wise men, whose consent wjis 
requisite for enacting laws, and ratifying the chief acts of public ad- 
ministration. The bishops and abbots Ibrmed a part of this ass^^.m- 
biy ; also the aldermen, or earls, and governors of counties. The 
vvites, or wise men, are discriminated from the prelates and nobility, 
and have by some been supposed to have been the representa.ivcij 
of the commons. But we hear nothing of election or representation 
in those periods, and we must therefore presume that they were 
merely landholders, or men of considerable estate, who, Irom their 
weight and consequence in the country, were held entitled, withoul 
any election, to lake a share in the public deliberations. 

3. The Anglo-Saxon government -was extremely aristocratical, 
the regal authority being very limited, the rights of the people little 
known or regarded, and the nobility possessing much uncontrolled 
cind lawless rule over their dependents. The othces of government 
were hereditary in their families, and they commanded the whole 
military force of their respective provinces. So strict was the clien- 
tela between these nobles and their vassals, that the murder of a vas- 
sal was compensated by a tine paid to his lord. 

4. There were three ranks of the people, the nobles, the free, and 
the slaves. The nobles were either the kin-g"s thanes, who heir 
their lands directly from the sovereign, or less thanes, who held land-? 
from the former. One law of Athelstan declared, that a merchant 
who had made three voyages on his own account was entitled to thf 
dignity of thane; another decreed the same rank to a ceorle, or hus- 
bandman, who was able to purchase five hides f land, and had l 
chapel, a kitchen, a hall, and a bell. The ceorles. or freemen of the 
lower rank, occupied the farms of the thanes, foi which they paid 
rent; and they were removable at the pleasure of their lord.' The 
slaves or villains were either emplo^'ed in domestic purposes, or in 
cultivating the lands. A master was hned for the murder of his slave; 
and if he mutilated him, the slave recovered his ireedom. 

5b Under tbi« aristocratical govemment there were some traces <rf 



128 MODKKN HISTORY. 

(he ancient Germanic democracy. The courts of tlie decennary, the 
hundred, and the county, were a considerable restniint on the pow- 
er of the nobles. In the cotinty-coiins the iVocholdcrs met twice 
a year lo determine appeals by the majority ot sullVages. The 
alderrTi:'.n presided in those courts, but had no vote : he received a 
third of the tines, the remaining two-tliirds devolving to the king, 
wiiich was a great part of Ihe royal revenue. I'ecuniarv tines were 
the ordinary atonement iof every species of crime, an(l the modes 
of proof were the ordeal by hre or water, or by compurgators 
(Part IL. Sect. V. § 7.) 

6. As to the military force, the expense of defending the state lay 
equally on all the land, every tive hides or ploughs being taxed to 
furni-^K a soldier. There were 24:3,l')UO hides i[i England, conse- 
quently the ordinary military force consisted of 48,720 men, 

7 The king's revenue, besides the tines imposed by tne courts, 
consisted partly of his demesnes or property-lands, which were ex- 
tensive, and partly in imposts on boroughs and sea-poits. The Dane- 
gelt was a tax imposed by the st".ites, either for payment of tributt 
exacted by the Danes, or for defending the kingdom against them 
By the custom of gavelkind, the land was divided equally among all 
the male children of the deceased proprietor. Lands held by the 
tenure of Boroagh-English, on the death of the tenant, went to the 
youngest son, instead of the eldest. Book-land was that which was 
neld by charter, and folk-land what was held by tenants removable 
at pleasure. 

8. The Anglo-Saxons were behind the Normans in every point ol 
civilization ; and the conquest was therefore to them a real advan- 
tage, as it led to material improvement in arts, science, government 
and laws. ^ 

SECTION XIV. 

STATE OF EUROPE DURING THE TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND 
TWELFTH CENTURIES. 

L France, from the extent and splendour of its dominion under 
Charlemagne, had dwindled to a shadow under his weak posterity. 
At the end of the Carlovingian period France comprehended neither 
Normandy, Dauphine, nor Provence. On the deatn of Lewis V. 
(Faineani), the crown ought to have devolved on his uncle, Charles 
of Brabant, as the last male of the race of Charlemagne; b«it Hugh 
Capet, lord of Picardy and Champagne, the most powerful of the 
Frencn nobles, was elected sovereigii by the voice of his brothei 

Seers, A. D. 987. The kingdom,^ torn by parties, suffered much 
omestic misery under the reign of Hugh, and that of his surcessoi 
Robert , the victim of papal tyranny, lor daring to marry a distan* 
cousin without the dispensation of the church. 

2. The prevr'lling passion of the times was pilgrimage and chiv- 
alrous enterprise. In this career of adventure the Normans most 
remarkably distinguished themselves. In 983 they relieved the 
prince of Salerno, by expeUing the Saracens from his territory. 
They did a similar service to pope l^nedict Vlll., and the duke of 
Capua ; wliile another band of their countrymen fought l^rst against 
the Greeks, and iffterwards against the popes, always selling their ser- 
vices to those who best rewarded them. William Fierabnis, and his 
brothers, Humphrey, Robert, and Richard, kept the pope a prisoner 



RlODERJN niSTORY. 

tor a year at benevento, and forced the ccurt oi .tme to yield Copot 

to Richard and Apulia and Calabria to Kobrrt. with the investiture 
ol' bicily, if he should gain the country from tlie Saracens. In 1,IU1 
Rogero the Norman completed the conquest of Sicilj, of which the 
popes continued to be the lords paramount. 

ii. The north of Europe was in those periods extremely barba 
rous. Russia received the christian religion in the eighth centurj 
Sweden, after its conversion in the ninth century, relapsed into idola 
try, as did Hungary and Bohemia. The Constantinopolitan empire 
defended its frontiers with difficulty against the Bulgarians on the 
west, and against the Turks and Arabians on the east and north. 

4. In Italy, excepting the territory of the popedom, the principali- 
ties of the independent nobles, and the states of Venice and Genoa, the 
greater part of the country was now in the possession of the Nor- 
mans. N'enice and Genoa were rising gradually to great opulence from 
commerce. Venice was for some ages tributary to the emperors ol 
Germany. In the tenth century its doge assumed the title of duke 
of Dalmatia, of which the republic had acquired the property by 
conquest, as well as of Istria, Spalatro, Ragusa, and Narenza. 

5. Spain was chiefly possessed by the ]\Ioors ; the christians retain- 
ing only about a fourth of the kingdom, namely, Asturia, part of Castile 
and Catalonia, Navarre, and Arragon. Portugal was likewise occu- 
pied by the Moors. Their capital was Cordova, the seat of luxury 
and magniticence. In the tenth century the Moorish dominions were 
split among a number of petty sovereigns, who were constantly at 
war with one another. Such, unfortunately, was likewise the situa- 
tion of the christiim part of the kingdom ; and it was no uncommon 
policy for the christian princes to form alliances with the Moors 
against one another. Besides these the country abounded with inde- 
pendent lords who made war their profession, and performed the 
office of champions in deciding the quarrels of princes, or enlisted 
themselves in their service ^vith all their vassals and attendants. Oi 
these, termed cavalkros andames^ or knights-errant, the most dis- 
tinguished was Rodrigo the cid, who undertook for his sovereign. 
Alphonso king of Old Castile, to conquer the kingdom of New Cas- 
tile, and achieved it with success, obtainiiig the government of Va- 
lencia as tlie reward of his services. 

6. The contentions b«l>veen the imperial and papal powers made 
a istinguished tlgure in those ages, flenry 111. vindicated the im- 
pe ial right to (ill the chair of St. Peter, and nominated three suc- 
cessive popes, without the inten'enlion of a council of the church. 
But iu the minority of his son Henry J\'., this right was frequently inter 
rup ed, and Alexander II. kept his seat, though the emperor named 
ano her in his place. It was the lot of this emperor to experience 
the utmost extent of papal insolence and tyranny. Alter a spirited 
con est with Gregory Vli., in which the pope was twice his prisoner, 
and the emperor as often excommunicated and deposed, Henry fell 
at length the victim of ecclesiastical vengeance. Lrban II., a succes 
SOP of Gregory, prompted the two sons of Henry to rebel against 
their father; and his misfortunes were terminated' by imprisonment 
an death in 1,106. The same contests went on under a succession of 

P)pes and emperors, but ended commonly in favour of the former, 
rederick 1. (Barbarossa), a prince of high spirit, after an indignant 
enial of the supremacy of Alexander 111- and a refusal of the cus- 
tomary homage, was at length compelled to kiss his feet, and appease 
his holiness by a large cession of territory. Pope Celestinus kicked 

17 



130 niODERN HISTOKY. 

off the imperial ciown of Henry VI., while doing homage on bis 
knees, but made amends for this insolence by the gift of ISaplef* and 
Sicily, from which Henry had expelled the Normans. Tlie«e terri- 
tories now became an appanage of the empi''e, 1,194. The suc- 
ceeding popes rose on the pretensions of tJieir predecessors, till at 
length Innocent III., in the beginning of the thirteenth century, estab 
Ushed the power of the popedom on a settled basis, and obtained a 
positive acknowledgment of the papal supremacy, or the right prin- 
cipaliler et Jiuatiter [principally and Jinally) to confer the imperial 
crown. It wa.s the same pope Innocent whom we shall presently 
see the disposer of the crown of England in Uie reign of the tyrant 
JobD. 



SECTION X\' 

HISTORY OF ENGLAND IN THE ELEVENTH, TWELFTH, AND 
PART OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTUIUES. 

\. The consequence of the battle of Hastings was the submi«sion 
of all England to William the conqueror. The character c( this 
prince was spirited, haughty, and tynmnical, yet not without a por- 
tion of the generous affections. He disgusted his English subjects 
by the strong partiality which he showed to his Normaii followers, 
preferring them to all offices of trusi and dignity. A conspiracy 
arose from these discontents, which William defeated, and avenged 
with signal rigour and cruelty. He determined lienceforvvard to 
treat the English as a conquered people, a policy that rnvolved his 
reign in perpetual commotions, which, while they robbed him of all 
peace ot mind, aggravated the tyranny of his disposition. To his 
own children he owed the severest of his troubles. His eldest- son 
Robert rose ki rebellion, to v. rest from him the sovereignty of 
Maine; and his foreign subjects took part with the rebel. William 
led against them an army of the English, and was on the point of 
perishing in tight by his son"'s hand. Philip 1. of France had aided 
this rebellion, which was avenged by William, who carried havoc and 
devastation into the heart of his kingdoin, but was killed in the en- 
terprise by a faJl from his horse, 1,03'. Irc bequeathed England to 
William his second son ; to Robert he leff Normandy ; and to Henry, 
his youngest son, the property of his mother Matilda. 

2. William the conqueror introduced into Enghand the feudal )a<V, 
dividing the whole kingdom, except the royal demesnes, into baron- 
ies, and bestowing the most of these, uiuler the tenuie of military 
service, on his Norman followers. By the forest laws he reserve? 
to himself the exclusive privilege of killing game over all the 
kingdom.; a restriction resented by his subjects above every other 
mark of servitude. Preparatory to the introduction ol" tJie feudal 
tenures, he planned atitl accomplished a general survey of all the 
lands in the kingdom, with a di-tinct speciffcation of theii* extent, na 
lure, value, names of their proprietors, and an enumerating of every 
class of inhabitants who lived on them. 1 his most valuable record, 
called Dooinsday-book^ is preserved in the English exchequer, and i^ 
now printed. 

3. William II. (RufusV inherited the vices, without any ol the 
vlftuf.s, of his father. His reign is distinguished by no event of im- 

rtance, and, after the defeat of one conspiracy in its outset, pre 



MODERN HISTORY. 131 

sents nothing hut a dull cnroer of unresisted despotism. After a reign 
of thirteen years he was killed when hunting by the random shot ol 
an arrow, 1,100, Tlie crown of England would have devolved on his 
elder hrotljer liohert; but his absence on a crusade in Palestine nvade 
way for the unopposed succession of his younger bi other HeiirV, 
who, by his marriage with iMalilda, the niece of LdgarAtheling, unit- 
ed the last remnant of the Saxon with the Norman line. ^Vith most 
criminal ambition, he now invaded his brother"'s dominions of Norman- 
dy; and Robert, on his retum, was defeated in battle, and detained 
for life a prisoner in England. The crimes of Henry were expiate*! 
by his misfortunes. His only son was drowned in his passage from 
Normandy. His daughter Matilda, married tir-st to the emperor Hen- 
ly v., anci afterwards to Geoffrey riantagenet of Anjou, was destined 
to be his successor ; but the popularity of his nepfiew Stephen, son 
of tl>e count of Blois, defeated these intentions. Henry I. died in Nor- 
mandy, after a reign of thirty-five years, A. D. 1,135;' and, in spite of 
his destination to Matilda. Stephen seized the vacant throne. The 
party of Matilda, headed bv her natural brother, the earl of Glouces- 
ter, engaged, delieated, anJ made Stephen pr isoner. Matilda in her 
turn mounted the throne ; but, unpopular from the tyranny of her 
disposition, she was solemnly Jepcsed by the prevailing party of her 
rival ; and Stephen was once more restored. He found, ho^^ ever, in 
Henry Planlagenet, the son of Matilda, a more formidable competitor. 
Of a noble and intrepid spirit, he resolved, while yet a boy, to reclaim 
his hereditary crown ; and, landing in England, won by his prowess, 
and the favour of a just cause, a gf-eat part of the kingdom to his in 
terest. By treaty with Stephen, who was allowed to reign for life 
he secured the succession at his death, which soon after ensued^ 
1,154. 

4. Henry II., a prince in every sense deserving of the throne, began 
his reign with the relbrmation of all the abuses of the government of 
his j)redecessors ; revoking all impohtic grants, abolishing partial im- 
munities, reffulating the adniinistration of justice, and establishing the 
freedom of the towns by charters, which are at this day the basis of 
the national liberty. Happy in the affections of his people, and pow- 
erful in the vast extent of additional territory which he enjoyed on 
the continent in right of his father and of his wife, the heiress of a 
great portion of h ran^, his reign had every promise of prosperity 
and happiness; but from one iatal source thesS pleasing prospects 
were all destroyed. Thomas Becket was raised by Henry from^ ob- 
scurity to the othce of chancellor of England. On the vacancy of the 
see of Canterbury the king, desirous of his aid in the correeiion of 
ecclesiiistical abuses, conferred the primacy on his favourite ; and the 
arrogant Becket availed himself of that authority to abase the prerog- 
ative of his sovereign, and exalt the spiritual power above the crown. 
It was disputed, whether a priest could be tried for a murder, and pun- 
ished by the civil court. It was determined in the afiirmative by the 
council'of Clarendon, against the opinion of Becket. Pope Alexander 
111. annulled the decree of the council; and Becket, who took pai- 
with the pope, was deprived by Henry of all his dignities and estates. 
He avenged himself by the excommunication of the king's ministers: 
and Henry, in return, prohibited^ll intercourse with the see of Home. 
At length both parties found it their interest to come to a good under- 
standing. Becket was restored to favour, and reinstated in Ws primacy, 
when the increasmg insolence of his demeanour drew from the king 
«ome hasty expressions of indignation, which bis servants interpreted 



132 MODERN HISTOUy. 

into n sentence of proscription, and, trusting that the deed would be 
grateful to their nuister. murdered the prelate while in the act of 
celebrating vespers at the iJtar. For this shocking action Henry 
expressed the regret which he sincerely felt, and the pope indulgent- 
ly granted his pardon, on the assurance of his dutiful obedience to 
tne holy church. 

5. The most important event of the reign of Henry II. was the 
conquest of Ireland. The Irish, an early civilized people, and among 
the tirst ©f the nations of the west who embraced the christian reli- 
gion, were, by fiequent invasions of the Danes, and their own domes- 
tic commotions, replunged into barbarism for n^any ages. In the 
twelfth century the kingdom consisted of tive sepanite sovereignties, 
Ulster, Leinster, Munster, Meath, and Connaiight; but these were 
subdivided among an intinite number of petty chiefs, owing a very 
weak allegiance to their respective sovereigns. J)ermot Macmor- 
rogh, expelled from his kingdom of Leinster for a rape on the daugh- 
ter of the king of Meath, sought protection from Henry, and engaged 
to become his feudatory, if he siiould recover his kingdom by the aid 
of the English. Henry empowered his subjects to invade Ireland, 
and, while Strongbow earl of Pembroke and his followers were lay- 
ing waste the country, landed in the island in 1,172, and received the 
submission of many of the independent chiefs. Roderick 0''Connor. 
prince of Connaughl, whom the Irish elected, nominal sovereign oi 
all the provinces, resisted for three years the arms of Henry, but 
finally acknowledged his dominion by a solemn embassy to the king 
at VVmdPor. The terms of the submission were, nn annual tribute of 
every tenth hide of land, to be applied for the support of government, 
and an obligatioii of allegiance to the crown of England; on which 
conditions the Irish should retain their possessions, and Roderick his 
kingdom: excejpt the territory of the rale, or that part which the 
English barons had subdued before the arrival of Henry. 

6. Henry divided Ireland mto counties, appoirfted sheriffs in each 
and introduced the laws of Ep.glantl into the territory of the Pale. 
The rest of the kingdom was regulated by their ancient laws, till the 
reign of Edward I., when, at the request of the nation, the English 
laws were extended to the whole kingdom. In the first Irish parlia- 
ment, which was held in the same reign, sir John Wogan presided as 
deputy of the sovereign. From that time there was little intercourse 
between the two kingdoms for some cenlunes ; nor was the island 
coasidered as fully sulxlued till the reign of Elizabetn and of her sue 
cesser James I. 

7. The latter part of the reign of Henry II. was clouded by domes- 
tic misfortunes. His chi!<lren, Henry, Richard, Geoffrey, and John, 
uistJgated by their unnat> ^1 mother." rose in rebellion, and, with the 
aid of Louis Vll., king «/ ance, prepared to dethrone flieir father- 
While opposing them wifh -.'pirit on the continent, his kingdom was 
invaded by the Scots under William (the lion). He hastened back to 
England, defeated the Scots, and made their king his prisoner. Two 
of his sons, Henry and Geoffrey, expiated their offences by an early 
death ; but Richard, once reconcileit, was again sethiced from his al- 
legiance, and, itj league with the king of France, plundered his fa- 
ther's continental dominions. The spirit of Henry was unequal to his 
domestic misfortunes, and he died # a broken lieart in the 58th year 
of hisage^ 1,189, an ornament to the English throne, and a prince sur- 
passing all his contemporaries in the valuable qualities of a sovereign. 



MODERN HISTORV ISS 

To him England owed her first permanent improvement in arts, in 
laws, in government, ami in civil liberty. 

8. Richard 1. (coeur de lion) immediately on his accc««5ion emb;uk- 
ed for the Holy Land, on a crusade against the infidels, alter plnnder- 
injg his subjects of an immense sum of money to defray the charges 
01 the enterprise. Forming a league with Philip Augustus of France, 
ihe two monarchs joined their forces, and acting for some time in 
concert, were successful in the taking of Acnior Ptolemais; but Phil- 
ip, jealous of his rival's glof}', soon leturned to France, while Richard 
had the honour of defeating the heroic Saladin in the battle of Asca- 
lon, with prodigious slaughter of his enemies. He prepared now foi 
the siege of .lerusalem; brt, finding his army wasted with taminj and 
fatigu2. he was compelled to end the war by a truce with Saladin, in 
which he obtained a ^ree passage to the Holy Land for every chris- 
tian pilgrim. Wrecked in his voyage homeward, and travelling in 
disguise through Germany, Richard was seized, and detained in pris- 
on, by command of the emperor Henry Vl. The king of France un- 
generously opposed his release, as did his unnatural brother John, 
from selfish ambition ; but he was at length ransomed by his subjects 
for the sum of 150,000 merks, and, after an absence of nine years, re- 
turned to his dominions. His traitorous brother was pardoned after 
some submission; and Richard employed the short residue of his 
reign in a spirited revenge against his rival Philip. A truce, howev- 
er, was concluded by the mediation of Rome ; and Richard was soon 
after killed, while storming the castle of one of his rebellious vassals 
in the Limosin. He died in the tenth year of his reign, and forty 
second of his age, 1,199. 

9. John (lack-land) succeeded to the throne on the death of his 
brother, but found a competitor in his nephew Arthur, the son ol 
Geoffrey, supported by Philip of France. \Var was of course renew- 
ed with that country. Arthur, with fatal confidence, throwing him- 
self into the hands of his uncle, was removed by poison or the sword : 
a deed which, joined to the known tyranny of his character, rendered 
John the detestation of his subjects. He was stripped by Philip oi 
his continental dominions, and he made the pope his enemy by an ava- 
ricious attack on the treasures of the churcJj. After an ineffectual 
menace of vengeance, Innocent HI. pronounced a sentence of interdict 
against the kingdom, which put a stop to all the ordinances of religion, 
to baptism, and the burial of the dead. He next excommunicated 
John, and absolved his subjects from their allegiance ; and he finally 
deposed him, and made e gift of the kingdom to Philip. John, intimi- 
dated into submission, declared himself the pope's vassal, swore alle- 
giance on his knees to the papal lerate, and agreed to hold his king 
dom tributary to the holy see. On these conditions, which ensured 
the universal hatred and contempt of his people, he made his peace 
with the church. It was natural that his subjects, thus trampled upon 
and sold, should vindicate their rights. The barons of the king- 
dom assembled, and, binding themselves by oath to a union of meas- 
ures, resolutely demanded from the king a ratification of a charter oi 
privileges granted by Henry I. John appealed to the pope, who, in 
support of nis vassal, prohibited the confederacy of the barons as re- 
bellious. The barons were only the more resolute in their purpose, 
and the sword was their last resource. At length John was compelled 
to yield to their demands, and signed at Runymede, on the 19tli 
day of June, 1,215, that solemn charter, which is the foundation and 
bnlwark of English liberty, Magna Charta {the gram charUr). 



\M MODERN HISTOHY. 

10. By this great charter, l,the freedom of election to benefices 
was secured lo the clergy; 2. the tines to* the overlord on the suc- 
cession of vassals were regulated; 3, no aids or subsidies were allow- 
ed to be levied from the subject, without the consent ot the gi*e;il 
council, unless in a few special cases; 4, the crown shad not sci/e 
the lands of a baron for a debt, while he has personal properly 
sulhcient to discharge it; 5, all the privileges granted by the king to 
his vassals shall be communicated by them to their interior vassals; 
6, one weight and one measure shall be used throughout the kin^ 
dom; 7, all men shall pass trom and return to the realm at their 
pleasure; 8, all cities and boroughs shall preserve their ancient 
Tibenies; 9, ihe estate of every treeman shall be regulated by his 
will, and, if he die intestate, by the law; lU, the king s court sua I uc 
stationary, and open to all ; 1 1, every Ireeman shall be hned only m 
proportion to his offence, and no tine shall be imposed to his utter 
ruin, l^no peasant shall, by a tine, be deprived ot his instrumenli 
of husbandry; 13, no person shall be tried on suspicion alone, bu 
on the evidence of lawlul witnesses; 14, no person shall be tried 
or punished unless by the judgment ot his peei^ and the law ot the 

l\ John granted at the same time the Chnrta dt Foruta {the dmr- 
ter concerninsr forests), which abolishe<l the royal privilege ol kilhng 
game over all the kingdom, and restored to the lawlul proprietor? 
Uieir woods ami tbresis, which they were nov; allowed to enclose 
and use at their pleasure. As compulsion alone h;ul extorted these 
concessions, John was determined to disregard them, and a foreign 
force >vas brought into the kingdom to reduce the barons to submui- 
sion The barons applied for aid to France, and Philip sent his con 
Lewis to fcLngland with an army ; and such was the people s hatre. 
ci' their sovereign, that they swore allegiance to this torcjgner. A 
ihis critical period John died at Newark, in 1,216, and an intent 
-han^e ensued. His son Henry ill., a boy of nine years of age, wa« 
irowned at Bristol ; and his uncle, Uie earl of Pembroke, was appoint- 
ed protector of the realm. The rlisaffected barons returned to then 
allec^iance; the people hailed their sovereign; and Lewis with hw 
army, after an ineffectual struggle, made peace with the protector, 
and evacuated the kingdom. 

SECTION XVI. 

STATE OF GERMANY AND ITALY IN THE THIRTEENTH 

CENTURY. 

1 Frfdefuck II., son of Henry VI., was elected ernperor on the 
resit-nation of Otho IV., in 1,212. At this period Naples, Sicily, and 
Lombardv, were all appanages of the empire; and the contentions 
between the imperial and papal powers divided the states ot It^iiy 
mto factiotis, known by the name of Guelphs and Ghibellines, itie 

« former maintaining the supremacy of the pope, the latter that ot tne 
emperor. The opposition of Frederick to four successive popes 
w:is avenged by excommunication and deposition ; yet he kept posses- 
sicn of liis tlirone, and vindicated his authority with great spint. 
Frequent attempts were made against his lite, by as-sussination and 
poL-^on, which he jpenly attiibuled to papal resentment. On lus 
li^ath, in 1.25U. the splendour of the empire wiis tor many years ot>. 



MODERN HIS'l'ORY. iSi 

scare A It was a prey to incessant factions and civil war, the fniit of 
contested claims of sovereignty. Yet tlie popes gained nothing by 
its disorders, for the troubles of Italy were cqnalTy ho>lile to tneir 
arnbition. We have seen the turbulent state of England. France 
was equally weak and anarchical; and Spain was ravaged by the 
contests o^" the Moors and christians. Yet, distracted as appears the 
situation of Europe, one great project gave a species of union to this 
discordant mass, of which we now proceed to give an account 



SECTION XVII. 

THE CRUSADES, OR HOLY WARS. 

1. The Turks or Turcomans, a race of Tartars from the regions 
of Mount Taurus and Imaus, invaded the dominions of Moscovy 
in the eleventh century, and came down upon the banks of the 
Caspian. The caliphs employed Turkish mercenaries, and they 
acquired the reputation of able soldiers in the wars that tock place 
on occasion of the contested caliphate. The r.aliphs of Bagdat, tiie 
Abassidae, were deprived of Syria, Egypt, and Africa, by their rival 
caliplts of the race of Omar ; and the Turks stripped of their do- 
minions both the Abassidae and Ommiades. Bagdat was taken by the 
Turks, and the empire of the caliphs overthrown in 1,055 ; and these 
princes, from temporal monarchs, became no^v the supreme pontifis 
of the Maliometan faith, i\s the popes of the christian. At the time 
of the tirst crusade, in the end of the eleventh century, Arabia wpjs 
governed by a Turkish sultan, as were Persia and the greater por- 
tion of Lesser Asia. — The eastern empire wits thus abridged of its 
Asiatic territory, and had lost a great pait of its dominions in Europe. 
It retained, however, Greece, Macedonia, Thrace, ami Illy da; and 
Constantinople itself was populous, opulent, and luxurious. Palestine 
was in the possession of the Turks; and its capital Jerusalem, fallen 
from its, ancient consequence and splendour, was yet held in re- 
spect by its conquerors as a holy city, and constantly attracted the re- 
sort of Mahometans to the mosque of Omar, as of christian piigrioia 
to the sepulchre of our Saviour. 

2. Peter the hermit, a native of Amiens, on his return from this 
pilgrimage, complained in loud terms of the grievances which tlze 
christians suffered from the Turks; and Urban II. pitched en this 
enthusiast as a fit person to commence the execution of a grand de- 
sign which the popes had long entertained, of arming all Christen- 
dom, and exterminating the infidels from the Holy Land. The project 
was opened m two general councils held at Placentia and Clermont 
The French possessed more ardour than the Italiiu^; and an im 
m(!nse multitude of ambitious and disorderly nobles, with all their 
dependents, eager for enterprise and plunder, and assured of eternal 
salvation, immediately took the cross. Peter the hermit led 80,000 
under his banners, and they began their march towards the east in 
1,095. Their progress was marked by rapine and hostility in every 
christian country through which they passed ; and the army of the 
hermit, on its arrival at Constantinople, was wasted down to 20,000. 
The emperor Alexius Comnenus, to whom the crusaders behaved 
with the most provoking insolence and folly, conducted himself with 
admirable moderation and good sense. He hastened to get rid of 
tliis disorderly multitude, by furnishing them with every aid which 



136 WODLRN HISTORY. 

they required, and cheerfully lent his ships to transport them acrosa 
the Bosphorus. The sultan Solymiui met them in the plain of 
Nicoa, and destroyed the army ot the hermit. A new host in the 
mean time arriveti at Constantinople, led hy more illustrious com- 
manders; by Godfrey of Bouillon duke of Brabant, Raymond cc-int 
of Thoulouse, Hobert of Normandy, son of V'.illiam king ot Eng- 
land, Bohemond, son of Robert Guiscard, the conqueror ot bicily, 
and other princes of high reputation. To these, who amounted to 
some hundred thousands, Alexius manifested the same prudent con- 
duct, to accelerate their departure. The Turks, overpowered by 
numbers, were twice defeated ; and the crusaders, pursuing their suc- 
cesses, penetrated at length to Jerusalem, which after a siege ol six 
weeks, they took by storm, and with savage fury massacred the 
whole of its Mahometan and Jewish inhabiUmts, A. D. 1,099. Godfrey 
was hailed king of Jerusalem, but was obUged soon after to cede hia 
kingdom to the pope's legate. The crusaders divided Syria and 
Palestine, and formed four separate states, which weakened their 
power. The Turks began to recover strength ; and the christians 
of Asia soon found it necessary to solicit aid from Europe. 

3. The second 'crusade set out from the west m 1,146, to the 
amount of 200,000 French, Germans, and Italians, led by Hugh, 
brother of Philip I. of France. These met with the same fate 
which attended the army of Peter the hermit. The garrison ol 
Jerusalem was at this time so weak, that it became necessai-y to 
embody and arm the monks for its defence ; and hence arose the 
military orders of the knights templars and hospitallers, and soon 
after the Teutonic, from the German pilgrims. JNleantime pope 
Fugenius ill. employed St. Bernard to preach a new crusade in 
France, which was headed by its sovereign Lewis Vll., (the young), 
who, in conjunction with Conrad HI., en)pcror of Germany, mis- 
tered jointly 300,000 men. The Germans were extirpated by the 
stdtan of Iconium; the French were totally defeated near Laodlcea; 
and the two monarchs, after much disaster, returned with shjune to 
their dominions. r i- . /• j 

4. The illustrious Saladin, nephew of the sultan ot Egypt, termed 
the design of recovering PalesUne from the christians; and besieging 
Jerusalem, he took the city, and made prisoner its sovereign, Guy 
of Lusignan. Pope Clement 111., alarmed at the successes ot the 
infiJels, began to stir up a new crusade from France, England, and 
(iprmany; and the armies of each country were headed by their 
respective sovereigns, Philip Augustus, Richard I., and Frederick 
Barbarossa. In this third crusade the emperor Frederick died in 
\sia and his army, by repeated defeats, mouldered to nothing. 
The English and French were more successful: they besieged and 
took Ptolemais: but Richard and PhiUp quarrelled trom jealousy ol 
each other's glory, and the French monarch returned in disgust to 
his country. Richard nobly sustained the contest with Saladin, 
whom he defeated near Ascalon ; but his army was reduced by fam- 
ine and fatigue. He concluded a treaty, at least not dishonourable, 
with his et»emy, and was forced at length to escape from Palestine 
with a single ship. (Sec Sect. XV.:; § 8.) Saladin, revered even by 
the christians, died in 1,195. . . ^^^ , on • 

5 A fourth crusade was htted out in 1,202, under Baldwm count 
of Flanders, of which the object was not the extirpation of the infi- 
dels, but the destructior of the empire of the east. Constantuiople, 
embroiled by civil >var and revolution from disputed claims to the 



MODERN HISTORY. 137 

sovereignty, was besieged and taken by the crusaders; and Baldwin, 
their chlei", was elected emperor, to be within a few months dethron 
ed and murdered. The hnperial dominions were shared among the 
principal leaders; and the Venetians, who had lent iheir ships for the 
expedition, got the isle of Candia f anciently Crete) for their reward. 
Alexias, of the imperial liimily of tne Commeni, founded a new sove- 
reignty in Asia, which he termed the empire of Trebizond. The ob- 
ject of a fifth crusade wcis to lay waste Egypt, in revenge for an 
attack on Palestine, by its sultan Saphadin. rartial success and ulti- 
mate ruin was the issue of this expedition, as of all the preceding. 

6, At this period, 1,227, a ^reat revolution took place in Asia, 
Gengiskan with his Tartiirs broxe down from the north upon Persia 
and Syria, and massacred indiscriminately Turks, Jews, and Chris- 
tians, who opposed them. The christian knights, templars, hospital- 
lers, and Teutonic, made a desperate but ineffectual resistance ; and 
Palestine must have been abandoned to these invaders, if its fate had 
not been for a while retarded by the last crusade under Lewis IX^ of 
France. This prince, summoned by Heaven, as he believed, after 
four years' preparation, set out for the Holy Land, Avith his queen, 
his three brothers, and all the knights of France. His army began 
their enterprise by an attack on Egypt, where, al^ter some consider- 
able successes, they were at length utterly defeated; and the 
French monarch, with two of his brothers, fell into the hands of the 
enemy. He purchased his liberty at an immense ransom, and, return- 
ing to France, reigned prosperously and wisely for thirteen years. 
But the same phrensy again assailing him, he embarked on a crusade 
against the Moors in Africa, where he and his army were destroyed 
by a pestilence, 1,270. It is computed that, in the whole of the 
crusades to Palestine, two millions of Europeans were buried in the 
east. 

7. Effects of the crusades. One consequence of the holy wars is 
supposed to have been the improvement of European manners ; but 
the times immediately succeeding the cr'isades exhibit no such actual 
improvement. Two centuries of barbarism and darlcness elapsed 
between the termination of those enterprises and the fall of the 
Greek empire in 1,453, the aera of the revival of letters, and the 
commencement of civilization. A certain consequence of the cru- 
sades was the change of territorial property hi all the feudal king- 
doms, the sale of the estates of the nobles, and their division among 
a number of smaller proprietors. Hence the feudal aristocracy was 
weakened, and the lower classes began to acquire weight, and a 
spirit of independence. The towns hitherto bound by a sort of vassal- 
age to the nobles, began to purchase their immunity, acquired the 
right of electing their own magistrates, and were governed by their 
own municipal laws. The church in some respects gained, and in 
others lost by those enterprises. • The popes gained a more extend- 
ed jurisdiction ; but the fatal issue of those expeditions opened the 
eyes of the world to the selfish and interested motives which had 
prompted them, and weakened the sway of superstition. Many of the 
religious orders acquired an increase of weiUth ; but this was bal- 
anced by the taxes imposed on the clergy. The coin was altered 
and debased in most ol the kingdoms of Europe, iVom the scarcity 
of specie. The Jews were supposed to have hoarded and concealed 
it, and hence they became the victims of general pei'secntion. The 
most substantial gainers by the crusades were the ItaUan states of 
Genoa, Pi=a, and V^enice, from the increased trade to the Levant 

M2 18 



MB MODEKN HISTORY. 

for the supply of those immense armies. Venice, as we have seen, 
took an active concern, and obtained her share o/' the conquerea 
territory. 

'1 he age of the crusades brought chivalrj' to its perfection and gave 
tiMj to romantic /iction. 
3ce Kelt's Eiementa of General Knowledge, vol. I. 



SECTION XVIU. 

OF CHIVALRY AND ROMANCE. 

1. CmvAi.RY arose naturally from the condition of society in those 
ages .n which it provaikMJ. Among the Germanic nations the profcs- 
b»on ol aims was esteemed the sole employment that neserved the 
tiame of inanly or honourable. Tiie initiation of tlie youth to this pro- 
/ession was^ attended with peculi;ir solemnity and appropriate cci-e- 
inonies. The chief of the tribe bellowed the sword and armour on 
hix vassal, as a symbol of their devotion to hi^ senice. In the prog- 
ress of the feudal system these vassals, in imitation of their chiei; aa- 
fiumed the power of conterring arms on tlieir sub-vassals, with a 
similar form (.f mysterious and pompous coronionial. The candidate 
ibr knighthov)d underwent his preparatory (lists and vigils, and re- 
ceived on his knees the uccolUuIe and benediction of his chief Arm- 
ed and caparisoned, he sallied ibrth in quest of adventure, which, 
whether just or not in its purpose, was ever esteemed honourable in 
proportion as it was perilous. 

2. Tl»e esteem of the female sex is characteristic of the Gothic 
mannei-s. In those ages of barbarism the castles of the greater bar- 
ons were the courts of sovereigns in miniature. 'J'he society of the 
ladies, who found ouiy in ^uch iortresses a security tVom outrase, pol- 
ished the manners ; and to protect tlie chastity and honour of the hiir, 
was the best employ and the highest merit ofan accomplished knight 
Komanlic exploit tllerefore bad always a tincture of gallantry. 

It hath been through all ages; ever seen. 

That with tlie praise of arms and chivalry 
The prize of beauty still hath joined been, 

And that for reasons special privity : 
For either doth on other much rely ; 

For ht-, mo s» ems, most fit the fair to serve, 
That can her best defend from villany ; 

And she most fit his service doth deserve 
That fairest is, and from her faith M'iil never swerve. » 

Spknser's Fairy Qukkjt. 

3. To the passion for adventure and romantic love was added n 
higl) regard for morality and religion ; but as the latter were ever 
subordinate to tlie former, we may presume more in Hivour of the 
relinemont than of the j)urity of tne knights. It was tlie pride of a 
knight to red res* wrongs and injuries; but in that honourable employ- 
ment he mnde small account of thuse which he committed, it waf 
eas> to expiate the greatest otlVnces l)y a penance Oi a pilgrimage, 
which funif-hed only a new opportunity for adventurous exploit. 

4. Chivalry, whether it began with the Moors or Normans, attain- 
ed it! perfection at the period oi the crusades, which presented a no- 



MODERN HISTORY. t3& 

h\e object of adventure, anil a boundless field for militarv glory. 
Few indeed returned from those de^spe rate enterprises; but those had 
a h'gh reward in the admiration ot'thuir countrymen. Tlie hards and 
romancers sung their praises, and recorded their exploits, with a 
thousand circumstances of f ibulous embellishment. 

5. The earliest of the old romances (so termed from the Romance 
language, a mixture of the Frank and Latin, in which they were 
written) appeared about the middle of the twelfth century, the period 
of the second crusade. But those more ancient compositions did not 
record contemporary events, whose known truth would have preclud- 
ed all liberty of fiction or exaggerat'on. Geoffrey of Monmouth.., and 
the author who assumed the name of archbishop Tnrpin, had tree 
scope to their fancy, by celebrating the deeds of Arthur and the 
knights cf the round table, and the exploits of Charlemagne and his 
twelve peers. From the fiuitful stoekof those first romances sprung 
a numerous offspring equally wild and extravagant. 

6. Philosophers have analyzed the pleasure arising from works of 
fiction, and have endeavoired, by various hj'potheses, to account ibi 
the interest which we take in the description of an event or scene 
which is known to be utterly impossible. The fact may be simply 
explained as follows. Every narration is in some degree af onded 
wieh a dramatic deception. We enter for the time into the situation 
of the persons concerned ; and, adopting their passions and feelings, 
we lose all sense of the absurdity of their cause, while we see the 
agents themselves hold it for reasonable and adequate. The most in- 
credulouJL sceptic may sympathize strongly with the feelings of Ham- 
let at the sight of his fathers spectre. 

7. Thus powerfully afiected as we are by sympathy, even against 
the conviction of our reason, how much greater must nave been the 
efiect of such works of the imagination in those days, when popular 
superstition gave full credit to the reahty, or at least the possibility, 
of all that they described ! And hence we must censure, as both un- 
necessary and improbable, the theory of Dr. Hurd, which accounts 
for all the wildness of the old romances, on the supposition that their 
fictions were entirely allegorical ; which explains the giants and sav- 
ages into the oppressive feudal lords and their barbarous dependents; 
as M. Mallet construes the serpents and dragons which guarded the 
enchanted castles, into their winding walls, tosses, and battlements. 
It were suthcient to say, that many of those old romances are inex- 
plicable by allegory. They were received by the popular belief as 
truths ; and even their contrivers beUeved in the possibility of the 
scenes and actions w^hicb they described. In latter ages, and in the 
wane of superstition, yet while it still retained a powerful influence, 
the poets adopted allegory as a vehicle of moral instruction : and to 
this period belong those political romances which bear an allegorical 
explanation ; as the Fairy C^ueen of Spenser, the Orlando of Ariosto, 
and the Gierusalemme Lioerata of Tasso. 

8. In more modern times the taste for romantic composition declin- 
ed with popular credulity ; and the fastidiousness of philosophy affect- 
ed to treat all supernatural fiction with contempt. But it was at 
length perceived that this refinement had cut on a source of very 
high mental enjoyment. The public taste now took a new turn ; and 
this moral revolution is at present lending to its extreme. We are 
gone back to the nursery to listen to tales of hobgoblins; a change 
which we may saleiv prognosticate can be of no duration. 



sum w 



MODERN HISTORY. 



SECTION XIX. 



STATE OF EUROPE IN THE THIR TFENTH AND FOURTEEyTB 
CENTURIES. 

1. Constantinople, taken in 1,202 by the crusaders, was possessed 
only for a short time by its cojiqiiprors. It was governed by Frenrh 
emperors for the space ot^ sixty years, and was retaken by the 
Greeks in l,£ol, under Michael Palaeologus, who, by imprisoning and 
putting out the eyes of his pupil Theodore Lascaris, secured to him- 
self the sovereignty. 

2. In the beginning of the thirteenth century Germany was 
governed by Frederick II , who paid homage to the pope lor the 
kingdom of Naples and Sicily, which was posses>ed by his son Con 
rad, and aiterwards by his brother ManlVed, who usjirped the crown 
in violation oi the right of his nephew Conradin. Pope Clement IV., 
jealous of the dominion of the imperial family, gave the investiture 
of Naples and Sicily to Charles of Anjou, brother of Lewis IX. ot 
France, who defeated and put to death his competitors. The Sicil- 
ians revenged this act of usurpation and cruelty by the murder, in 
one night, of every Frenchman in the island. This'shocking massa- 
cre, termed the Sicilian ves^ers^ happened on Easter Sunday, 1,282. 
It wjis followed by every evil that comes in the train of civil war and 
revolution. 

3. The beginning of the thirteenth century had been signalized 
by a new species of crusade. The Albigen^^es, inhabitants of Alby 
in the Pays de Vaud, were bold enough to dispute many of the tenets 
of the catholic church, judging them contrary to the doctrines of 
scripture. Innocent III. established a holy commission at Thoulonse, 
with power to try and punish those heretics. The count of Thou, 
louse opposed this persecution, and was, for the punishment of his 
offence, compelled by the pope to assist in a crusacle against his o-wn 
vassals. Simon de Monfbrt was the leader of this pious enterprise, 
which was marked by the most^atrocious cruelties. The benefits of 
the holy commission were judged by the popes to be so great, that it 
became from that time a permanent establishment, known by the 
name of the inquisition. 

4. The rise of the house of Austria may be dated from 1.274 
when Kodolphus of Hapsbourg, a Swiss baron, was elected emperor 
of Germany. He owed his elevation to the jealousies of the elec- 
toral princes, who could not agree in the choice of any one of them- 
selves. The king of Bohemia, to whom Kodolphus had been stew- 
ard of the household, could ill brook the supremacy of liis former de- 
pendent ; and refusing him the customary homage for his Gennanic 
possessions, Kodolphus stripped him of Austria, which has ever since 
remained in the family of its conqueror. 

5. The Italian states of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, were at this time 
flourishing and opulent, while most of the kingdoms of Europe (if 
we except England under Edward I.,) were exhausted, feeble, and 

/disorderly. A dawning of civil liberty began to appear in France 
under Philip IV. (/c belV who summoned the third estate to the 
national assemblies, which had bitherto consisted of the nobility :md 
clergy, 1,:303. PhiUp established perpetual courts of judicature in 
France, under the name of parliaments. Over these the parliament 



MODERN HISTORY. 141 

M Paris possessed a jurisdiction by appeal ; but it was not till later 
times that it assumed any authority in matters of" State. 

6. rhe parliam<^nt of" England had before this era begun to assume 
its present constitution. The commons, or the representatives ol 
counties and boroughs, were first called to parliament by Henry 
III. Before that time this assembly consisted only of the greater 
barons and clergy. But of the rise and progress of the constitution 
of England we shall afterwards treat more paticularly in a separate 
section. 

7. The spirit of the popedom, zealous in the maintenance and ex- 
tension of its prerogatives, continued much the same in the thirteenth 
and fourteentn, as we have seen it in the three preceding centuries. 
Philip the fair had subjected his clergy to bear their share of the 
public taxes, and prohibited all contributions to be levied by the pope 
m his dominions. This double offence was highly resented by Boni- 
face VIII., who expressed his indignation by a sentence of excom- 
munication and interdict, and a solemn transference of the kingdom 
of France to the emperor Albert. Philip, in revenge, sent his gen- 
eral Nogaret to Rome, who threw the pope into prison. The 
French, however, were overpowered by the papal troops; and the 
death of Boniface put an end to the quarrel. 

8. It is less easy to justify the conduct of Philip the fair to the 
knights templars than his behaviour to pope Boniface. The whole 
of this order had incurred his resentment, from suspicion of harbour- 
ing treasonable designs. He had influence with Clement V. to pro 
cure a papal bull warranting their extirpation from all the christian 
kingdoms: and this infamous proscription was carried into eflfec 
over all Europe. Those unfortunate men were solemnly tried, no 
for their real oflfence, but for protended impieties and idolatrous prac- 
tices, and committed to the flames 1,309 — 1,312. 



SECTION XX. 
REVOLUTION OF SWITZERLAND. 

1. The beginning of the fourteenth century was distinguished by 
the revolution of Switzerland, and the rise of the Helvetic republic. 
The emperor Rodolphus of Hapsbourg was hereditary sovereign 
of several of the Swiss cantons, and governed his states with much 
equity and moderation. His successor Albert, a tyrannical prince, 
formed the design of annexing the whole of the provinces to his 
dominion, and of erecting them into a principality for one of his 
sons. The cantons of Schweitz, Ury, and Underwald, which had 
always resisted the authority of Austria, combined to assert their 
freedom ; and a small army of 400 or oOO men defeated an immense 
host of the Austrians in the pass of Morgate, 1,315. The rest of the 
cantons by degrees joined the association. With invincible pei-sever- 
ance the united cantons won and secured their dear-bought liberty, 
after sixty pitched battles with their enemies. 

2. Constitution of Switzeiiand. The thirteen cantons were united 
by a solemn treaty, which stipulated the proportional succours to be 
furnished by each in the case of foreign hostility, and the measures 
to be followed for securing the union of the states, and accommodat- 
ing domestic differences. With respect to its internal government 
end economy each canton was independent. Of some the constitution 



141 MODKKN HISTORY. 

was monarchical, and of othei-s rtpuMicjui. All inalters touching 
the general league wore transacted either by letters sent (o Z-iridjn 
and thence onicially lircnlaleti to all the cantons, or by conrerences 
The general diet, u here twodeputii;? attended from each canton, was 
held once a year, the tiiNt deputy ol' Zurich presiding. The catholic 
and protestant cantons likewise held their separate diets on occasional 
emergencies. 

3. The Swiss, when at peace, employed their troops for hire \f^ 
foreign J^ervice, judging it a wise i)olicy to keep alive the military, 
epirit of the nation; and the armies thus employed have been equally 
distinguished for their courage and tidehty. The industry and 
economy of the Swiss are proverbial; and their country supports an 
abundant population, from the zealous promotion oi agriculture and 
manufactures. 

4 

SECTION XXI. 

STATE OF EUROPE IN THE THIRTEENTH, FOURTEENTH, AND 
PART OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURIES. 

1. The rival claims of superiority between tne popes and em- 
perors still continued. Henry \il., the successor of Albert, vindicat- 
ed his right by the sword, triumphantly ibught his way to Ronic, 
where he was solemnly crowned, and imposed a tribute on all the 
states of Italy. His sudden death wits suspected to be the consequence 
of papal resentment. In his time the seat of the popedom was trans 
ferred by Clement V. from Home to Avignon. 1,3U9, where it re 
mained till t,377. The tactions of Italy were the cause of this re 
moval. Lewis of Bavaria, the successor of llcnrv, deposed and ex 
communicated by John XXll.. revenged himself by deposing the 
pope. This pontiff, who h:lH originally been a cobbler, surpassed 
most of his predecessoi-s in pride arid tyranny. He kept his seat on 
the papal cnair, and left at his death an inijnense treasure accumu 
lated by the sale of benefices ; while his rival the emperor died in 
Indigence. 

2. His successor in the empire, Charles IV'., published, in 1,355, 
the imperial constitution, termed the rrolden tu//, the fundamental la*y 
of the Germanic body, which reduced the number of electors to 
seven, and settled on them all the hereditary oflJces of state. The 
electors exemplified their new rights by deposing his son Wenceslaus 
for incapacity, 1.41H). Three separate factions of the i'lench and 
ItaUan cardinals Inning elected three separate popes, the emperor 
Sigisinund judged this division of the church to be a fit opportunity 
for lus interference to reconcile all difTerences, and establish his own 
suprenracy. He summoned a genend council at Constance in 1,414, 
and ended the dispute by degrading all the three pontifls, and naming 
a fourth, Martin Colonna. This division of the papacy is termed 
the ^reul schism nf the zcest. 

3. The spiritual business of the council of Constaiice was no less 
unportant than its temporal. John Huss. a di.«ciple of Wicklifl, waa 
tried for heresy, in denying the hierarchy, and satirizing the im 
moralities of the popes and bishoos He (lid not deny the charge, 
and, refusing to confess his erroi-s, was burnt alive. A similar fate 
was the portion oi his friend and disciple, Jerom of Prague, who 



MODERN HISTORY. 143 

displayed at his execution the eloquence of an apostle, and the con- 
istaiicv of a martyr, 1,416. Sigismund felt the consequence ol these 
horrible proceedings; for the Bohemians opposed his succession to 
tiieir vacanl crown, and it cost him a war of sixteen years to attain it. 
4. Whatever was the imperial power at this time, it derived but 
small consequence from its actual revenues. The wealth of the 
Germanic states was exclusively possessed by iheir separate sove- 
reigns, and the emperor had little more than what be drew from 
Bohemia and Hungary. The sovereignty of Italy was an empty 
title. The interest of the emperor in that country furnished only a 
source of faction to its princes, and embroiled the states in perpetual 
quarrels. A series of conspiracies and civil tumults form the annals 
ol' the principal cities for above 200 years. xSaples and Sicily were 
Alined by the weak and disorderly government of the two Joannas. 
A passion which the younger of these conceived for a soldier of the 
flame of Sforza raised him to the sovereignty of IMilan ; and her 
adoption, tirst of Alphonzo of Arragon, and afterwards of Lewis oi 
Anjou, laid the foundation of] those contests between Spain and 
France for the sovereignty of the two Sicilie*, which afterwaids 
agitated all Europe. 



SECTION XXII. 

HISTORY OF ENGLAND IN THE THIRTEENTH CExNTURY. 

1. On the death of John, his son Henry III. succeeded to the 
crown ot England at nine years of age. He was a prince of ami 
able dispositions, but of weak understanding. His preference cfi 
foreign favourites disgusted his nobles ; and the want of economy in tt^ 
government, and oppressive exactions, deprived him of the affection 
of .IS people. Montfort earl of Leicester, son of the leader of the 
crusade against the Aibigenses, and brotlier-in-law of the king, con- 
ceived a plan for usurping the government. He formed a league 
with the barons, on the pretext of reforming abuses, and compelled 
Henry to delegate all the regal power into the hands of twenty-lour 
of their number. These divided among themselves the odices ot 
government, and new-modelled the parliament, by summoning a cer- 
tain number of knights chosen from each county. This measure 
was fatal to their own power; for these knights or representatives 
of the people, indignant at Leicester's usurpation, determined to 
restore the royal authority; and called on prince Edward, a youth 
ol intrepid spirit, to avenge his fathers wrongs and save the king- 
dom. 

2. Leicester raised a formidable force, and defeated the royal 
^rmy at Lewes, in Sussex, 1,264, and made both the king and prince 
Gdward his prisonei^s. He now compelled the inipotent Henry to 
ratify his Authority by a solemn treaty. He assumed the character 
of regent, and called a parliament, summoning two laiights from 
«ach of the counties, and deputies from the principal boroughs, the 
first regular plan of the English house of commons. This assembly 
exercising its just rights, and asserting with firmness the re-establish- 
iuent of the ancient government of the kingdom, Leicester judged it 
prudent to release the prince from his confinement. Edward was 
no sooner at Uberty than he took the field against the usurper, who 
w?LB defeated and blain in the battle of Eveshnm, on the 4th day of 



144 MOOKKN HISTORY. 

August, 1 ,265. lleiiry \v:is now restored to his throne by the armi 
of" his guli.uit son, wiio, aWov est;»hlishing domestic tranauiility, em- 
barked in the last cni.sade with Lewis IX,, and signnhzed his prowesf 
by Miany valorous exploits in Palestine. He had the honour of con- 
cluding an ailvantageous truce lor ti-n yeai-s wjlh the sultan of Baby- 
lon, and was on his return to Kngland when he received intelligence 
of his accession to tlie crown by the death of his father, 1,272. 

3. EdwiMil 1. projected the conquist of Wales in the beginning 
of his reign. '1 he Welsh, the descendants of the ancient hritong 
who had escaped the Roman and Saxon conquests, preserved their 
liberty, laws, manners, and language. Their prince, Lewcllyu, 
refused his customary homage to the kingj of England. Edward in- 
eaded Wales, and, surrounding the army ol the prince, who retreattJ 
to the mountains, cut oft' all his supplies, and compelled him to an 
dnquahlied submission. The terms demanded were, the surrender 
Di' a part of the country, a large sum of money, and an obligation of 
perpetual fea4ty to the crown of England. The Welsh infringed 
this treaty, and Edward marched his aiTny into the heart of the 
country, where the troops of Lewellyn made a most desperate but in- 
effectual resistance. In a decisive engagement, in 1,283, the prince 
was slain. His brother David, betrayed into the hands of the con- 
queror, was inhumanly executed on a gibbet ; and Wales, complete- 
ly subdued, was annexed to the crown of England. With a policy 
equarlly absurd and cruel, Eilward ordered the Welsh bards to be put 
to death wherever found; thereby ensuring the perpetuation of their 
heroic songs, and increasing the abhorrence of the vanquished people 
for their barbarous conqueror. 

4. The conquest of Wales inflamed the ambition of Edward, and 
inspired him with the design of extending his dominion to the ex 
tremity of the island. The designs of this enterprising monarch on 
the kingdom of Scotland invite our attention to that quarter. 



SECTION XXIII. 

HISTORY OF SCOTLAND FROM THE ELEVENTH TO THE 
FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 

L The history of Scotland before the reign of Malcolm III., sur> 
named Canmore, is obscure and fabulous. U his prince succeeded to 
the throne in \X)bl by the defeat of iMacbeth, the murderer of his 
father Duncan. Espousing the cause of Edgar Atheling, heir of the 
Saxon kings of England, whose sister he married, he thus provoked 
a war with William the conqueror, which was equally prejudicial 
to botli kingdoms. In an expedition of Malcolm into England it is 
alleged, that, after concluding a truc^^, he was compelled by William 
to do homage for his kingdom. The truth is, that this homage was 
done lor the territories in Cumberland and INorthumberland woq by 
the Scots, and held in vassalage of the English crown ; though this 
honrage was afterwards absurdly made the pretext of a claim of 
feudal sovereignty over all Scotland. In a reign of twenty-seven 
years Malcolm supported a spirited contest with England, both under 
Williim 1. and his son Rulus: and to the virtues of his queen Mar- 
garet, his kingdom, in its domestic policy, owed a degree of civiliza- 
tion remarkable in those ages of barbarism. 



MODERN HISTOUY. 146 

2. Alexander 1., his son and successor, defended, with equal spirit 
and good policy, the independence ot his kingdom, and his son 
David 1., celebrated even by the democrdtic Buchanan as an honour 
to his country and to monarchy, won from Stephen, and annexed to 
his crown, the whole earldom of Northumberland. In those reigas 
we hear of no claim of the feudal subjection of Scotland to the 
crown of England ; though the accidental fortune of war afterwards 
furnished a ground for it. William I., (the hon), taken prisoner at 
Alnwick by Henry il., was compelled, as the price of his release, to 
^0 homage for his whole kingdom ; an obligation which his succes- 
sor Richard voluntarily discharged, deeming it to have been unjustly 
extorted. 

3. On the death of Alexander III. without male issue, in 1 ,285, 
Bruce and Baliol, descendants of David I. by the female line, were 
competitors for the crown, and the pretensions of each were support- 
ed by a formidable party in the kingdom. Edward I. of England, 
chosen umpire of the contest, arrogated to himself, in that character, 
the feudal sovereignty of the kingdom, compeUing all the barons to 
swear allegiance to him, and taking actual possession of the country 
by his troops. He then adjudged the crown to Baliol, on the express 
condition of his swearing fealty to him as lord paramount. Baliol, 
liowever, soon after renouncing his allegiance, the indignant Edward 
invaded Scotland with an immense force, and compelled the weak 
prince to abdicate the throne, and resign the kingdom into his hands. 

4. William Wallace, one of the greatest heroes whom history re 
cords, restored the fallen honours of his country. Joined by a few 
patriots, his tirst successes in attacking the English garrisons brought 
numbers to his patriotid standard, 'i heir successes were signal and 
conspicuous. Victory followed upon victory. While Edward was 
engaged on the continent, his troops were utterly defeated in a des- 
perate engagement at Stirling, and forced to evacuate the kingdom. 
Wallace, the deliverer of his country, now assumed the title oi gov- 
ernor of Scotland under Baliol, who was Edward's prisoner; a dis- 
tinction which was followed by the envy and disaffection of many ot 
the nobles, and the consequent diminution of his army. The Scots 
were defeated at Falkirk. Edward returned with a vast accession ot 
force. After a fruitless resistance the Scottish barons finally obtained 
peace by a capitulation, from which the brave Wallace was excepted 
by name. A ftigilive for some time, he was betrayed into the hands ot 
Edward, T\ho put him to death, with every circumstance of cruelty 
that baibarous revenge could dictate, 1,304. 

5. Scotland found a second champion and deliverer in Robert 
Bruce, the grandson of the competitor with Baliol ; who, deeply re- 
senting the humiliation of his country, once more set up the standard 
of war, and gave defiance to the English monarch, to whom his 
flithcr and grandfather had meanly sworn allegiance. Under this in- 
trepid leader the spirit of the nation was roused at once. The Eng- 
lish were attacked in every quarter, and once more entirely driven 




breath to his son, Edward II., to prosecute the war with the Scots to 
the entire reduction of the country. 

N 19 



<4e MODERK HLSTORV. 

SECTION XXIV. 

HISTORY OF ENGLAND IN TIIK TOURTEENTII CENTURY. 

I In the roign of Kdwanl I. wc observe the constiliilion of Eng- 
hinil giiuliially advuncing. The comnious had hcoii aiinalled to par- 
liiinienl ill the hiUer period of his father lleiiry 111. A statute vv;w 
passeil hy Ethvard, wliich declared, that no tax or imj)0?-t should be 
levied without the consent of lords and commons. F.dward raliJieTl 
the Alagiia Charta no less tlian eleveti times in the course of his rei«^n ; 
and hencel'orward this fundamental law began to be regarded as sa- 
cre<l and unalterable 

2. E«lward II. wa:; in character the very opposite of his father; 
weak, indoltnt, and capricious; but of humane and benevolent aflcc- 
lions. He disgusted hia nobles by \v^. attachment to mean and unde- 
serving f;:vouritPS, whom he raised to the highest dignities of the 
slate, and honoured with his exclusive confidence. Piers Gavestoii, 
a vicious and trilling minion, whom the king appointed regent when 
on a journey to Paris to marry Isabella, daugiiler of Philip the t*;ur, 
disgusted the Uirons to such a pilch, that they compelled the king to 
delegate all the authority of government to certain commissionei-s, and 
to abandon his favourite to their resentment. He was doomed to 
perpetual imprisonment, and, on attempt to escape, was seized and 
ht.headed. 

X Edwaid, in obedience to his father's will, invaded Scotland with 
an army of 100,000 men. King Hobert liruce met this immense 
ioice with 30,000 men at Bannockburn, and defeated them with pro- 
digious slaughter. This important victory secured the independence 
ol Scotland. Edward escaped by sea to bis own dominions. A new 
favourite, Spenser, supplied the plrxe of Gaveston; but his undesei-v- 
ed elevation and overbearing character completed the disaflection of 
the nobles to their sovereign. 'J'he queen^ a vicious adulteress, join- 
ed the malcontents, and. passing over to 1' ranee, obtained from her 
brother Charles IV. an army to invade Englantl, i:nd dethrone her 
hubbantl. Her enterprise was successful. Spenser and his father 
were betrayed into the hands of their enemies, and perished on a 
scatfcdd. '^Phe king was taken prisoner, tried by parliament, and sol- 
emnly deposed; and being confined to prison, was .sooo alter put to 
death in a manner shocking to humanity, 1,327. - 

4. Edward III., crowned at fourteen years of nge, could not submit 
to the regency of a mother stained w ith the foulest of crimes. His 
father's death was revenged by the perpetual imprisonment of Isabel- 
la, and the public execution ot her pai amour Mortimer. Bent on the 
conquest ol Scotland, Etlward marciied to the north with a prodigiou:j 
armv, vanquished the Scots in the battle of Halidoun-hill, and placed 
on the throne P^dward lialiol, his vassal and tributary. But the king- 
dom was as repugnant as ever to the rule of England, and a lavoura- 
ble opportunity was taken for the renewal of hostilities, on the depart- 
ure ot' Edward for a Ibreign enterprise, which gave full scope to his 
ambition. 

5. On the death of (i'harles IV. without male issue, the crown of 
Prance was rlaitned by Edward 111. of England, in right of nis moth- 
er, the lister of Charles, while, in the mean lime, th«.' throne was oc 
cupied by the male heir, Philip of \ alois. Edward titled out an im- 



MODERN HISTORY. 14T 

mense armament by sea and land, and, obtaining a signal victory over 
the French fleet, landed on the coast of Normandy, and with his son, 
the black princei ran a career of the most glorious exploits. FhiUp^ 
with 100,000 men, met the English with 30,000, and was entirely de- 
feated in the field of Cressy, August 26, 1,348. Calais was taken by 
the English, and remained in their possession 210 years. The En- 
glish arc said to have tirst used artillery in the battle of Cressy. Fire 
arms were then but a recent invention (1,340), and have much con- 
tributed to lessen both the slaughter and the frequency of wars. Mr. 
Hume well observes that war is now reduced nearly to a matter oi 
calculation. A nation knows its power, and, when overaratched, 
either yields to its enemies, or secures itself by alliance. 

6. The Scots in the mean time invaded England, and were defeated 
in the battle of Durham by Philippa. the heroic queen of Edward III. ; 
and their sovereign David II. was led prisoner to London. A truce 
concluded between Edward and Philip was dissolved by the death of 
the latter. Philip was succeeded by his son John, who took the field 
with 60,000 men against the black prince, and was defeated by him 
with a far inferior number in the signal battle of Poictiei's, September 
19. 1,356. John king of France was led in triumph to London, the 
fellow-prisoner of David king of Scotland. But Erigland derived from 
those victories nothing but honour. The French continued the war 

'with great vigour during the captivity of their sovereign, who died 
in London in 1,364. 1 hey obtained a peace by the cession to the 
English of Poitou, St. Onge, Perigord and other provinces ; and Ed- 
ward consented to renounce his claim to the crown of France. The 
death of the black prince, a most heroic and virtuous man, plunged 
the nation in grief, and broke the spirits of his father, who dia not long 
survive him. 

7. Richard II. succeeded his grandfather, in 1,377, at the age of 
eleven. Charles VI. soon after became king of France at the age 
of twelve. Both kingdoms suffered from the distractions attending a 
regal minority. In England the contests for power between the 
king's uncles, Lancaster, York, and Gloucester, embroiled all public 
measures; and the consequent disorders required a stronger hand to 
compose them than that of the weak and facile Richard. Taking 
advantage of the king's absence, then engaged in quelling an insur- 
rection in Ireland, Henry of Lancaster rose in open rebellton, and 
compelled Richard, at his return, to resign the crown. The parlia- 
ment confirmed his deposition, and he was soon after privately assas- 
sinated. Thus began the contentions between the houses of York 
and Lancaster. 



SECTION XXV. 

ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
STATE OF MANNERS. 

\. Henry IV. ascended the throne on the deposition of Richard 11, 
1,399; and had immediately to combat a rebellion raised by the earl 
of Northumberland, for placing Mortimer, the heir of the house of 
York, on the throne. The Scots and Welsh took part with the rel)els. 
but their united forces were defeated at Shrewsbury', and their lend 
er, young Percy (Hotspur), killed on the field. A'second rebellion 



148 MODKKN HISTOKY. 

headed by (he archbishop of York, was qwollod by the capital punish/ 
incnt of its author. The secular iinn was rigorously extended 
atjaiost the followers of WjrklilT, and this reie;ii si«\v the tirst detestable 
examples of religions persecution. The lile of Henry was imbillor- 
ed by the youthful disordei-s of his son the prince of Wales, who 
aflerwanis nobly re«leeined his character. Henry IV'. died in 1,113, 
at the at;e of fohy-six. 

'2 Henry V. took advantage of the disorders of France, from the 
temporary insanity ol its sovereign Charles VI., and the tiictious 
strufjgles for power between the dukes of Uurgundy and Orleany, 
to invade the kingdom with a large army, which a contagious dis- 
temper wasted down to a fifth of its numbers : yet w ith this handful 
of resolute and hardy troops, he defeated the French army of 60,000, 
under the constable D' Albert, iii the liimous battle of Agincourt, in 
which 10,000 of the enemy were slain, and 14.000 n)ade prisoners, 
October 24, 1,415. Helurning to Kngland to recruit his forces, he 
landed again with an army ol' 23.000. and fought his wav to Paris. 
'I'he insane monarch, with bis court, lied to Troye, and Henry pur- 
suing, terminaletl the war by a treaty with tWe queen-mother of 
the duke of Burgundy, by which it was agreed that lie should many 
the daughter of Charles \ I., and receive the kingdom of France as 
her dowry, which, till the death of lier father, he should govern as 
regent. 

3 IMean time the return of Henry to Kngland gave the dauphin 
hopes of the recovery ot" bis kingdom. He was victorious in an 
engagement with the Fnglish under the duke of Clarence ; but his 
success was of no longer (lurati«)ii than the absence of the English 
sovereign, who was himself hastening to the period of his triumphs. 
Seized with a mortal distemper, Henry died in the 34th year ol his 
age, 1,422, one of the most heroic princes that ever swayed the 
sceptre of England. His brother, the did<e of lie ilford, was declared 
regent of France, and Henry VI.. an infant nine months old, was pro- 
claimed king at Paris and at London. 1,422. 

4. Charles VII. recovered Fiance by slow degrees. With the aid 
of a young female enthusiast, the maid of Orleans, whom the credu- 
lity of the age supposed to be inspired by Heaven, he gained several 
important advantages over the English," which the latter inhumanly 
revenged, by burning this heroine as a sorceress. Her death was of 
equal advaiitage to the I'rencb as her life bad been. The govein- 
ment of the English was universally detested. AlVer a struggle of 
many years, they were at length, in 1,450, deprived of all that they 
had ever possessed iti France, except Calais and (iuignes. Charles, 
when he had restored bis kingdom to })e.'ice, governcil it with admi- 
rable wisdom and moderation. 

5. The state of England and lA' Frunce, the two most polished 
kingdoms in Europe, I'umishes a good criterion of the condition of 
society in itiose ages of which we have been Meating. Even in 
the large cities the houses were roofed with ibatch, and had no 
clumnies. Glass ^vindows were extremely rare, and the tloors 
iverc covered with straw. In England wine was sold only in the 
shops of the apothecaries. Paper made from linen rags was first 
manufactured in the beginning of the fifteenth century; and the Uae 
of linen lor shirts was at that time a very rare piece of luxury. 
Vet even before that age the progress of luxury had excited a se- 
rious alarm, for the parliament under Edward IJI. found it necessary 
10 prohibit the use of gold and sil-er in apparel to all who had nol 



MODEKJV HISTORY. 14* 

a in^idred pounds a year; and Charles VI. of France ordaioed, that 
none shoula presume to entertain with more than two <li^hes and a 
me» ot soup. Before the reign of Edward 1. the whole country of 
England was plundered by robber? in gi*eat bands, who laid >va.ste 
entire villages; and some of the household ofhcers of Henry ill. 
excused themselves tor robbing on the highwav, because the king 
allovN ed them no wages. In l.o03 the abbot and monks of Westmin- 
ster were indicted for robbiDj^ the king's exchequer, but acquitted. 
The admirable laws of Edward 1.. which acquired him the title oj 
the English Justinian, give strong testimony of the miserable policy 
and bari>arism of the preceding times 



SECTION XXVI. 



decli>t: and fall of the greek empire. 



*i 



1. In the fourteenth century the Turks were proceeding by de* 
grees to encroach on the frontiers of the Greek empire. The sul- 
tan Ottoman had tixed the seat of his goverament at Byrsa in Br 
t^ynia ; and his son Orcan extended his sovereignty to the' Propontis, 
anil obtimed in marriage the daughter of the emperor John Canta- 
cozenos. About the middle of the century the Turks crossed over 
mto Europe, and took Adrianople. The emperor John Pala;ologus, 
after meanly soliciting aid from the pope, concluded a humiliating 
treaty with sultan Amurat, and gave his son as a hostage to serve in 
the Turkish army. 

2. Bajazet, the successor of Amurat compelled the emperor to 
destroy his tbrt of Galata. and to admit a Turkish judge into the city. 
He prepared now to besiege Constantinople in form, when he was 
forced to change his purpose, and defend himsell' against the victorious 
Tamerlane. 

3. Timur-bek or Tamerlane, a prince of the Usbek Tartars, and 
descended from Gengiskan. after the conquest of Persia, a great part 
of India and Syria, vras invited by the Asiatic princes, enemies ol 
Bajazet, to protect them against the Ottoman power, which threaten- 
ed to ovenvhelm them. Tamerlane, tlattered by this request, in.- 
periousiy summoned the Turk to renounce his conquests : but t).e 
message was answered with a proud defiance. The armies met near 
Angoria (Ancyni) m Phrygia, and Bajizet was totally defeated and 
made prisoner by Tamerlane, 1,402. The conqueror made Sainar 
cand the capital of his empire, and there received the homage of all 
the princes of the east Tamerlane was illiterate, but yet was solici- 
tious for the cultivation of literature and science in his dominions. 
Samarcand became for a while the seat of learning, poliienoss, and 
the arts ; but nas destined to relapse, after a short period, into its 
ancient barbarism. 

4. The Turks, after the death of Tamerlane, resumed their puiv 
pose of destroyhig the empire of the east. Amurat IL, ji prince of 
singular character, had, on the faith of a solemn treaty with the 
king of Poland, devoted his days to retirement and study. A viola- 
tion of the treaty, by an attack trom the Poles on hi^ don.inions, made 
him quit his soiiiuJe. lie engaged and destroyed the Polish army, 
with their pertidio'is sovei-eign, and then calmly returned to his re- 
treat, till a similar crisis of pubUc expediency once luore brought 
him into active Ufe. He left liis doniinions to his son j^tahomet IL 



IfaO MODERN HISTORY. 

samamed the great, who resumed the project for (lie destruction of 
Constantinople ; but its tiill was a second time retarded by the nece^ 
sity in which the Turks were unexpectedly placed, of defending 
♦Jieir own dominions against a powerful invader. 

5, Scanderbejj (John Castrioi) prince ot Albania, whose territories 
had been seized l)V Anmrat II., was educated by the sultan as his 
own child, and when of age, intrusted with the command of an 
9rmy, which he employed in wresting from Amurat his pateraal 
kingdom, 1,443. By great talents and military skill he maintained 
his independent sovereignty against the whole force of the Turkish 
empire. 

G. Mahomet II., s^n of the philosophic Amurat, a youth of tiren- 
ty-one years of age, resumed the plan of extinguishing the empire 
of the Greeks, and making Constantinople the capital of the Otto- 
man power. ItJ indolent inbnhitants made but a feeble preparation 
for defence, and the powers of Europe looked on with supine indif- 
ference. The Turks assailed the city both by land and sea; and, 
battering down its walls with their cannon, entered sword in hand, 
and ma>sacred all who opposed them. The emperor Constantine 
was slain; the city surrendered; and thus was finally extinguished 
the eastern empire of the Romans, A. 1). 1,453, wfiich, Irom the 
building of its capital l)> Constantine tne great, had subsisted 1,123 
years. The iniperial edifices were preserved from destruction. 
The churches wore conveiled into mosques; but the exercise of 
their rehgion was allowed to all the christians. From that time the 
Greek christians have regularly chosen their own patiiarch, whom 
the sultan instnls; thougb his authority continues to be disputed by 
the Latin patiiarch, who is chosen by the pope. Mahomet the great 
liber.dly patronized the arts and sciences; and, to compensate for 
the migration of those learned Greeks, who, on the tall olthe empire, 
spread themselves over the countries of Europe, invited both artists 
and men of letters to his capital from other kingdoms. 

7. The taking of Constantinople was followed by the cont|uest of 
Gseece and Epirus. l»aly might probably have met a similar tate, but 
by means of their fieet the \ enetians opposed the arms of Mahomet 
with considerable success, and even attacked him in Greece. The 
contending powers soon alter put an end to ho.stilities by a treaty. 
Mahomet the great died at the age of fifty-one, 1,481. 



SECTION XXVU. 

GOVERNMENT AND POLICY OF THE TURKISH E.MPIRE. 

1 The government of Turkey is an absolute monarchy, tlie 
whole legislative and executive authority ot the state centering m 
the sultan, whose po'vcr is subject to no constitutional control, it is 
however, limited in some degree by religious opinion; the precepts 
of the Conm inculcating certain duties on the sovereign, which it 
would be held an impiety to tmnsgr^ss. H is yet more strongly hmit- 
ed by the fear of de position and assassination. Under these restraints 
the prince can seldom venture on an extreme abuse of power. 

2. The spirit of the neople is fitted for a subiection bordering on 
slavery. Concubinage oeing agreeable to the law of Mahomet, th€ 
grand seignior, the viziers, are bom of female slaves : and there is 
scarcely a subject of the empire of ingeRuous blood by both parents. 



MODERN HISTORY. 161 

It is a fundamental maxim of the Turkish policy, that all the officers 

of st^te should be such as the sultan can entirely command, and at 
any time destroy, without danger to himselt'. 

3. The grand vizier is usually entrusted with the whole functiftns 
of government, and of course subjected to the sole responsibility for 
all public maasures. Subordinate to him are six vi/.iers of ib*i beiich, 
who are his counsel and assessors in cases of I'd.v, of wliich he is 
supreme judge. The power of the grand vizier is absolute over all 
the subjects of the empire ; but he cannot put to deati) a bcgler 
beg or a bashaw without the imperial signature ; nor punish a jani- 
zary, unless through the mediuni of his military commarnler. 1 he 
bojijlerbegs are the governors of several provinces, the bashawfsof 
a single province. All dignities in the Tukish empire are persoiial, 
and dependent on the sovereign's pleasure. 

4. The revenues of the grand seignior arise from taxes and cus- 
toms hud on the subject, annual tributes paid by the Tartars^ stated 
gifts from the governors of the provinces, and, above all, the rovtis- 
catioa? of estates, from the viziers and bjishaws downwards »n the 
lowesi subj3cts of the empire. The cerkiin and tked re\enu'^s ol 
the sovereign are small in comparison of those which are arbiirary. 
His absolute power enables him to execute great projects al a imuij 
expense. 



SECTION XXVllI. 

FRANCE AND ITALY IN THE END OF THE FIFTEENTH 
CENTURY. 

1. ScARCEi-Y any vestige of the ancient feudal government now 
remained in France. The only subsisthig fiefs were Hurguiuly and 
J^ritlauy. Charles the bold, duke of Burgundy, who souglit to in- 
crease his territories by the conquest of Ji'witzerland and Lorraine. 
w;is defeated by the Swiss, and killed in battle. He left no son, and 
Lewi;' XI. of France took possession of Burgundy as a male tief, 
1,417. The duke's daughter married Maximilian, son of the empe- 
ror IVeilerick 111 , who, by this marriage, acquired the sovereignty 
of the Netherl-.inds. 

2. The accjuisition of Burgundy and of Provence, which was be 
queathed to 1^ ranee by the count de la Marche, increased very great- 
ly the power of the crown. Lewis XI., an odious compound ot vice, 
cruelty, and superstition, and a tyrant to his people, was the author 
of many wise and excellent regulations of public policy. The bar- 
barity of the public executions m his reign is beyond all belief; yet 
the wisdom of his laws, the encouragement which he gave to com- 
merce, the restraints which he imposed on the oppression^ of the 
nobility, and the attention which he bestowed in regulating the court? 
ol justice, must ever be mentioned to his honour. 

3. The count de la Marche, beside the beq;iest of Provence to 
Lewis XI., left him his empty title of sovereign of the Two Sicilies. 
Lewis was 'latistied with the substantial gift; but his son Charles 
VI 11. was dazzled with the shadow. In the beginning of his reign 
he projected the conquest of Naples, and embarked in tne enterprise 
with the most improvident precipitancy. 

4. The dismembered state of Italy was favourable to his viewg 



152 WODKltN HISTORY. 

The popedom, during the transference of its seat to Avignon, had 
lost many of its territories. Mantua, IModena, and Ferranx, had their 
nulepcndent sovereisiis. Piedmont belonged to the duke of Savoy; 
Genoa and Milan to the family of Sfoiza. Florence, under the Medi- 
ci, had attained a very high pitch of splendour. Cosmo, the founder 
ot that family, employed a vast fortune, acquired by commerce, in 
the improvement oi his country, in acts of public munificence, and in 
the cultivaUon ot the sciences and elegant arts. His high reputation 
obtained forhimselt and his posterity the chief authority in his native 
state. Peter de Medici, his Jgreat grandson, ruled in Florence at the 
period of the expedition of Charles Vlll. into Italy. 

5. The papacy was enjoyed at this lime by Alexander VI., a mon 
sterol wirkednes-s. The pope and the duke of Milan, who had invited 
Charies to this enterprise, immediately betrayed liim, and joined the 
interest ot the king of Naples. Charles, after besieging the pope in 
Rome, and forcing him to submission, devoutly kissed his feet. He 
now marched against Naples, while its timid prince Alphoaso lied to 
bicily, and his son to the isle of Ischia, after absolving his subjects 
trom their allegiance. Charles entered Naples in triumph, and was 
hailed emperor and Augustus: but he lost his new kingdom in almost 
as short a time as he had gained it. A league was Ibnned against 
France between the pope, the emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand of Ar- 
ragon, Isabella of Castile, and the Venetians ; and on the return of 
Charles to France, the troops which he had left to guard his conquest 
were entirely driven out of Italy. 

6. It has been remarked that, from the decisive effect of this con 
federacy against Charles VIII., the sovereigns of Europe derived a 
useful lesson of pohcy, and tirst adopted the idea of preserving a bal- 
ance of power, by that tacit league which is understood to be always 
subsisUng, tor the prevention of the inordinate aggrandizement of anv 
particular state. ^ 
^ 7. Charles VIII died at the age of twenty-eight, 1,198 ; and, leav- 
ing no children, the duke of Orieans succeeded to the tiuone ol 
France by the title of Lewis XII 

SECTION XXIX. 

HISTORY OF SPAIN IN THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH 
CENTURIES. 

1. We go back a little to the middle of the fourteenth century, to 
trace the history of Spain. Peter of Castile, sumamed the cruel, for 
no other reason but that he employed severe n^eans to support hirj 
just rights, had to contend against a bastr.rd brother, Henry of Trans- 
tamarre, who, with the aid of a French banditti, called Mal-.Midrins. 
led by Bertninc du Guesclin, strove to dispossess him of his kingdom. 
Peter was aided by lulward the black prince, then sovereign of Gui- 
enne, who defeate<l Transtamarre, and took Berirand prisoner- but, 
on the return ol the prince to i:ngland, Peter was attacked by his 
tormer enemies, and entirely defeated. Unable to restrain hi* rage 
m the hnst view with TransUm;irre, the latter put him to death with 
his own hjmd, 1,368 ; and thus this usurper secured for him.sell' and 
hw posterity the throne ot Castile. 

^xr'^^V^^'-!*"^^^ '^"'^ debauchery of one of his descendants, Hen- 
ry IV. ol CastUe, occiisioned a revoluUon in the kingdom. The ma- 



MODERN HISTORY. Ib'J 

joritv of the nation rose in rebellion; the assembly of the nobles sol- 
emnly deposed their king, and, on the alleged ground of his daughter 
Joanna being a bastard, compelled him to settle the crown on his sis- 
ter Isiibella. They next brought about a marriage between Isabella 
and Ferdinand of Arragon, which united the monarchies of Arragon 
and Cajtile. After a niinous civil war the revolution was at length 
completed by the death of the deposed sovereign, 1,474, and the re- 
tirement of his daughter Joanna to a monastery, 1,479. 

3. At the accession of Ferdinand and Isabella to the thrones of Ar- 
ragon and Castile, Spain was in a state of great disorder, from the 
lawless depredations of the nobles and their vassals. It was the first 
object of the new sovereigns to repress these enormities, by subject- 
ing the offenders to the utmost rigour of law, enforced by the sword. 
2'hc holy brotherhood was instituted for the discovery and punishment 
of crimes; and the inqijisiiion (Sect XIX, & 3), under the pretext ot 
extirpating heresy and impiety, afforded the most detestable exam- 
ples of sanguinary persecution. 

4. The Moorish kingdom of Granada, a most splendid monarchy, 
but at that time weakened by faction, and a prey to civil war, offeree! 
a tempting object to the ambition of Ferdinand and Isabella. Alboa- 
cen was at war with his nephew Aboabdeli, who wanted to dethrone 
him ; and Ferdinand aided Aboabdeli, in the view of ruining both ; 
for no sooner was the latter in possession of the crown by the death 
of Alboacen, than Ferdinand invaded his ally with the whole force of 
Arragon and Castile. Granada was besieged in 1,491, and, after a 
blockade of eight months, surrendered to the victor. Aboabdeli, hj 
a mean capitulation, saved his life, and purchased a retreat for hi3 
countrymen to a mountainous part of ihe kingdom, where they were 
suffered to enjoy unmoJ'^sted their laws and their religion. Thus 
ended the dominion of the Moors in Spain, which had subsisted lor 
800 years. 

5. Ferdinand, from that period, took the title of king of Spain. In 
1,492 he expelled all the Jews from his dominions, on the absurd 
ground, that they kept in their hands the commerce of the kingdom 
and Spain thus lost above 160.000 of the most industrious of her in- 
habitants. The exiles spread themselves over the other kingdoms ol 
Europe, and Avere often the victims of a persecution equally inhuman. 
It would appear that Spain has felt, even to the present times, the ef- 
fects of this folly, in the slow progress of the arts, and that deplora- 
ble inactivity which is the characteristic of her people. Even the 
discovery ol the new world, which happened at this very period, and 
which stimulated the spirit of enterprise and industry in all the neigh- 
bouring kingdoms, produced but a feeble impression on that nation, 
which might in a great degree have monopolized its benefits. Of 
that great discovery we shall afterwards treat in a separate section 



SECTION XXX. 

FRA^-CE, SPAIN, A>;D ITALY, IN THE END OF THE FIF- 
TEENTH AND BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 

1. Lewis XII., eagerly bent on vindicating his right to Naples, 
courted the interest of pope Alexander \ I., who uromiscd his aid on 
condition that his natural son, Cap.sar Borgia, should receive from 
Lewis the duchy of Valentinois, with the king of Navarre's sister in 

20 



IM MODERN HISTORY. 

marriage. Lewis crossed the Alps, and in the space of a few days 
was niiister of Milan and Genoa. Slor/.a duke ol Milan became his 
prisoner for life. Afraid of the power of Ferdinand of Spain, l^Mvis 
joined with him in the conquest of Napks, and agreed to divide 
with hjm the conquered dominions, the pope making no scruple to 
sjmotion the partition. But the compromise was of no duration; 
for Alexander V i., and Ferdinand, Judging it a better policy to share 
Italv between themselves, united their interest to deprive Lewis 
of his new territories. The Spaniards, under Gonsalvo de Cordova, 
defeated the French, under the duke de Nemours and the chevalier 
Bayard ; and Lewis irrecoverably lost his share of the kingdom of 
Naples. ^, ... 

2. History relates with horror the crimes ot pope Alexander v., 
and his son Caesar Borgia; their murders, robberies, profanations, 
incests. They compassed their ends in attaining every object of 
their ambition, but with the universal abhorrence of mankind, and 
tinally met with an ample retribution for their crimes. The pope 
died by poison, prepared, ^s was alleged, by himselt for an enemy; 
and Borgia, stripped of all his possessions by pope Julius 11., and sent 
prisoner to Spain by Gonsalvo de Cordova, perished in miserable 
obscurity. . 

3. Julius II., the successor of Alexander, projected the formidable 
league of Cambmy, 1.508, with the emporor, the kings of f ranee 
and Spain, the duke of Savoy, and king of Hungary, for the destruc- 
tion of Venice, and the division of her territories among the confed- 
erates They accomplished in part their design, and Venice was on 
the verge of annihilation, when the pope changed his politics. 
Having made the French subservient to his views of plundering the 
V enelians, he now formed a new league with the Venetians, Ger- 
mans, and Spaniards, to expel the French from Italy, and appropriate 
all their conquests. The Swiss and the English oo-operaled in this 
design. The French made a brave resistance under their generals 
Bayard and Gaston de Foix, but were tinally overpowered. Lewis 
was compelled to evacuate Italy ; Ferdinand, with the aid of Henry 
VUl. of England, stripped him of NaAarre, and forced him to pur- 
c\n\sc a peace. He died in 1,515. Though unfortunate in his milita- 
ry enterprises, from the superior abilities of his rivals pope Julius 
did Ferdinand, jei he was justly esteemed by his subjects for the 
wisdom and equity of his government 



SECTION XXXI. 

HISTORY OF ENGLAND FROM THE MIDDLE OF 7 HE 
FIFTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH 
CENTURY. CIVIL WARS OF YORK AND LANCASTER. 

1. We have seen France recovered from the p:nglish in the early 
part of the reign of Henry VI., by the talents and prowess of Charles 
VIII. During the minority of Henry, who was a prince o no capa- 
city, England was embroiled by the factious contention lor pojyer 
between his uncles, the duke of Gloucester and the cardinal ol VV in- 
Chester. The latter, to promote his own views of ambition, married 
Henry to Margaret of Anjou, daughter of Kegner the titular kin§ ol 
Naples, a woman of great mental endowments and singular heroism 



MODERN HISl^ORY. 165 

oi character, bui whose severity in the persecution of her enemie? 
aJienatcd a great part of the ii6i»les Irom their allegiance, and iu- 
creased the partisans ot' a rival claimant of the crown. 

2. This was Ixichard duke of York, descended hy hi? mother from 
f ionel, ^econd sonof E<lwardlll.. and elder hro'.her to John ot'Gau.it, 
the progenitor of Henry VI. Tiie white rose distinguished the liic- 
lion of York, and the red rose that of Liincastej. The party of 
York gained much strength from the incapacity of Henry, who was 
siil)ject to periotiiail madness : and Ricliard was appointed lieutenant 
and protector of the kingdom. The authority of Henry was now 
annihilated ; but Margaret roused her husband, in ;m interval ol 
sanity, to assert his right; and the nation was divided in arms be- 
tween the rival parties. In the battle of Su Albans 5,00U of the 
Lancastrians were slain, and the king was taken prisoner by the duke 
of York, on the 22d day of May, 1,455. Yet the p.irliament, while 
it conrirmed the authority of the protector, mainuiined its allegiance 
to the king. 

3. The spirit of the queen reanimated the royal party ; and the 
Lanciisirians gained such advantage, that the duke of York tielt to 
Ireland, while his cause was secretly maintained in England by Gu? 
earl of Warwick. In the battle of _Vorthampton the party of Yom 
again pre\ ailed, and Henry once more was brought prisoner to Lon- 
don; while his dauntless queen still nobly exerted herself to retrieve 
his fortunes. YVrk now claimed the crown in open parliament, but 

Sre\'ailed only to have his right of succession ascertained on Henry's 
eath, to the exclusion of the royal issue. 

4. Ln the next battle the duke of York was slain, and his party de- 
feated ; but his successor Edward, supported by Warwick, avenged 
thi? di^ister by a signal victory nei\r Tcutpn, in Yorkshire, m 
which 4 ,000 ot tiie Lancastri ms were slain. York was proclaimed 
king by the title of Edw<.rd iV., while Margaret, with her dethroned 
hust>and and infant son, tied intcT Flanders. 

5. Edward, who owed his crown to Warwick, wjis ungrateful 
to his benefictor; and the imprudence and i^iustice of his conduct 
forced that noblera m at lengtn to take part wltn ihe Miction of I.^n- 
caster The consequence was, that, alter some struggles, Edward 
was deposed, and henry VI. once more restored to the throne by 
the hands of Warwick, uow known by the epithet of the king-maker. 
But this change was of no duration. The party of York ultimately 
prevailed. The Lanaislrians were deieated in the battle of Baraet, 
and the brave Warwick was slain in the engagement, 1,472. 

6. The intrepid Margaret, whose spirit was suj>erior to every 
change of fortune, prepared to strike a last blow for the crown d 
England in the battle of Tewksbury. The event was fatal to her 
hopes: victory dec'ared for Edward. Margaret was sent prisoner lo 
the tower of London; and the prince her son. a youth of high spint. 
when brought into the prcseiKe of his conqueror, having nobly dared 
to justify his enterprise to tlic lace of his rival, w;is btirbarousfy mur- 
dered by the dukes of Gloucester and Cliirence. Henry \ I. was 
soon after nri^'ately put to tleath in the Tower. The heroic Margaret» 
ransomed by Lewis XI., died in Fiunce, 1,482. 

7. Edward IV., thus secured on the throne by the death of all his 
competitors, ab:mdoned himself without reserve to the indulgence of 
a vicious and tyrannical nature He put to death, on the most frivo- 
lous pretence, his brother Clarence. l-'repiU'ing to gratify liis subjects 
bj a war with France, he died suddenly in the forty-second year of 



166 MODEKJV HISTOKY. 

his a^e, poisoned, as was suspected, by his broUier Rictiard dulce of 
GJou.-ester, 1,483. 

8. Edward lert ttvo sons, the elder, Edward V., a boy of thirteen 
years of age. Richard duke of Gloucester, named protector hi the 
minority of his nephew, iiired, by means of Bucliingliam, a nuih of 
the dregs of the populace to declare their wish lor his assumption 
of the crown. He yielded, with atVectcMl reluctance, to this voice of 
the nation^ and was proclaimed king by the title of Kichard ill., 1,483. 
Edward \ ., after a reign of two months, with his brother the duke 
of ^ork, were, by command of the usurper, smolhertil while asleep, 
and privately buried in the Tower. 

9. These atrocious crimes found an avenger in Henry earl of 
Richmond, the surviving heir of the house of Lancaster, wno, aided 
by Charles VIU. of France, landed in Knglantl, and revived the spirits 
o» a party almost extingu>-hcd in the kingdom. He gave battle to 
Richard in the field of Bosworth, and entirely defeated the army of 
the usurper, who was slain while fighting with the most desperate 
courage, August 22, 1,485. The crown which he wore in the en^jage- 
ment was immediately placed on the head of the conqueror. This 
auspicious day put an end to the civil wars of York and Limcaster. 
Henry V^II. united the rights of l>oth families by his marriage with 
Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. 

10. The reign of Henry V'll. Avas of twenty-four years' duration; 
and under his wise and politic government the kir.gdom recovered 
all the wounds which it had sustained in those tmhappy contests^ 
Industry, good order, and perfect subordination, were the fruit of the 
excellent Taws passed in this reign ; though the temper of the sove 
rejgn was despotic, and his avarice, in the latter part of his reign, 
prompted t^ the most oppressive exactions. 

11. The government of Henry was disturbed by two very singular 
enterprises; the attempt of Lambert h>imnel, Uie son of a baker, to 
counterfeit the person of the earl cfli Warwick, son of the duke of 
Clarence; and the similar atte^iipt of IVrkin Warbeck, son of a 
FlentMsh Jew, to counterfeit the duke of V'-i k, who ij;Hl been smother- 
ed in the Tower by Jiichard III. lioth impostors i"oun<l considerable 
support, but were tinallv deicated. Simnel, after bein^ crowned 
king of England and Ireland at Dublin, ended his days, in a menial 
office of Henry's household. Perkin supported his cause by force 
of arms for five years, and was aided by a great proportion of the 
English nobility. Overpowered at length he surremlered to Henry, 
who condemned him to perpetual imprisonment ;. but his arabitioui 
spirit meditated a new insurrection, and he was nut to death as u 
traitor. Henry Vll. died in 1,509, in the lifty-thinl year of his age, 
and the twenty-fourth of his reign. 



SECTION XXXII. 

HISTORY OF SCOTLAND FROM THE .MIDDLE OF THE 
FOURTEEiNTH CENTURY TO THE END OF THE REIGN OF 
JAMES V 

1. In no country of Ixirope had the feudal aristocracy attained to 
a greater height than In Scotland. The power of the greater 
barons, while it rendered them independent, and often the rivals 



MODERN HISTORY. 

of their sovereign, was a perpetual ^ource of turbulence and dis 
onler in the kingdom. It was tlierclore a constant policy of the 
Sr«>ttish kings to numbie the nobles, and break their tactious com- 
binations. Robert 1. attenapted to retrench the vast territorial pos 
?iessions of his barons, by requiring every landholder to produce the 
titles of his esuite; but was resolutely answered, thtrt the sword was 
(heir charter of possession. 

2. On the death of Robert in 1,329, and during the minority of 
his son David, Edward Baliol, the son of JoLn formerly king ol 
.Scotland, with the aid of Edward 111. of England, and ot many of 
the factious barons, invaded the kingdom, and was crowned at Scone, 
while the young David was conveyed for security to France. The 
me^in dependence of Baliol on the English monarch deprived him of 
the atfections of the people. Robert, the steward of Scotland, Ran- 
dolph, and Douglas, supported the Brucian interest, and, assisted by 
the French, restored David to his throne. This prince was destined 
to sustain many reverses of fortune ; for, in a subsequent invasion ol 
the English territory by the Scots, he was taken prisoner in the bat- 
tle of Durham, and conveyed to London. He remained eleven 
years in captivity, and witnessed a similar fate of a brother monarch, 
3ohn king of France, taken prisoner by the black prin«e in the battle 
of Poictiei-s. David was ransomed by his subjects, and restored to 
his kingdom in 1,357 ; and ended a turbulent reign in 1,370-1. The 
crown passed at iiis demise to his nephew Robert, the high steward 
of Scotland, in virtue of a destination made by Robert 1. 

3. The reign of Robert II., which was of twenty years' duration 
was spent in a series of hostilities between the Scots and English 
productive of no material consequence to either kingdom. The 
weak and indolent disposition of his successor Robert 111, who found 
himself unequal to the contest with his factious nobles, jjrompted 
him to resign the government to his brother, the duke of Albany. 
This ambitious man formed the design of usurping the throne by the 
murder of his nephews, the sons of Robert. The elder, Rothsay, a 
prince of high spirit, was imprisoned on pretence of treasonable de- 
signs, and starved to death. The younger, James, escaped a similar 
fate which was intended for him; but on his passage to France, 
whither he was sent for safety by his father, he was taken by an Eng- 
lish ship of war, and brought prisoner to London. The weak Robert 
sunk under these misfortunes, and died, 1,405, after a reign of dfteen 
years. 

4. James I., a prince of great natural endowments, profited by a 
captivity of eighteen years at the court of England, in adorning his 
mind with every valuable accomplishment. At his return to his 
kingdom, which in his absence had been weakly governed by the 
regent Albany, and suflfered under all the disorders of anarchy, he 
bent his whole attention to the improvement and civilization of his 
people, by the enactment of many excellent laws, enforced with a 
resolute authority. The factions of the nobles, their dangerous com- 
binations, and their domineering tyranny oveV their dependents, the 
great sources of the people's miseries, were firmly restrained, and 
most severely punished. But these wholesome innovations, while 
they procured to James the affections of the nation at large, excited 
the odium of the nobility, and gave birth to a conspiracy, headed 
by the earl of Athole, the king s uncle, v.hich terminated in th« 
murder of this excellent prince, in the 44th year of his age, A. D. 
1,437. 

O 



158 MODEKiN KISTOKV. 

5 His pon James H. inheriteH a considcnible poition of the talents 
ofhis fjlhcr; ami, in the like purpose of restmrning the inordinate 
poller of his nobles, pursued the same maxims ot government, which 
an imn'.tuous temper prompted him, in some instances, 'o carry to 
tbe most blameable excess. The carl ot Douglas, trusting to a pow- 
erful vassalage, had assumed an authority above the laws, and a state 
and splendour rival to those ot his so^erei^. He was seized, and 
l>eheaded without accusation or trial. His successor imprudenllj 
running the same career, and boldly justifying, in a conference, hw 
rebellious practices, was put to death by the king's own hand. Thus 
were the factions of the nobles quelled by a barbarous rigour of 
authority. To his people James was beneficent and humane, and 
his laws contributed materially to their civilization and prosperity. 
He was killed, in the 3Uth yeai of his age, by the bursting ot a can- 
non, in besieging the castle of Roxburgh, A. D. 1,460. 

6 His son James Hi., without the talents of his predecessors, 
affected to tread in the same steps. To humble his nobles he be- 
stowed his confidence on mean favourites, an insult which the for- 
mer avenged by rebellion. His brothers Albany and Mar, aided 
by Edward IV. of England, attempted a revolution in the kingdom, 
which was frustrated oi.ly by the death of Edward. In a second re- 
bellion the confederate nobles forced the prince of Rothsay, eld«^st son 
of James, to appear in arms against his father. In an engagement 
near Bannockburn the rebels were successful, and the king was fclain 
in the 35th near of his age, 1,488. ,. . , . . ♦! ♦ 

7 James IV., a gi-eat and most accomplished prince, whose talents 
were equalled by his virtues, while his measures of government were 
dictated by a true spirit of patriotism, won by a well-placed conti- 
denre the aflfections of his nobility. In his marriage with Margaret, 
the daughter of Henry Ml. of England, both sovereigns wisely 
sought a bond of amitv between the kingdoms; but this purpose Wcis 
frustrated in the succeeding reign of Henry V 111. The high spirit of 
the rival monarchs was easily inllamed by trifling causes of otlence; 
and France, then at war with England, courted the aid of her an- 
cient ally. James invaded England with a powerful army, vvhich he 
wished lO lead to immediate action ; but the prudent delays of Surrey, 
the English general, wasted and weakened his force. In the latal 
battle of" Flodden the Scots were defeated with prodigious slaughter. 
Tiie gallant James perished in the tight and with him almost the 
whole of the Scottish nobles, A. D. 1,513. . r * ♦ 4i 

8 Under the lorg minority of his son James V., an infant at Ui« 
time of hi? fathers death, the kingdom was feebly ruled by his uncle 
Mbany The aristocracy began to resume its ancient spirit of inde- 
'pendencc, which was ill-brooked by a prince ot a proud and un- 
controlaDle mind, who felt the keenest jealousy of a high prerogii- 
tivo With a systematic policy he employed the church to abuse the 
nobility, conferring all the offices of state on able ecclesiastics. 1 he 
cuilinai Beaton co-operated with great zeal in the designs ot his 
master, and under him' ruled the kingdom. 

9 Henry Vlll.. embroiled with the papacy, sought an alliance 
with the king of Scots; but the ecclesiastical counsellor of the lat- 
ter defeated this beneficial purpose. A war was thus provoked, and 
T unes was reluctantly compelled to court those nobles whom it had 
hitherto been his darling object to humiliate. They now determined 
on a disgnceful revenge. In an attack on the Scottish border the 
English were repelled, and an opportunity offered to the ScoUol 



MODERIV HISTORY. 159 

ctitting off their retreat. The king gave his orders to that emJ, bul 
his barons obstinately refused to advance beyond the tVontier. One 
measure more was wanting to drive theit sovereign to despair. In a 
subsequent engagement with the English 1U,U0U oi* the Sects deliber- 
ately surrendered themselves prisoners to 500 of the enemy. The 
high spirit of J.imessunk under his contending passions, and he died ol 
a broken heart in the 33d year of iiis age, A. P. 1,542, a few days 
after the birth of a daughter, yet more unfortunate than her father, 
Mary queen of Scots. 



SECTION XXXlll. 

OF THE ANXIENT CONSTITUTION OF THE SCOTTISH GOVERN- 
MENT. 

1. We have seen that it was a constant policy of the Scottish kings 
to abjise the power of their nobles ; and that the struggle for power 
was the source of much misery and bloodshed. But this policy w:is 
necessary, from the dangerous ambition and la\,'less tyranny of those 
nobles, who frequently aimed at overturning the throne, and exercis- 
ed the severest oppression on all their dependents. The interests, 
therefore, of the people, no less than the security of the prince, de- 
manded the repression of this overweening and destructive power. 
The aristocracy was,however, preserved, no less by its own 'strength 
than by the concurrence of circumstances, and chielly by the violent 
and unhappy fate of the sovereigns. Meantime, though the meas- 
ures which the kin^s pursued were not successful, yet their conse- 
quences were beneticial. They restrained, if they did not destr.-y, 
the spirit of feudal oppression, and ^a\e birth to order, wise laws, 
and a more tranquil administration ot government. 

2. The legislative power, thouojh nominally resident in the parlia- 
ment, was virtually in the king, who, by his influence, entirely con- 
troled its proceedings. The parlian^.ent consisted of three estates, 
the nobles, the dignitied clergy, and the less barons, who were the 
representatives of the towns and shires. The disposal of benetices, 
gave the crown the enure command of the churchmen, who were 
equaHo the nobles in number; and at least a majority of the com- 
mons were the dependents of the sovereign. A comniittee, termed 
the lords of the articles, prepared every measure that was to come 
before the parliament. By the mode o? its election this committee 
was in eiTect nominated by the king. It is to the credit of the Scot- 
tish princes, that there are few instances ot their abusing an authority 
so exten.^ive as that which they constitutionally enjoyed. 

3. The king had anciently the supreme jurisdiction in all Oiuses, 
civil and criminal, which he generally exercised through the medium 
of Lis privy council ; bul in 1,425 James I. instituted the court of ses- 
sions, consisting of the chancellor and certain judges chosen from the 
three estates. This court was new-modelled by James V^, and its 
jurisdiction limited to civil causes, the cognizance of crimes being 
committed to the justiciary. The chancellor was the highest officer 
of the crown, and president of the parliament. To the chamberlain 
belonged the care of the tinauces and the public police; to the high 
stpwartl the charge of the king's household ; the constable regulated 
all matters of military arrangement; and the marshal was the king's 
lieutenant, and master of the norse. 



160 MODEIiW HISTORY. 

4. The revenue of the sovereign consisted of his domain, which 
was extensive, of the leudiil Ciisualties and torieitures, tlie profits ol 
tlie wurdships of his vassals, the rents of viraut benellces, the pecu- 
niarv tines lor olTences, and llic aids or presents occasionally given 
by the subject ; a revenue at all times sufficient for the purposes ol 
government, and the support uf the dignity of the crown. 

a. The political principles uljich regulated theconduct of the Scots 
toward other nations were obvious and simple. It had ever been an 
object of ambition to England to acquire the sovereignty of Scotland, 
w hich was constantly on its guard against this design ol its more potent 
neighbour. It was the wisest policy for Scotland to attach itself to 
France, the natural enemy of England ; an alliance reciprocally court- 
ed from similar motives. \n those days this attachment was justly 
deemed patriotic; while the Scots, who were the partisans of Eng- 
land, were with equal justice regarded as traitors to their country. 
In the period of which we now treat, it was a settled policy of the 
English sovereigns to have a secret faction in their pay in Scotland, 
for the purpose of dividing and thus enslaving the naliou; and to tlii«> 
source all the subsequent disorders of the latter kingdom are to bo 
attributed. 



SECTION XXXIV. 

A VIEW* OF THE PROGRESS OF LITERATURE AND SCIENCE 
IN EUROPE, FROM THE REVIVAL OF LETTERS TO THE 
E:iD OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 

1. The first restorers of learning in Europe were tlie Arabian^ 
who, in the course of their Asiatic conquest*, becoming acquainted 
with some of the ancient Greek authore, discovered and justly appre- 
ciated the knowledge and improvement to be derived irom them. 
The caliphs procured from the eastern emperors copies of the an- 
cient manuscripts, and had them carefully translated into Arabic : es- 
teeming principally those which treated of mathematics, physics, and 
metaphysics. They disseminated their knowledge in the course oi 
their conquests, afi(l lounded schools and colleges in all the countries 
which they subdued. 

± The western kingdoms of Europe became first acquainted with 
the leammg of the ancients through the medium of those Arabian 
translations. Charlemagne caused Latin translations to be made frorn 
the Arabian, and tbundod, after the example of the adinhs, the uni- 
versities of bononia, Pavia, Osnaburg, and Paris. Alfred wth a simi- 
lar spirit, and by similar means, introduced a taste for literature in 
England ; but the .-:ubsequent disorders of the kingdom rephmged it 
into barbarism. The Normans, however, brought from the continent 
home tincture of ancient learning, which was kept alive in the monas- 
terie-ii, where the monks were meritoriously employed in transcriln 
ing a few of the ancient authors, along with the legendary lives of 
the saints. 

;i In this dawn of literature in England appeared Henry of Hunting 
ton and GeolTrey of iMonmouth, names distinguished in the earliest 
annals ol" poetry and romance; John of Salisbury, a moralist; Wil- 
liam of I\Ialmosl)urv, annali-t of the history of England before the 
reit;n of Stepiien ; Giraldus Cambrensis, known in the fields of higl> 



MODERN HISTORY. 161 

ry, theology, and poetry; Joseph of Exeter, author of two Latin €pic 
poems on tlie Troian war, and the war of Antioch, or the ci-usade, 
which are read with pleasure even in the present da^^. 

4. But this era of a good taste in letters was of short duration. 
The taste for classical composition and historical information yielded 
to the barbarous subtleties of scholastic divinity taught by Lombard 
and Abelard, and to the abstruse doctrines of the Roman law, Avhich 
began to engage the general attention from the recent discovery of 
the pandects at Amalphi, 1,137. The amusements of the vulgar 
in those periods were metrical and prose romances, unintelligible 
prophecies, and fables of giants and enchanters. 

5. In the middle of the thirteenth century apjieared a distinguish- 
ed genius, Roger Bacon, an English Inar, whose comprehensive mind 
was tilled with all the stores of ancient learning ; who possessed a 
discriminating Judgment to separate the precious ore from the dross, 
and a powei ot in\ ention titted to advance in every science which was 
the object of his study. He saw the insulTiciency of the school phi- 
losophy, and tirst recommended the prosecution oT knowledge by ex- 
periment and the observation of nature. He made discoveries of 
importance in astronomy, optics, chemistry, medicine, and mechanics. 
He reformed the kalendar, discovered the construction of telescopic 
glasses forgotten after his time, and revived by Gr.lileo, and b.as lett a 

?lain intimation of his knowledge of the composition of gun-powder, 
et this superior genius believed in the possibility of discovering an 
elixir for the prolongation of life, in the transmutation of metals into 
gold, and injudicial astrology. 

6. A general taste prevailed for poetical composition in the twelfth 
and thirteenth centuries. The troubadours of Provence wrote son- 
nets-, madrigals, and satirical ballads ; and excelled in extempore dia- 
logues on the subject of love, which they treated in a metaphysical 
and Platonic strain. They contended for the prize of poetry at sol- 
emn meetings, where princes, nobles, and the most illustrious ladies 
attended to decide between the rival bards ; and some of those prin- 
ces, as Richard 1. of England, Frederick I. emperor of Germany, are 
celebrated as troubadours of eminence. Many fragments yet remain 
of their compositions. 

7. The transterence of the papal seat to Avignon, in the fourteenth 
century, familiarized the Italian poets with the songs of the trouba- 
dours, aixl gave a tincture of the Provencal style to their compo- 
sitions, which is very observable in the poetry of Petrarch and ol 
Dante. The Dhina Comedia of Dante tirst introduced the machine- 
ry of angels and devils in the room of the pagan mythology, nrd is a 
vTork containing many examples of the terrible sublime. The Sen' 
ueU and Canzoni of Petrarch are highly tender and pathetic, though 
vitiated with a quaintness and conceit!^ which is a prevalent leatuic 
of the Italian poetry. The Decamerone of Boccacio, a work of the 
same age, is a master-piece for invention, ingenious narrali^ e, and 
acquaintance with human nature. These authors have tixed the 
standard of the Italian language. 

8. Contemporary with them, and of rival merit, was the English 
Chaucer, who displays all the talents of Boccacio, throtigh the me- 
dium of excellent poetry. The works of Chaucer discover an exten- 
sive knowledge of the sciences, an acquaintance both with ancient 
and modem learning, particularly the literature of France and Italy, 
and, above all, a most acute discernment of life and manners. 

9. Of similar character are the poems of Gower, but of a graver 

2 21 



IG8 MOJ)KKN HISTORY. 

cast, and a more chastened morality. Equal [o these eminent men 
in every species of literary merit was the accomplished .Ijmies 1. of 
SctUlund, of which his remaining writings hear convincing testimony. 
The doubtful Rowley of Bristol is said lo have adorned tne tifteenth 
cenVary. 

10. Spain at this period began to emerge from ignorance and l»ar- 
barism, and to produce a few of those worKS which are enumenited 
with anprohation in the whimsical but judicious criticism of Cervan- 
tes. (j)on Quixote, b. l,c. G.) 

11. Though poetry attained in those ages a considerable degree 
of splendour, yet there was little advancement in general literature 
and s<:ionce. History was disgraced by the intermixture of miracle 
ami fable; yet we tiuil much curious intbrmalion in the writing* 
of 31atthew of Westminster, of Walsingham, Everard, Duysb'jrg, antl 
the Chronicles of Froissart and Monstrelet. Philm de CommineiJ 
happily describes the reigns of Lewis XI. and Charles Vlll. (»1 
Tiancc. Villani and Flatina are viluable recorders of the afiiiirs ol 
Italy. 

\± A taste for classical learning in the fifteenth century led to the 
discovery of many of the ancient authors. Poggio discovered the 
writings of Quintilian and several of the compositions of Cicero, 
which stimulated to larther research, and to the recovery of many 
valuable remains of Greek and Roman literature. But this taste was 
not generally ditlused. Erance and England were extremely barba- 
rous. The Hbrary at Oxford contained only 600 volumes, and there 
were but four classics in the royal library at Paris. But a brighter 
period was approaching. On the fall of the eastern empire, in the 
end of the hfteenth century, the dispersion of the Greeks diffused a 
taste ibr polite literature over all the west of Europe. A succession 
of popes, endowed with a liberal and enlightened spirit, gave every 
encounigement to learning and the sciences; and, above all, the 
noble discovery of the art (^ pntiiing conuibuted to their rapid ad- 
vancement and dissemination, and gave a ceilain assurance of the 
perpetuation of every valuable art, and the progressive improvement 
of human knowledge. 

13. The rise of dramatic composition among the modems is to be 
traced to the absurd and ludicrous representation, in the churches, 
of the scripture histories, called in England mjsteries, miracles, and 
moralities. Those were first exhibited in the twelfth century, and 
continued to the sixteenth, when they were prohibited by law ir 
Enjjland. Of these we have amusing specimens in Warton^s His- 
tory of English Poetry. Profiuie dnwiias were substituted in their 
place; and a mixture of the sacred and nrol'ane appears lo have 
been known in France as early as 1,300. In Spain the farcical mys- 
to/ies keep their ground to die present day, and no regular compo- 
sition for the stage was known till the end of the sixteenth centui^. 
The Italians are allowed by their own writers to have borrowed 
their theatre from the French and English. 

See Kelt's Elements of General Knowledge, voL I. 






MODERN HISTORY 165 



SECTION XXXV. 

VIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF COMMERCE IN EUROPE BEFORE 
THE PORTUGUESE DISCOVERIES. 

1. Before we give an nccount of the discoveries of the Portu- 
gue^ in the fifteenth century, in exploring a new route to India, we 
shall present a short view of the progress of commerce in Europe 
down to that period. 

The boldest naval enterprise of the ancients was the Peri plus ot 
Hanno, who sailed from Carthage to the coast of Guinea, within 
four or five degrees of the equator, A. C. 570. The ancients did 
not know that Africa was almost circumnavigable. They had a very 
limited knowledge of the habitable earth. Thev believed that both 
the torrid and frigid zones were uninhabitable ; and they were very 
imperfectly acqusunted with a great part of Europe, Asia, and Af- 
rica. Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, Poland, and the greater part ol 
Russia, were unknown to them. In Ptolemy's description of the 
globe, the 63d degree of latitude is the limit of the earth to the 
north, and the equator to the south. 

2. Ijritain was circumnavigated in the time of Domitian. The 
Romai.s frequented it for the purposes of commerce ; and Tacitus 
mentions London as a celebrated resort of merchants. The com- 
merce of the ancients was, however, chietiy confined to the Mediter- 
ranean. In the flourishing periods of the etistem empire the mer- 
chandise of India was imported from Alexandria; but, after the con- 
quest of Egypt by the Arabians, it \vas carried up the Indus, and 
thence by land to "the Oxus. which then ran directly into the Caspian 
sea; tnence it was brought up the Wolga, and again carried overland 
to the Don, whence it descended into the Euxine. 

3. After the tall of the western empire commerce was long at a 
stand in Europe. When Attila was ravaging Italy the Veneti took 
refuge in the small islands at the northern exiremily of the Adriatic, 
and there founded \ enice, A. D. 452, which began very early to 
equip small fleets, and trade to the coasts of Egypt and the Levant, 
for spices ~ind other merchandise of Arabia and India. Genoa, Flor- 
ence, and Pisa, imitated this example, and began to acquire consider- 
able wealth ; but X'enice retained her superiority over these riva 
suites, and gained considerable territory on the opposite coast of illy r 
icum and Dalmatia. 

4. The maritime cities of Italy profited by the crusades, in tljmish- 
ing the armies with supphes, and bringing 'home the province of the 
east The Itiilian merchants established manufactures similar to 
those of Constantinople. Rogero king of Sicily brought artisans 
from Athens, and established a silk manufacture at Palermo in 1,130. 
The sugar caoffe was planted in Sicily in the twelfth century, and 
thence carried to Madeira, and tinaliy made its way to the West 
Indies. 

o. In the tweltl:h and thirteenth centuries the Italians were the 
only commercial people of Europe. Venice set the first example 
of a national b<mk in 1,157, which has maintained its credit to the 
present times. The otJy trade of France, Spain, and Germany, at 
this time, was carried on at stated fairs and markets, to which traders 
resorted from all quarters, paying a tax to the sovereigns or the lords 



164 MODERN HISTORY. 

of the territory. The more cnierprLsing liought a privilege ol ex 
eniption, by paying at once a largo si:ni, and were Ihencc called freM 
tnidery. 

6. In the middle ages the Italian merchants, \isually called Lom- 
bards^ were the laciors of all tlie European nations, and were en- 
ticed, by privileges granted by the sovereigns, to settle in France, 
Spain, Germany, and England. They were not only traders in com 
modities, but bankers, or money dealers. In this last business they 



found a severe restraint from the canon law prohibiting the taking 
of interest; and lience, from the necessary privacy of their bargains, 
there were no bounds to exorbitant usury. Tlie Jews, too, who 
were the chief dealei"s in money, brought disrepute on the trade of 
banking, and frequently sufTeretl, on that account, the most intoler- 
able persecution and conliscation of their fortunes. To guard against 
tliese injuries tl)€y invented bilb o/* exdiange. 

7. The Lombard merchants excited a spirit of commerce, and 

Save birth to manufactures, which were generally encouraged by 
»e sovereigns in the dill'erent kingdoms of Europe. Among the 
chief encouragements was the institution of corporations or monop- 
olies, the earliest of which are traced up to the eleventh century ; 
a policy beneficial, and perhaps necessary, where the spirit of indus- 
try is low, and manufiictures are in their infancy ; but of hurtful con- 
sequence where trade and manufactures are ilourishing. 

8. Commerce be^an to spread toward the north of Europe about 
the end of the tweltth centuiy. The sea-ports on the Baltic traded 
with Fnmce and Britain, and with the JMediterjanean by the staple 
of the isle of Oleron, near the mouth of the Garonne, then possessed 
by the English. The commercial laws of Oleron and VVisbuy (on 
the Baltic) regulated for many ages the trade of Europe. To pro- 
tect their trade from piracy, Lubec, Hamburgh, and most of the north- 
ern sea-ports, joined in a contbde racy, under certain general regula- 
tions, termed the league of the hanse-tou'iis ; a union so beneticial in 
its nature, and so formidable in point of strength, tiiat its alliance w;is 
courted by the predominant powers of Europe. 

9. For the trade of the hanse-to\> ns \vith the southern kingdom?, 
Bniges, on the coast of Flanders, was ibund a convenient entrepot, 
and thither the Mediterranean meg:iian(s brought the commodities 
of India and the Levant to exchange with the produce arj manufac- 
tures of the north. The Flemings now began to encourage trade 
and manufactures, which thence spread to the Brabanters : but theii 
growth being checked by the impolitic sovereigns of those prov- 
mces, they Ibund a more favourable field in England, which was des- 
tined to derive Irom them the great source of its national opulence. 

10. The Britons had very early seen the imporbuice ol" commerce. 
Bede relates that London was tVequented by loreignci-s for the pur- 
pose of trade in 614; and VVilUam of Maimesburv speaks of it, in 
1,041, as a most populous and wealthy ciiy. The cinque ports. 
L)i»ver, Hastings, Hvttie, Homuey, and Sandwich, obtained in that age 
their privileges and immunities, on condition of furnishing each live 
ships of war. Tiiese ports are now eight in number, and send their 
members to parliament. 

11. The woollen manufacture of England was considerable in the 
twelfth century. Henry 11. incorporated the weavers of London- 
and gave them various privileges. By a law pjissed in his reign, all 
cloth made of foreign wool was condemned to be burnt. Scotland 
at this time seenja to have posscsse<l a considerable source of wealth, 



MODERN HIS'J'ORY. 165 

as 18 evident from the payment of the ransom of William the lion, 
which was 10.000 merks. equal lo 100.0001. sterling of preseot 
money. The lingli?h found it dirticult to raise double that sum for the 
ransom of Richard I., and the Scots contributed a proportion of it. 
The English sovereigns at first drew a considerable reventte Irom 
the custom on wool exported to be manufactured abioad; but becom- 
ing soon sensible of the benefit of encouraging its home manufacture, 
they invited, for that purpose, the foreign artisans and merchants to 
reside in England, and gave them valuable immunities. Edward ill. 
was peculiarly attentive to trade and manufactures, as appears by the 
laws passed in his reign ; and he was bountiful in the encouragement 
of foreign artisans. The succeeding reigns were not so favourable. 
During the civil wars of York and Lancaster the spirit of trade and 
manufactures greatly declined ; nor did they begin to revive and 
flourish till the accession of Henry VII. In that interval of their de- 
cay in England commerce and the arts were encouraged in Scotland 
by James I. and his successors, as much as the comparatively rude 
and turbulent state of the kingdom would permit. The herring fish- 
ery then began to be vigorously promoted ; and the duties laid on 
the exportation of woollen cloth show that this manufacture was then 
considerable among the Scots. Glasgow began to acquire wealth 
by the fisheries in 1,420, but had little or no tbreign trade till al'ter 
the discovery of America and the West Indies. 

l£ Henry VII. gave the most liberal encouragement to trade and 
manufactures, particularly the woojlen, by inviting foreign artisims, 
and establishing them at Leeds, W^aketield, Halifax, and other places. 
The navigation acts were passed in his rei^n, and commercial treaties 
formed with the continental kingdoms for the protection of the 
merchant-shipping. Such was the state of commerce at tne time 
when the Portuguese made those great discoveries which open- 
ed a new route to India, and g^ve a circulation to their wealth over 
most of the nations of Europe. 



SECTION XXXVI. 

DISCOVERIES OF THE PORTUGUESE IN THE FIFTEENTH 
CENTURY, AND THEIR EFFECTS ON THE COMMERCE OF 
EUROPE. 

1. The polarity of the magnet had been known in Europe as 
early as the thirteenth century; but the compass was not used in 
sailing till the middle of the fourteenth; and another century had 
elapsed from that period, while yet the European mariners scarcely 
ventured out of the sight of their coasts. The eastern ocean was 
little known ; and the Atlantic was supposed to be a boundless ex- 
panse of sea, extending probably to the eastern shores of Asia. In 
the belief that the torrid zone was uninhabitable, a promontory on 
the African coast, in the 29th degree of north latitude, was termed 
Cape Non, as forming an impassable limit. 

2. In the beginning of the rifteenth century John king of Por- 
tugal sent a few vessels to explore the African coast ; and these 
doubling Cape Non proceeded to Cape Boyador, within two de- 
grees ot the northern tropic. Prince Henry, the son of John, equip- 
ped a single ship, which, being driven out to sea, landed on the island 



168 MODERN mSTOKY. 

of Porto Santo. This involuntary experiment emboldened the 
mariners to abandon their timid mode of coasting, and launch mlo the 
open sea. In l,4i'0 tbe l^orluguesc discovered Madeira, where they 
established a colonv, and planted the Cyprus vine, and the sugar cane. 
3. The spirit of enterprise hiing thus anakeiied, prince Henry 
obtained fi-om tugene l\ . a bull granting to the Portug.jese the 
property of all the countries which they might discovei- between 
tape Non and India. Uiulta- John II. ol fortugal the Cape \ erd 
islands were discovered and coloni/ed; and the tleets advancing to 
the coast of Guinea, brought home gold dust, gums, and ivory. Ha?- 
ing passed the equator, tie Portuguese entered a new- hemispheie, 
and Loldly proceeded to the extremity ot the continent J" M'^f 
fleet under Vasco de Gan.a doubled the Cape ot Good Hope, anJ, 
sailing onwanis beyond the mouths ot the Arabian and Persian gulls, 
arrived at Calicut, on the iMalabar coast, alter a voyage of l,oOO 
leagues, performed in thirteen months. r r- r^.,« « 

4 De Gama entered into an alliance with the rajah of Calicut, a 
tributary of the Mogul empire, and returned to Lisbon with speci- 
mens o/the wealth and produce of the country. .Aj^cc^eding 1 eet 
formed settlements, and, vanquishing the opposition ol the la nc 
princes, soon achieved the conquest ol al the coast of Malabar. 
I'hc city of Goa, taken by storm, became the residence ofa Portu- 
guese viceroy and the capital of their Indian settlements 

5 The VeneUans, who had hitherto engrossed the Indian trade 
by Alexandria, now'lost it for ever. After an mefleciual project ol 
rJttfng through the isthmus of Suez, they ^^ttempted to m ercept the 
Porluluese by tieir tleets stationed at the mouth ot the Ked sea aoU 
PeJ^"an gulC b"t were every where encountered ^ y a superior 
force fhe Portuguese mude settlements in both the gulls ana 
v^^frously prosecuted their conquest, on the Indian coast and sea. 
T'he rich inland of Ceylon, ihe kingdoms ol Pegu Siam. and Malac- 
ca were speellysukh^ a settlement established ^ I'engaL 
They proceeded onward to'china, I'^^'^^rto scarcely known o the Eu- 
roneans but by the account of a single \ enetian traveller, Marco 1 aolc^ 
[nt^lTthirte?nth centum and they obtained the emperor s permis 
i^n'olb!^ a settlement .it Mac.fo thus opening ^^ commerce w.h 
that immense empire, and the neighbouring island, o Japan In^^^^^^^ 
space of fifty years ♦he Portuguese were masten, ol the ^^ o'^/J'^f. 
o?ufe Indian ocean, and sovereigns ot a large extent of A^aUc 

^'al^ese discoveries produced a wonderfut effect on the com 
merce of Europe. The produce of the spice islands was compu .ed 
^ be worth annually 2U0,000 ducats to Lisbon. The \ eiieti ^t^ 
after ..very effoi-rtoLtroy the trade of the Portuguese, offere .: to 
become sJepurcha^ei. of .^11 tlie spice brought to ,^urop«^ ^ut - .^ 
refused. Commercial industry was ix)used n ^^ ^7. 3";V7,^\/J'^ 
manufactures uKule a rapid progress. Lyons, 1 juj^. Abbe u lie Mar- 
seilles, bordeaux, acquired immense wealth. Antwerp and Am t,r 
dim became the ereat marls ol tlie north. Ihe lormer owed in 
spTnLr To ihe'dJ^cline of Bruges -^^f^^^J^^^^J^i^ .l^-; 
motions- and the Portuguese made Antwerp their entrepot lor in, 
TppIv of the northern kingdoms. It continued hig dy riouri=,.,nj 
u"fthe Revolt of the Netherlands, in the endot the sixteen hcenairv, 
when it w^'st^dlen by the Spaniaids, and its port destroyed by . JocH- 

'"f.^'^^he^tSde of HoUand rose on the fall of Aatr^erp. Amsterdam 



WODERA HISTORY. 167 t 

became considerable ai\er ihe deciioe ol the lianseatic confederacy Jfl 
in 1,428, but rose iuto splendour and high commorcial opulence from 
the destruction of Antwerp. The United Provinces, dependent oa^M 
industry alone for their support, became a model of commercial afr'^g^ 
tivity to all nations. 

8. Britain telt the effect of that general stimulus which the Pop- 
tugutse discoveries gave to the tmde of Europe ; but other causes 
had a more sensible operation to that end in England. The retbrma- 
tion, by suppressing the convents, and restoring many thous;mds tc 
society, and the cutting off the papal exactions, which drained the 
kingdom of its wealth, the politic laws passed in the reign of Heni^ 
\ ill., and the active patriotism of Elizabeth, were vigorous incentives 
to national industry. 

9. From the time of Henry V'lll. to the present, the commerce 
and manufactures of England have been unilbrmly progressive. 
The rental of England in lands and houses did not then exceed hve 
millions per annum ; it is now above eighteen millions. The unman- 
ufactured wool of one year's growth is supposed to be worth two 
millions; when manufactured, as it now is, by British hands, it is 
worth eight millions. Above a million and a halt" of hands are em- 
ployed in that manufacture alone ; half a million are employed in 
the manufactures of iron, steel, copper, brass, lead ; the linen man- 
ufactures of England, iicotland, and Irehmd. occupy nearly a million: 
and a number not much interior is employed in the tisheries. It is 
presumable, on the whole, that nearly a fourth of the population oi ihu 
united kingdoms is actually employed in commerce and manufactures. 

10. The vast increase of the national wealth of Britain appear* 
chietly, 1, from the increase of population, which is supposed to 
be nearly five to one (at least in the large cities) since :he reign 
of Elizabeth ; 2, from the great addition made to the cultivated 
hands of the kingdom, and the high improvement of agriculture 
since that period, whence more than quadruple the quantity of food 
is produced; 3, tVom the increase of the commercial shipping, at 
least sixlbld within the same time ; 4, from the comparative low rate 
\ii interest, which is demonstrative of the increase of wealtli. The 
coasequences of the diffusion of the commercial spirit are most im- 
portant to the national w eltare. From general industry arises a^lu- 
ence, joined to a spirit of independence ; and on this spirit rests the 
ir»iedom of the British constitution, and all the blessings v.hich are 
enjoyed under its protection. 



SECTION XXXVU. 

GER^UNY AND FRANXE IN THE REIGNS OF CHARLES V. 
AND FRANCIS I. 

Ti-J. We resume the detail of the history of Europe at the beginning 
of the sixteenth century, previously remarking, that the Germanic 
empire continued tor above fifty years in a state of languid tranquilli- 
ty, irom the time of Albert II., the successor of Sigismund, during the 
long reign of Frederick 111., whose son Maximilian acquired, by his 
naarriage with Mary, duchess of Burgundy, the sovereignty of the 
Netherinnds. Maximilian was elected Emperor in l,49o; and, by 
establishing a perpetual peace between the separate Germanic stales, 
laid the foundatiou of the subsequent grandeur of the empire. 



les MODHKN lilS'L'OIlY. 

2 Philip archduke of Austria, son of Maximilian, married Jane, the 
dni'tihter of Kor.linand aiui Isabella ; aiul of that marriage the eldest 
«ou was Ciiarles V., >vho succ.cede<l to the throne ol bpain in 1,51b, 
ami, on the dralh of hi^ grandfather Maximilian, preferred his claim 

u the vacant imperial throiie. lie had for his competitor t rancis I. 
DfFnmce, who t,ad dHtinguished himself by the conquest of the Mil- 
aneJ»e, and the adjustment of the contending interests ot the Italian 
states. The German electors, afraid of the exorbitant power bo h ol 
Charles and of Francis would have rejected both, and conlerred the 
Imperial crown on Frederick duke of Saxony ; hut this extraordinary 
man declined the prolVered dignity, and his council determined the 
elecUon in favour of Charles ot* Austria, \,b\9 

3 Charle'* V an.l P'rancis I. were now declared enemies, and their 
mutual claims on each olher"s dominions were the subject ot perpet- 
aal hostility. The emperor claimed Artois as part ot the Nether- 
lands. Francis prepared to make good his right to the 1 wo Sicilies. 
Charles had to delend 'Milan, and to support his title to Navarre, 
which had be 3n wrested from France by his grandfather Ferdinand. 
Henry Vlll. of England was courted by the rival monarchs, as the 
weight of England was sutficient to turn the scale, where the power 
of each was nearly balanced. , . r, • *u i • » i^rv. «<• 

4. The tii-st hostile attack was made by Francis on the kingdom of 
Navarre, which he won and lost in the course ot a few months, ihe 
emperor'attacked Picardy, and his troops at the same i^^^^ drove the 
French out of the Milanese. On the death of Leo X., J- Carles place^d 
cardinal Adrian on the papal throne, 1,521 ; and by the promise of 
e?ev ufng ^vXy, the mLister of Henr| VIII., to that dignit.y, on the 
death of>drian, gained the alliance of tlie English monurch m his war 

""^s'^At^thircritical lime Francis imprudently quarrelled with his 
best general, the constable of Bourbon, who, in revenge, deserted 
the emperor and was by him invested with the chief com"iand of h s 
armie?. The imperial generals were far superior m abilities to their 
opponents. The French were defeated a liiagrassa, and Charles 
was carrying every thing before him m Italy when t ^ancis en ered 
7he Milanese, and fetook the capital,; but, m ^^^^.^^^^'^''Y' ^n^vrt 
Pavia, his troops were entirely deleated, and the French monarch 
became the constable of Bourbon^s prisoner, 1 ,o25. 

6. Th3 emperor made no advantage ot his good fortune, ly^ J»)« 
treaty of Madrid, Francis regained his liberty, an yieldmg to^Charles 
the duchy of Burgundy, and the superiority ot Handers '^nd Artois 
He gave his two sons as hostages for the tulhlment of these conditions, 
b!it the states refused to ratify them, and the failure w;i3 compromised 

^i'^Srthl" newal of the war, Henry Vlll took part with France, 
and Charles lost an opportunity of obtaining the sovereignty ot Ita y. 
iCp a^^ in the French interest was defeated by tfie consta- 

ble of llourbon; and the nope himself made prisoner; but Bourbon 
was killed in the siege of^ Rome, iMui Charles allowed the pope to 

^T'^frer^'thr^cS^dusion of the peace of Cambray, 1,529, Charies 
visited Italy, urd received the imperial diadem from pope Clement 
VI The\urla havir.g invadci Hungary, the emperor marched 
agiinstthem in person, and compelled ^he sultan S,lymanw^^^^ 
my of 300,01)0 men, to evacuate the country. He soon alter em- 
ked for Africa, to replace the dethroned Muley Hassan m the 



MODERiN HlS'l'ORY. 169 

sovereignty of Tunis and Algiers, which had been usurped by Hay- 
radin Barbarossa ; and he achieved the enterprise with honour. His 
reputation at this period exceeded that of ail the sovereigns of Eu- 
rope, for political ability, real power, and the extent and opulence of 
his domi.iions. 

9. Francis was glad to ally himself even with the Turks to cope 
with the imperialists, and Barbarossa invaded Italy ; but the troops of 
Charles prevented the co-operation of the French, and separately 
defeated and dispersed the allied powers, while anotner army of the 
imperialists ravaged Champagne and Picardy. 

10. In the interval of a truce, which was concluded at Nice, for 
ten years between the rival monarchs, Charles passed through 
France to the Netherlands, and was entertained by Francis with the 
most magnificent hospitality. He had promised to grant to the French 
king his favourite desire, the investiture of jMilan ; but failing to keep 
his word, the war was renewed with double animosity. The French 
and Turkish fleets attacked Nice, but were dispersed by the Ge- 
noese admiral, Andrea Doria. hi Italy the French were victori- 
ous in the battle of Cerizoles, but drew no benefit from this partial 
advantage. The imperialists, on the whole, had a decided superior 
ity, and Fiance must have been undone, if the disorders of Germany, 
from the contending interests of the catholics and protestants, had 
not forced the emperor to conclude the treaty of Crepi with Francis, 
1,544. At the same time Francis purchased a peace with Henry 
V'lll., who had again taken part with his rival. Francis died soon 
after, in 1,547; a prince of great spirit and abilities, and of a gener- 
ous an J noble mind, unfortunate only from the necessity of strug- 
gling against a power wliich overmatched him both in policy and 
in resources. 

11. A short tihie before this period, wtis founded the order of the 
Jesuits by Ignatiu^s Loyola, 1,535. The principle of the order was 
implicit obedience and submission to the pope. The brethren were 
not confined to their cloisters, but allowed to mix with the world ; 
and thus, by gaining the confidence of princes and statesmen, they 
were enabled to direct the policy of nations to the great end of estab- 
lishing the supreme authority of the holy see. The wealth which 
they jtccumubited, the extent of their power, and the supposed con- 
sequences of their intrigues to the peace of nations, excited at length 
a general hoslilitv to ttieir order; and the institution has recently 
been abolished in all the kingdoms of Europe. 

12. If Charles V. aimed at universal em{)ire, he was ever at a dis- 
tmce from the object of his wishes. The formidable confederacy of 
J he protestants to preserve their liberties and their rehgion, gave 
him perpetual disquiet in Germany. He never could form his do- 
minions into a well connected body, from the separate national mter- 
ests of the Spaniards, Flemish, and Germans; and even the imperial 
states were divided by their jealousies, political and religious. The 
hostilities of foreign powers ^avehim continual annoyance. He found 
in Henry 11., the successor ot Francis, an antagonist as formidable as 
his father. His cares and difficulties increased as he advanced in life, 
^d at length entirely broke the vigour of his mind. In a state of 
melancholy despondency he retired Irom the world at the age of fifty- 
fix, resigning first the kingdom of Spain to his son PhiUp II,, 1,556, 
anii afterwards the imperial crown in favourof his brother Ferdinand, 
who was elected emperor on the 24th day of February, 1,558. 

I' ^ 



l70 MODEKK HISTORY. 



3RCTI0X XXXVIII. 
Or>SKR.VATION5 0.\ TUR CONSTITUTION OF THE CLTlMArf 

L.Mriiu:. 

i. Piuvir.r SI V to ihr rrign rf ■M:i\inuli!n I., the Gcrm.ntJc rmpire 
iVH- <ul-j (-.t 1(1 :ill llif (ii-ciiKrs of ihe IcmkLiI tjovcmmcntf?. Ihe 
geiM Pill (li»-ls of I lit- si:.tfc ui-ic* lurr.iilliu'us nnd indoci-ivo, :\ni\ tluMr 
roiisiain wiii-s uitli (inr .mother lvi'|)l the u hole in :in:irchv jitxl h:ir- 
Kin^fii. Werict'slau--. in l.bb'^, ciuUMioiiret; to rometly t]io*o o its 
\y the onactii.eiit of :i Ronenil pr;ice ; hut no cnL'Cln.il tnciisnrea 
'wort- takt'fi I'nr srcnriiig il. Aiherl II. ;itlcn)| to«I to accomplish 
ihi* sinu* (Mill, ami had ?t)iiie !Jwcce?*<. lie di\ided Germany hilo six 
ciit'le-, each ret^idated hy it-* own diet; hut the jt^donsiL's ol'lhei^latos 
proiiijiied ti.cm con-iaimy to hosii.iiies, whiclj iiicrc was no superior 
jmwj^r s)dli«ie:il to re-miin. 

2. \l length Maxinii i.in I. procured, in 1,500, that solemn enact- 
Mm 111 whicii csta[>li-lied a i)(Mj)eliial peace amcng the Germanic 
Man ."*, uiidei- the cogent penalty ol' the aj^giessor heing treated as a 
romn.on »'nt'niv i le eslahlisjied the impeiial rhsimhcr Tor the settle- 
met. i id" nil liilfcrrnces. 'i'he em| ire uas di\ided anew into ten cir- 
cles. e:,i h ri cie sending its repro?«entaii\ es to the injperial chamber, 
and houi.d lo enlorce the puhiic i.iws thnmnh its own territory. A 
regency ua^ Mipci-iied lo suhsi^t in the intervals ofthe diet, composed 
<?f twenty irie;)ilioi>, over whom the cn)peror presitled. 

? 'I'hijse it-t'olations, however wise, would prohahly have fniled 
<{ tlieir end, it xUn inthience ol" the house ol Austria, which has for 
t*iree cen*»uies •":<>ntiuueil Ic occupy the imperial throne, h;*-.! not 
enfi't'ced obediet.v'p lo them. The .md.iiion and policy of Charles 
\'. woidd have lie mi dangerous to the Ireodem ol the German prin- 
res, if the new sys'eni oi" preseivint' a h.'.lance of power in Kurope 
had not made liiese princes tind allies and protectors sullirienl to 
ln» verse the cmpeior's schemes of ahsi/lute deminion. He attained, 
however, an auih(..ity far heyoinl that ol' any ol" his predecessors. 
I'he succeeding emperors mutated liis policy; hut, as they diif not 
possess equal talents, they I'ound yet stronger obstacles to llieir en- 
croachments on the fivedom ol" the slates. 

•I. The Germanic liberties were settled for the la.«t lime by the 
treaty of \Vestph;ilia, in 1,048, which tixed the emperors pi eroga- 
iives, and the privileges of »he stales. Tlie consiiiulion ol the em- 
nire is not iVamed for the ordinary ends of government, the prosper- 
ity and happiness of the people. It reganis not the rights of the 
subjects, hut only the independence of .he several princes; and its 
f ule object is lo maintain each in the enjoyment of his sovereignty, 
and pievent usurpations and encro.\chmeuls on one another's terri- 
tories. It has no relation to th:^ particular government of the states, 
each of which has its own hiws and consiiiulion, some more tree, and 
otlieiN more despotic. 

5. The general diit ha« the power of enacting the public laws ol 
the empire. U consists of three colleges, the electors, the princes, 
and Ihe free cities. All such public laws, and all general measures, 
are the sulijt'ct ol tlie separate defberaiion of ihe electoral college 
atullhal of the princes. \Vhen jointly approved bv ihem, the refolu- 



MODERN HISTORY. 171 

tlon is canvassed by the college of the free cities, and. If agreed to, 
becomes a plncitum of the empire. If approved finally by the em- 
peror, it is a couc/jm/m, or gene ml law. 11 disapproved, the resolu- 
tion is of no effect. ^Moreover, the emperor must be the proposer of 
all general laws. Still farther, no complaint or request can be made 
bv any of the princes to the diet without the approbation of the 
elector archbishop of Mentz, who may refuse it at his pb'asure. 
These constitutional detects are the more hurtful in their conse- 
quences, trom the separate an(l often contending interests of the prin- 
ces, who have all the rights of sovereignty, the power of contracting 
foreign alliances, and are frequently possessed of foreign dominions 
of far greater value than their imperial territories. 

6. 1 he Germanic constitution has, however, in some respects, its 
advantages. The particular diets of each circle tend to unite those 
princes in all matters of national concern, whatever may be the dis- 
cordiuice of their individual interests. The regulations made in 
those diets compensate the want of a general legislative power. Be- 
side the circular diets, the electors, the princes, the free cities, the 
catholics, and the protestants, hold their particular diets, when theii 
common interests require it; and these powei-s balance one another. 
Considered, therefore, solely in the light of a league of several inde- 
pendent princes and states, associating for their common benefit, the 
Germanic constitution has many advantages ; in promoting general 
harmony, securing the rights of its members, and preventing the 
weak from being oppressed by the strong. 



SECTION XXXIX. 

OF THE REFORMATION IN GERiMANY AND SWITZERLAND, 
AND THE REVOLUTION IN DENMARK AND SWEDEN. 

1. The age of Charles V. is the era of the reformation of reli- 
gion, of the discovery of the new world, and of the highest splen- 
dour of the fine arts in Italy and the south of Europe. We shall 
treat in order of each of these great objects; and, first, of the lofor- 
mation. 

The voluptuous taste and the splendid projects of pope Leo X. 
demanding large sappiies of money, he instituted through nil 'he 
chrislian kingdoms a sale of indulgences, or remittances Irom the 
pains of purgatory. This trathc being abused to the most shocking 
purposes, Martin Luther, an Augustine friar, ventured to preach 
against it, and to inveigh with acrimony against the power which 
authorized it. He found many willing hearers, particularly in the 
electorate of Saxony, of which the prince I'rederick was his tViend 
and protector. Leo X. condemned his tenets by a papal bull, which 
only increased the zeal and indignation of the preacher. In a book 
which he published, entitled the Babylonish Capiivity^ he applied 
all the scriptural attributes of the whore of Babylon to the papal 
hierarchy, and attacked with equal force tmd virulence the doctrines^ 
of transubstantiation, pure^atory, the celiTjacy of the priest'^, and the 
refusal of wine to the people in the communion. The book being 
condemned to the flames, Luther burned the pope's bull and the 
decretals at Wittemberg, 1,520. 

2. One of th« first champions, who took up the pen against Lu- 



171 MODKKJN HI8T0KV. 

Iher, was Henry Vlll of England; whose book, presented to pope 
Leo. procured him the title now annexed to liis crown, of defender of 
the t';iith. The rest of Kurope seemed to pay little attention to 
llu'se ri>ing controversies. Charles \ ., studious of the friendship of 
the pope, took part against Luther, and summoned him to answer 
for his doctrines in the diet of Worms. Tiie relbrmer defended 
himself with great spirit, and, aided l>y his iVierjd the elector, made 
a Siife escape into Saxony, where the mass was now universally 
anolished, the images destroyed, and the convents shut up. The 
iViars and nuns returned to the world, and Luther took a nun lor his 
wife. Nor did these secularized priests ahuse their new freedom, 
for their mannei-s were decet)t, and their life exemplary. 

3. Erasmus has justly censtired the impolicy of the catholic clergy 
in their modes of resisting and sujjpressing the new doctrines. They 
allowed them to be discussed in sermons belbre (he people, and em- 
ployed for that purpose furious and bigoted declaimei'S, who Ofdy 
increased and wid^ened differences. They would not yield in the 
most insignificant trine, nor acknowledge a single fiult ; and they 
persecuted with the utmost cruelty all whose opinions were not 
agreeable to their own standard of fiith. How wise is the counsel o 
lord Bacon '^ There is no better way fo stop the rise of new serAb 
and schisms, fhau to reform abuses, compound the lesser ditferences, 
proceed mildly from the first, refrain from sanguinary persecutions, 
and rather to soften and win the i)rincipal leadei-s, by gracing ana 
advancing them, than to enrage Ihem l)y vioIei>ce and bitterness." 
Bac. Mor. Ess. Sect. 1 . Kss. 1 2. 

4. Switzerland followed in the path of reformation. Zuinglius of 
Zurich preached the new tenets with such zeal and efi'ect, that the 
whole cantor, was converted, and the senate publicly abolished the 
mass, and purified the churches. Berne took the same me;isuref 
with greater solemnity, after a discussion in the senate which lasted 
two months. Basle imitated tlni same example. Other cantons 
armed in defence of their faith; and in a desperate engagement, in 
which the protestants were deteated, Zuinglius was slain, 1,53L 

5. Lutheranism was now making its progress towards the north 
of Europe. Sweden, Denmark, and Ao'-way, were at this time gov- 
erned by Christiern II., the Nero of tho north. The Swedes, re- 
luctantly submitting to the yoke, were kept in awe by T.<dl, arch- 
bishop of Upsal, a tiiithful minister of the tyrant in all his schemes 
of oppression and cruelty. On iptelUgence of a revolt, the king 
and his primate, armed with a bull liom pope Leo X., nias«acred 
the whole body of the nobles and senators, amid.'^t the festivity of a 
oanquet. Gustayus Vasa, grand nepliew of Charles Canutson. 
formerly king of Sweden, escaped from this carnage, and coiKealeJ 
himself in the mines of Dalecarlia. By degrees assembling a small 
army, he defeated the generals of Christiern, whose cruelties al 
length determined the united nations to vindicate their rights, by a 
solemn sentence of deposition. The tyrant tied to Flanders, and 
Frederick duke of llolstein w.is elected sovereign of the three 
kingdoms; but Sweden, adhering to her heroic deliverer, and the 
heir of her ancient kings, acknowledged alone the sovereignty of 
Gustavus Vasa, 1,521. The bull of Leo X., and its bloody conse- 
quences, were suflicient to convert Sweden and Denmark to the 
tenets of the refonned religion. Gustavus enjoyed his sceptre many 
years in peace, and contributed greatly to the liappineas and pros- 
perity of nis kingdom. 



MODEIiN HISTORY. 173 

6. As early as 1^25, the states of Saxony, Brunswick, Hesse Cas- 
seli and the cities of Strasburgh and Frankfort, liad embraced the 
doctrines of the reformation. Luther had now a species of spiritual 
control, which he exercised by means of" a synod of six reformers. 
His successful example gave rise to reformers of different kinds, 
whose doctrines were less consonant to reason or good policy. Two 
fanatics of Saxony, Storck and Muncer, condemned infant baptism, 
and therefore were termed anabaptists. They preached universal 
equality and freedom of religious opinion, but, with singular inconsis- 
tency, attempted to propagate their Joctrines by the sword. They 
were defeated at Mulhausen, and Muncer died on a scaffold ; but the 
party seemed to acquire new courage. They surprised Munster, 
expelled the bishop, and anointed for their king a tailor named Jack 
of Leyden, who defended the city with the most desperate courage, 
but fell at length, with his party under the superior force of regular 
troops. The anabaptists, thus sanguinary in their original tenets 
and practices, have long ago become peaceable and harmless sub- 
jects. 

7. The united power of the pope and emperor fouml it impossi- 
ble to check the progress of the reformation. The diet of Spires 
proposed articles of accommodation between the Lutherans and 
catholics. Fourteen cities of Germany, and several of the electors, 
protested formally against those articles; and hence the Lutheran 
party acquired the name of protestants. They presented to the 
assembly at Augsburg a confession of their faith, which is the stand- 
ard of the protestant doctrines. 

8. The virtuous lives and conduct of the protestant leaders, com- 
pared with those of the higher clergy among the catholics, formed 
a copJrast very favourable to the progress of the reformation. The 
solemn manner in which the states of Switzerland, and particularly 
Geneva, had proceeded, in calmly discussing every point of contro- 
versy, aiid yielding only to the force of rational conviction, attracted 
the respect of all Europe. John Calvin, a Frenchman, becoming a 
zealous convert to the new doctrines, was the first who gave them a 
systematic form by his Institutions^ and enforced their authority by 
the establishment of synods, consistories, and deacons. The magis- 
tracy of Geneva gave these ordinances the authority of law ; and 
they were adopted by six of the Swiss cantons, by the protestants ol 
France, and the presbyterians of Scotland and England. The ablest 
advocates of Calvin will find it difficult to vindicate him from the 
charge of intolerance and the spirit of persecution ; but these, which 
are vices or defects of the individual, attach not in the least to the 
doctrines of the reformation, which are subject to the test of reiison, 
and can derive no blemish or dishonour from the men who propiigat- 
ed them, or even from the motives which might influence some of 
their earliest supporters. This observation appues more particulaily 
to the subject of the ensuing secti>n. 

See Rett's Elements of General Kiiowledge, Vol. L 



174 MOnEKN HISTORY. 



StCTION XL. 
OF Till: RtlFORMATlON IN ENGLAND UNDER IlENRV VIII., 

A 73 'i's SL :.jj:ij:?:RS. 

1. VVirKi.iFF, in the midJle of the fourteenth century, hy an at- 
t'.xck on the iloctrines of tnL-^^uhstiintiaiion, indulgences, and auricular 
coulession, and still more hy a translation of the scriptures into the 
vernacular tongue, had prepared the minds of the people of Knglmd 
for a revolution in relitcious opinions; hut his orcUessed followera 
were not numerous. Th»^. intemperate passions o'f Henry Vlli. were 
the immediate cause of the reformation in Kngland. He had heeii 
manu'd eighteen yeai-s to Catharine of Spuin, aunt of Charles V., 
hy \vht)m he had three children, one of them, i\hiry, afterwards queen 
ot' Kngland, when, tailing in love Wiih Anna liullen, he solicited 
Clement VII. tor a divorce from Catharine, on the score of her for- 
mer marriage to his eldi-r orother Arthur. The pope found himself 
in the painful dilemma o( either atlronling the emperor, or mortally 
otiending the king ot Kngland. In hope that the king's passion 
might cool, he protracted the tmie hy preliminaries and negotiations, 
but to no purpose. Henry was resolutely hent on accomplishing 
his wishes. 'J'he Sorbop.ne and other Krench universities gave an 
opinion in his favour. Armed with this sanrlion, he caused Cranmer 
archbishop of Canterbury to annul his marriage. The repudiated 
queen gavf place to Anna Bullen. On this occasion Wolsey, the 
minister of Henry, lost the I'avour of his master, by opposing, as 
was believed, his darling measure. 

2. Clement VII, from this specimen of the wayward temper of 
Henry, resolved to keep well with the emperor, and issued his bull, 
condemnatory of the sentence of the archbishop of Canterbury. 
Henry immediately proclaimed himself head of the church o4 K.)g- 
land •' the parliament ralihed his title, and the pope's authority was 
instantiv suppressed in all his dominions, 1,534. He proceeded to 
abolish' the monasteries, and confiscate ttieir treasures and revenues, 
electing out of the latter six new bishoprics and a college. The 
immoralities of the monks were sedulously exposed, the forgery of 
relics, false miracles, &,c. held up to the popular scorn. 

3. Yet Henry, though a relbrmer, and pope in his own kingdom, 
had not renounced the religion of Rome- he was equally an enemy 
to the tenets of Luther and Calvin as to the pope's jurisdiction m 
KngUmd. Inconstant in his affections, and a stranger to all humanity, 
he removed Anna Bullen from the throne to the scaffold, to gnitily a 
new passion for Jane Seymour, a maid of honour, who happily dtod 
about a vear after. To her succeeded Anne of Cleve*, whom he 
divorced in nine months, to make way for Catharine Howard. She 
underwent the same fate with Anna Bullen, on a similar suspicion ol 
infidelity to his bed. His sixth wife, Catharine Parr, with diihculty 
retained her hazardous elevation, but had the good fortune to sur- 
vive the tyrant 

4. On ihe death of Henry VIII., 1,547, and the accession of his son 
l-lUlwaid VI., the protestant reUgion prevailed in Kngland, and was 
favoured by the sovereign ; but he died at the early age ot lifteen, 
1,553 • and the sceptre passed to the hands of his sister Mary, an m- 



MODERN HISTORY. V b 

tolerant catholic, and most cruel penecutor of the proteftants. in 
her rfi^n. which WIS of five y • uV dsiration, above 8JJ mi'jpmljle 

'Jriw w-re bjriit at a sMlvJ, '.lui rvT^? lo ihoir r-*»i;;ioiis opmiotw. 

try i.iheritaJ a con^jiiiii spirit win .lerha-Miin I, Piiiiip Jl. «»i -^jiaiti, 
\>iiose iiitoiiir.ir.ee cost him lae loss of a tairl pari of i»i- doMiiuiniis 

o. --l iry Wiissuccee.liii la l.oji l»y hirsistJi* t.ii/-ilji'*!i, UilmI la^ji 
tcr of A:i;ki tijae.i, a p:-oij>la'it. Ih,: more /.eaWxis ui)in aa Jtbimr 
reace of tiie character of ner preJr,ce»sor. la her ivi^a tiie re.i^ioi. 
of England became stalioaary. Tne hierarchy w.i* established id it? 

K resent form, by archbis.iop-, bishop>, priest^ and deacons, the king 
eing by law the head of the churcn. i'be htur^y had been settled 
in the reign of tldward V'l. Tae canons are agreeahip. chieriy lo the 
Luthenm tenets. 

Of the -^formation in Scotland we shall afterwards treat under a 
separate section. 



SECTION XLl. 

op THE DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST OF AMERICA BY THE 
SPANIARDS. 

1. -b!ON-G those great events which distingtiislied the age of Charles 
. wai the coaqae-l of .Mexico by Fern in lo Cortex, and of Peru by 

the two brotheis, Francis anl G'oiiz,iio Pi/.arro. Tne lii^overy ol 
America preceded tlte tii^l of these events about twenty-seven years, 
but the acco int of it has been postponed, that the whole ni^iy be 
Bhort^v treated in connexion. 

Cbiistopher Coiumbus, a Genoese, a mm of an enterprising spirit, 
hiving in v.iin soacite I onroura^ement from his n.ili\e state, fi one 
Portu^il, anJ troni Ea^i inJ, tc aileuipt discoveries ia t!ie western 
ocean, applied to FerJiaraJ an 1 Isa :»eiia of .-jpaia. Under the patron- 
age of Isabella, as qieen of Casiiie, he w.is fiiniisbed wi'!i three 
small ships, niaity mjn, ;m la fiiv taoasmd ducats tor tiie expense 
of his voyage. After thirty -three days' siii from ti»e Can tries he dis- 
covered 5.ai ."Salvador, Sep'temoer, IAJ2; and "ioon at'ter the island-^ 
of Cuba and K.snmiola. He returaevl to iipain, and brought a lew 
of the natives, <'on^ pre-e its of gold, and cunosiiies of the rountry. 
He was treated by the Sp mi irds wita the hi^aesi honour-, and sui>r 
supp.i3d wim asuitaole arman^nt for the pro-ecuiion o\' his divove- 
ries. in his second voyage he discov^r^d tae C iri.iDecs and Jamaica. 
In a thira voyage he d^scriid tiie continent of' An\jrira, vv4thin ten 
degrees of the equator, toward ttie isthmus of t^mam a. The next 
ve ir the geograpner Americus Ibi.owed the track of Columbus, ain! 
had the undjserved honour of ^iviig his niaie to this con:i:ient. 

2. The iahabilanb? of Ameri. a and its islan Is were a nice of m*»i. 
quite new to the fc^uronaani. i\iiy are of thi co.our of copper. In 
some quarters, as in ^lJxi.:o and Peru, th3 6piniards are said lo luixe 
found a tlourisning empire, an 1 a people pt).i'ihed, rjli lel, an I lu\«i- 
rious; In others, m m w is a n ikid s ivag •, I'le nuMiaer of a w nid.T- 
in^ tribe, whose sole occ ip uiou w.ls liuniin^ or war. The sav nri-9 
ol the continent were characterized by tiieir cruelty to their e;ienii(r.<, 
their contempt oldeath,an i their generous alfjclion for ihoir Irion.!?. 
The inhdbiUuits ot'the ishnds were a iftitderrace, of gunller munuLTS, 
and less hardy conformation of body and mind. The larger ■*tuiji-i\n^ 
as the horse, the cow, were uokaowo in America, 



176 MODERN HISTOKV. 

3. Those Dewly-di3covered coiiritriea were believed to contain ii^ 
exhaustible treasures. The Spaniards, under the pretence of rell 
gion and policy, treated the inhabitants witii the most shocking inhu- 
manity. The Hick, the scourge, the laggot, nere empSoyed to con 
vert them to Christianity. They were huuled like wild beasts, or 
burnt alive in their thickets and fastnesses, llispaniola, containing 
three raillions of inhabitants, and Cuba, containing above 000,000, 
were absolutely depopulated in a iew years. It was now resolved to 
explore the continent ; and Fernando Cortez, with eleven ships and 
617 men, sailed for that puroose from Cuba in 1,519. Landing at 
labasco, he advanced, though with a brave opposition from the na- 
tives, into the interior of the country. The state of Tlascala, aiter 
metfectual resistance, be':ame the ally of the Spaniarls. On the ap- 
proach of the Spaniards to Mexico, the terror of their name had pav- 
ed the way for an easy conquest. 

4. The Mexican enjpire, tliough founded little more than a century 
before this period, had arisen to great splendour. Its sovereign, Mon- 
tezuma, received the invaders with the rever-ence due to superior 
beings. But a short acquaintance opened the eyes of the Mexicans. 
Finding nothing in tlie Spaniards beyond what wjis human, they were 
daring enough to attack and put to death a few of them.' The in- 
trepid Cortez immediately marched to the palace with fifty men, 
and putting the emperor in irons, carried him off prisoner to his 
camp; where he afterwards pei-suaded Aim to acknowledge himself 
a vassal oi the king of Castile, to hold his crown of the kmg as his 
superior, and to sutyect his dominions to the payment of an annual 
tribute. 

5. V^elasquez, governor of Cuba, jealous of Cortez, attempted to 
supersede him, by despatching a superior army to the continent ; but 
Cortez defeated his troops, and compelled them to join his own ban- 
ners. In an attack by the Mexicans for the rescue of their sovereign, 
Montezuma, having oflfered to mediate between them and their ene- 
mies, was indignantly put to death by his own subjects. The whole 
empire, under its new sovereign, Guatimozin, was now armed against 
the Spaniards ; and while the plains were covered w ith their archers 
and spearmen, the lake of Mexico was filled with armed canoes. To 
oppose the latter the Spaniards built a few vessels under the walls oi 



OD 



their city, and soon evinced their superiority to their feeble foe 
both elements. The monarch was taken prisoner by the officers oi 
Cortez, and was stretched naked on burning coals, because he refus- 
ed to discover his treasures. Soon after a conspiracy against the 
Spaniards was discovered, and the wretched Guatimozin, with all the 
princes of his blood, were executed on a gibbet. This was the last 
blow to the power of the Mexicans; and Cortez was now absolute 
master of the whole empire, 1^25. 

6. In the year 1,531 Diego DWImagro and Francis Pizarro, with 
250 foot, 60 horse, and 1 2 small pieces of cannon, landed in Feru, a 
large and flourishing empire, governed by an ancient nice of mon- 
archs named Incas. The Inca Atabalipa receiving the Spiuiiards with 
reverence, they immediately required him to embrace the christian 
faith, and surrender all his dominions to the emperor Charles V., who 
had obtained a gill of them from the pope. The proposal being mis- 
understood, or received with hesitation, Pizarro seized the monarch 
as his prisoner, while his troops massacred 5,000 of the Peruvians od 
the spot. The empire was now plund'^red of prodigious treasures in 
gold and precious stones; and Atabalipa, being suspected of conceal- 



MODERN HISTORY. 177 

iiur a peit from his insatiable invaders, was solemnly tr^ed as a crimi- 
nal, and strangled u( a slake. 

7. The courage of the Spaniards surpassed even ther inhumanity. 
P'Almagro marched 5lX) leagues, through continual opposition, to 
Cusco, and penetrated across the Cordilleras into (^hili, two degrees 
beyond the southern tropic. He was slain in a civil var between 
him and his associate Francis Pizarro, who was soon after assassinated 
by the party of his rival. A tew years after the Spanian's discover- 
ed the inexhaustible silver mines of Potosi, which they compelled 
the Peruvians to work for their advantage. They are no>v wrought 
by the negroes of Africa. The native Peruvians, who art a weakly 
race of men, were soon almost exterminated by cruelty aL d intoler- 
able labour. The humane bishop of Chiapa remonstrated .^ith suc- 
cess to Charles V. on this subject ; and the residue of this Liiserable 
people have been since treated with more indulgence. 

8. The Spanish acquisitions in America belong to the crc wn, and 
motto the state: they are the absolute property of the so\ e reign, 
and regulated solely, by his will. They consist of three pn vinces, 
Mexico, Peru, and Terra Firma; and are governed by threo vice- 
roys, who exercise supreme civil and mihtary authority over their 
respective provinces. There are eleven courts of audience kv the 
administration of justice, with whose judicial proceedings the vice- 
roys cannot intertere ; and their judgTnents are subject to app. al to 
•the royal council of i-iie indies, wnose jurisdiction extends to e ery 
department, ecclesiastical, civil, military, and commercial. Atibu- 
nal in Spain, called Casa de la Contratacion^ regulates the depart "ire 
ot^ the lieets, and their destination and equipment, under the con ro- 
ijtf the council of the indies. 

9. The gold and silver of Spanish America, though the exchisi ^e 
property of the crown of Spain, has, by means of war, marriages ^f 
princes, and extension of commerce, come into general circulatic , 
and has greatly increased the quantity of specie, and diminished tl ' 
value of money over all Europe. 



SECTION XLII. 

POSSESSIONS OF THE OTHER EUROrEAN NATIONS IN AMER 
ICA. THE LNITED STATES. 

1. The example of the Spaniards excited a desire in the othei 
nations of Euiope to participate with them in the riches of the new 
world. The French, in 1,557, attempted to form a settlement on 
the coast of Brazil, where the Portuguese had already established 
themselves from the beginning of the century. The colonv was 
divided by faction, and was soon utterly destroyed by the Portu- 
guese. It is one of the richest of the American settlements, both 
from the produce of its soil, and its mines of gold and precious 
stones. 

2. The Spaniards were in possession of Florida when the French 
attempted to colonize it in 1,564. without success. The French 
established a settlement in Acadie in 1,604, and fdunded Quebec in 
Canada in 1,608. But these settlements were perpetually subject to 
attack from the English. In 1,629 the French had not a foot of 
territory in America. Canada has been repeatedly taken by the 

23 



178 MODERN HISTORY. 

lilnKlish, and restored, by different treaties, to the French ; hut fince 
tlie pe;.«:e of 1,7K3 it has heen a British ««tllemoiit. 'J'he French 
drew their greatest advantages from the ishmdfi ot' St. J)oniingo, 
Giiadaioupc, and Martinico. Froru tlieir continental possessions oj 
Louisiana, and the settlements on the Mississippi, which they have 
now lost, they never derived any solid benefit. 

3. The Dutch have no settlement on the continent of America, 
but Surinam, a part of Guiana; and, in the West-Indies, the islands 
ot Curr.issoa and St. Kustatius. The Danes possess the inconsidera- 
ble isUuKls of St. Thomas and Santa Cruz. 

4. The British have extensive settlements on the continent ot 
America, and in tne West-India islands. England derived her right 
to her settlements in INorth America from the tirsl discovery of the 
<;ounlry by Sebastian Cabot in 1,407, the year beloie the discovery 
of the continent ol South Anjerica by Columbus ; but no attempts 
were made by the English to colonize any part of the country till 
oearly a century afterward. This remarkable neglect is in some 
roeitsure accounted for by the frugal maxinis ol' Henry VIl., and the 
unpropitious circumstances of the reigns of Henry V HI., of Edward \ I., 
and ol the bigoted Mary : reigns peculiarly adverse to the extension 
of industry, trade, and navigation. 

5. In l,oB5 sir Walter Raleigh undertook to settle a colony in \'ir- 
ginia, so named in honour of his queen ; but his attempts were fruit- 
less. Two colonies, destined for settlement, were successively sent 
over to the \'irginian territory; but the tirst \> as reduced to greatdis- 
tress, and t;iken back to England by sir Knmcis Drake ; the second, 
left unsupported, could never afterward be ibund. 

6. In l,t3U6 king James ^nmted y patent for settling two planta- 
tions on the main coasts ol JNorth America. Dividing that portion 
of the country, which stretches from the thirty-fourth to the Ibrty- 
i!ifth degree of latitude, into two districts nearly equal, he granted 
the southem, called the tirst colony, to the London company, and 
the northern, called the second, to the Plymouth comp^rtiv. On 
the reception of this patent several persons of distinction in the Eng 
lish nation undertook to settle the southem colony; and in 1,607 the 
6rst permanent colony was settled in Virginia. 

7. The lii'st sctdement in the northern district was made at Ply- 
mouth in 1,620, by a number of puritans, who, having a few yeni-s 
before left England, to liberate tnem^flves from the oppressions of 
the episcopal hierarchy, had found a temporary asylum in i^lolland. 
In 1,629 the patent of Mass.ichusetts was contirrneil by king Charles 
1.; anti in the following year a large body of English non-conformists 
settled that territory. The settlement of Connecticut was begun in 
1,636 by eniigrants from Massachusetts. The settlement of Provi- 
dence, in Rhode Island, was begun the same year by Roger Wil- 
liams, a clergyman, who, for his refused to submit to the control of 
the goveniment of Massachusetts, in religious matters, had l>een ex- 
iled irom that colony. New York, originally settlcnl by the Dutch, 
and by then) called New Netherlands, was taken from them by the 
English in 1 661, at which time it was subjected to the British crown, 
and settled by English colonists. New .lersey was settled in 1,067, 
principally by quakers from England. The charter of Pennsylvania 
was given in 1,681 by king Charles 11. to William Penn ; and a set- 
tlement was begun the same year by a colony consisting principallv 
of quakers. The patent of Maryland was given bv king Charles I. 
to lord Baltimore m 1,632; and two years afterward the colony was 



MODERN HISTORY. 179 

wHIed by a body of Roman cntliolic-i from F.ns^lanfl. THie charter 
of Carolina ivas g.-ante*! by Cii<»ries II. to tlio oail of Clan'Miliui and 
^eveiMl associates in l,t>o.); anl that colony vvis soon alter s.'llli;<l by 
the. Englisli. In l,7iil.) the proviace was' (liviioil into two (li>tinci 
governments, one of wliicu was called iXorilj, and t!ie other 
tjouth Carolina. Thp chartvir of Georgia was given in \JA2 by king 
George II. to a nuiKbcr of persons in Lngland, who, tVoni motives ol 

gatriolism and humanity, projected a setllemonl in that wild territory. 
y this measure il was intended to o'jtain, lir.vt, possession of an exteii 
sive tract of conntr}*; to strengthen the province of Carolina; ic 
rescue a great number of people in Great Britain and Ireland from 
the miseries of poverty ; to open an asylum (or persecuted protes- 
tmts in different parts of Europe ; and to attempt the conversion and 
civilization of the native*. Under the guidance of general Ogle- 
thorpe a colony vvas settled here in 1,7:53. Nova iScolia was settled 
m the reign ofJames I. The Kloridas wero ceded by Spain to Great 
Britain at the peace of 1,76.3; but they were reduced by the arms 
of his catholic inajesty during the American war, and guaranteed to 
the cro-wn of Sp;mj by the detinilive treaty of 1,783. 

8. All the Britisli colonies in North America were subject to the 
government of Great Britain from the time of their settlement un- 
til the year 1,775. Opposition to certain measures of the British 
parliament, the tendency of wlwch, vvas to claim for the king and 
parliament of Great Britain, a right to tax colonies, that did not send 
representatives to parliament, ami were therefore hostile to rights and 
liberties, that had been enjoyed and exercised by the colonies from 
tneir origin, having induced the government to send troops to Amri- 
ica to enforce submission to their laws, hostil ties commenced in 
April, 1,775. In 1,776 the American congress declared the United 
States independent. In September 1,783, a detinitive treaty of peace 
was concluded, by which his Britannic majesty acknowledged the 
United States of America to be free, sovereign, and independent 
states. In 1,789 the government of these states was organized, con- 
formably to the federal constitution ; and George Washington, who 
had been commander inchief of tbe revolutionary army, was inaugu- 
rated the first president. 

9. The British colonies in America, and the United States, are 
greatly inferior to the Spanish American colonies in natural riches, 
as they produce neither silver nor gold, nor cochineal ; yet they 
are in general of fertile soil, and considerably improved by industry. 
They afford a prodtable market tor European manufactures. Canada 
furatshes ibr exportation wheat, tlonr, ilax-seed, lumljer, tish, potash, 
oil, ginseng, furs, pelts, and various other commodities. The pro- 
(luceof the West India islands (Jamaica, Barbadors, St. Christop tier's, 
Antigua, the Granachis, and other islands), in sugar, <:olfee. coco;», 
rum, molasses, cotton, and other articles, is of very gieat v tiue lo 
the mother country. The northern states in the federal union I'ur- 
nish masts, ship timber, lumber, potash, furs, pelts, tish, hetf, fx^rk, 
butter, cheese, rye, and maize; the middle states, Hour, maizn, 
flax-seed, peas, deer skins, and other pelts; and the southern slates, 
rice, Hour, indigo, cotton, tobacco, pork, iive oak, tar, pitch, and 
turpentine. 



»«> MODERN HISTORY. 



SECTION XIIJI. 



OF THE STATE OF THE FINE ARTS IN EUROPE IN THE AGE 
OF LEO X. 

1. Iif ennmerating those great objects whicn characterized the 
end of the tiiteenth and the Leginiiing of the sixteenth century, we 
remarked the high advancement to which the line arts' attained in 
Kurope in the age of Leo X. The strong bent which the humati 
mind seems to t;die, in certain j)eriod3, to one class of pui-snits iu 
preference to all others, as in tlie age of Leo X., to the line arts of 
painting, sculpture, and architecture, may be partly explained from 
moral causes; such as the peaceful ^'tatc of a country, the genius or 
taste, and the liberal encouragement of its sovereigns, the general 
emulation that arises where one or two artists arc of confessed emi- 
nence, and the aid which men derive from the studies and works of 
one another. These causes have doubtless greiidhntluence, but do 
not seem entirely suflicient to account for the fact. The operation 
of such causes must be slow and gradual. In the case of the tine 
arts, the transition from obscurity to splendour \vas rapid and instan- 
taneous. !• rom the contemptible mediocrity in which they {lad re- 
nuiined for age*, they rose at one step to the highest pilch of exceU 
lence. 

2. The arts of painting and sculpture were buried in the west ud- 
der the ruins of the Roman empire. They {gradually declined in 
tlie latter a^es, as we may perceive by the series of tLe coins of the 
lower empire. The Ostrogoths, instead of destroying, sought to 
preserve the monuments of taste and genius. They were even the 
inventors of some of the arts dependent on design, as the composition 
of Mosaic But, in the middle ages, those arts were at a very low 
ebb in Europe. They began, however, to revive a little about the 
end of the thirteenth century. Cimabue, a Florentine, from the 
sight of the paintings of some Greek artists in one of the churches, 
began to attempt similar performance?, ami eoon excelled his modelb. 
His scholars were Ghiotlo, Gaddi, Tassi CaviUini, and Stephano Fio- 
rentino; and they formed an academy at Fk)rence in 1,350. 

3. The works of those early painters, with seme tidolity of imita- 
tion, had not a spark of grace or elegance ; and such continued to be 
the state of the art till toward the end of the tifteentli centuiy, when 
it arose at once to the summit of pertcction. Raphael painted at 
tirst in the hard manner of his master Perugino; but soon de&ertcd 
it, and struck at once into the noble, elegant, and graceful ; in short, 
the iinitation of the antique. This change was the result of genius 
alone. Fhe ancient sculptures were familiar to the early paintere, 
but they had looked on them with cold indifference. They were 
new surveyed by other eyes. Michael Angelo, Raphael, and Leo- 
nardo da Vinci, were animated by the same genius that fonned the 
Grecian Appelles, Zeuxis, Glycon, Phidias, anil Praxiteles. 

4. Nor wjts Itidy alone tlius dlslinguishcd. Gemiany, Flanders, and 
Switzerland, produced in the same age artistn of consummate merit. 
Before the notice of these we shall briedy characterize the schools 
of Italy. 

5. l-irst in order is the school of Florence, of which the most em- 
inent master was Michael Angelo, bom in 1,474. His works ai« 



MODERN HISTORY. 181 

characterized by a profound knowledge of the anatomy of the humao 
figure, perhaps chiefly formed on the contemplation of the ancient 
sculptures. His paintings exhibit the grand, the sublime, and lerri- 
ble ; but he drew not from the antique its simple grace and beauty. 

6. The Roman school was founded by Raphael d'Urbino. bora in 
1,483. This great painter united almost every excellence ot the art. 
in invention, grace, majestic simplicity, forcible expression of the 
passions, he stands unrivalled, and iar beyond all competition. He 
has borrowed liberally, but without servility, from the antique. 

7. Of the school of Lombardy, or the Venetian, the most eminent 
artists were Titian, Giorgione, Corregio, and Pai meggiano. Titian 
is most eminent in portrait, and in the painting of female beauty. 
Such is the truth of his colouring, that his figures are nature itself. 
it was the testimony of Michael Angelo to the merits of Titian, that, 
if he had studied at Rome or Florence, amidst the master-pieces ol 
antiquity, he would have ecUpsed all the paintei-s in the world. Ti- 
tian lived to the age of a hundred. Giorgione, with similar merits, 
was cut oflf in the 4>vver of his youth. Correggio was superior in 
colouring, and in me knowledge of light and shade, to all who have 

f>receded or followed him. This knowledge was the result of study. 
u other painters those effects are frequently accidental, as we ob- 
serve that they are not uniform. Farmeggiano imitated the graceful 
manner of Raphael, but carried it to a degree of affectation. 

8. Such were the three original Italian schools. The character of 
the Florentine is grandeur and sublimity, with great excellence ot 
design, but a want of grace, of skill in colouring, and effect of light 
aul shade. The character of the Roman is equal excellence of de 
sign, ct grandeur tempered with moderation and simplicity, a high 
degree of grace and elegance, and a superior knowledge, though not 
an excellence, in colouring. The character of the Venetian Is the 
perfection of colouring, and the utmost force of light and shade, 
with an inferiority in every other particular. 

9. To the school of Raphael succeeded the second Roman school, 
or that of the Caraccis, three brothers, of whom Annibal was the 
most famous. His scholars were, Guercino, Albano, Lanfranc, Dom- 
enichino, and Guido. Of these eminent painters the first and last 
were the best. The elegant contours of Guercino, and the strength 
sweetness, and majesty of Guido, are the adnodration of all true judges 
of painting. 

10. In the same age the Flemish school, though of a qtiite differ- 
ent character, and inferior to the Italian, shone with great lustre. 
Oil painting was invented by the Flemings in the fifteenth century ; 
and, in that age, Heemskirk, Frans Floris, Quintin Matsys, and the 
German Albert Durer, were deservedly distinguished. Of the Flem 
ish school, Rubens, though a painter of a much later age, is the 
chief ornament. His figures, though too corpulent, are drawn with 
great truth and nature. He possesses inexhaustible invention, and 
great skill in the expression of the passions. Switzerlarid produced 
Hans Holbein, a painter of great eminence in portrait, and remarka- 
ble for truth of colouring. From his residence at the court of Henry 
VIII. there are more specimens of his works in Britain than of any 
other foreign painter. Holland had likewise its painters, whose chief 
merit was the faithful representation of vulgar nature, and pediecl 
knowledge of the mechanism of the art, the power of colours, and 
the effect of light and shade. 

11. With the art of painting, sculpture and architecture were like 

Q 



181 MODERN HISTORY. 

w\*() rpviverl in tne siimo n^e, anrl brought almost to perfrrflon. 
Ttio iinivcrs;il genius ol" INIicliiiel Aiiijrlo shone (•qii;illy cofisiiruoiis 
in iill the lluvo «l('^^M^lmcm^i. His slatue of Bacchus ww* jtufgctl liy 
Raphael to bo the work of Phidias oi 1'raxitol.^s. The Grecian ar- 
chilectijre was tiist revived hy the Florentines in the fonrleenth ccn- 
lury ; and the cathedral of Fisi was con^trnrled \r.\vl\y from the msi- 
lerials ol'an ancient (»reek tem|)le. 'I'he nrl arrived at nerliection in 
the age (»f Leo X., when the church of ^t. Peter's at Home, under 
the direction of limmanle. San Gallo, Raphael, and Michael Angelo, 
exhibited the noblest s|>ecimen of architecture in the world. 

1^. The invention of the art of engraving on copper by ToTDnso 
Finiguerra, a goldsmith of Florence, is dated about 1,460. From Ita- 
iy it travelled into Flanders, whei-e it was tii-st practised by Martin 
ichoen of Antwerp. His scholar was the celebrated Albert Durer, 
who engraved excellently both on copper and on wood. Etching on 
coppe.'by nieansofaqualoiii?, which gives more ease than the stroke 
of the graver, was discovered by Parmeggiano, who executed in thai 
manner his own beautiful designs. No art undiyj-wenl, in its early 
stages, so rapid an inDprovement as that of engraving, hi the coui-se 
of loU years from its invention it attained nearly to its pertiection ; 
for there has been little proporlional improvement in Ihe last century, 
since the days of Audran, Poilly, and Kdelinck. 

13. The art of engraving in mezzotinto is of much later date than 
the ordinary mode of engraving on copper. It was the invention of 
prince Rupert about 1,650. It is characterized by a softness eqtial 
to that of the pencil, and a happy blending of light and shade, and is 
therefore peculiarly adapted to portrait, where those requisites are 
most essential. 

14. The age of Leo X. was likewise an <>m of very high literary 
fplendonr ; but of the distinguished writers of that period we shall 
•iJterwards treat, in a connecterl view of the progress of literature 
and the sciences during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 



SFXTION XLIV. 

OF THE OTTOMAN POWER IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 

1. From the period of the taking of Constantinople, in the middle 
of the tifteenth century, the Turks were a great and conquering 
people. In the sixteenth century, Selim I., after he had subdued 
J^yria and Mesopotamia, undertook the conquest of Egypt, then gov 
emed by the Mamelukes, a race of Circassian*, who had seized the 
coimtry in 1,250, and put an end to the govemment of the Arabian 
princes, the posterity of Saladin. The conquest of Egypt by Selim 
mafle little change ifi t!ie form of its government. It prolesses to 
own the sovereignty of the Turks, but is in reality still governed by 
the Mameluke beys. 

2. Solyman (the magnificent) son of Selim, was, like his prede- 
cessors, a ^reat conqueror. The island of Rhodes, possessed by the 
knrghts ol St. John, was a darling object of his ambition. Ihr.se 
kn.ghts had expelled the Saracens from the island in 1,310. Soly- 
man attacked Rhodes with 1 lO.tXJO men and 400 ships. The Rho- 
dia 1 knights, aided by the English, Italians, and Spaniards, made a 
nob'e dctencpj but, alter a siege of niuny months, were tbrced to 
cap %nlftte an<l evacuate the island, in 1,522. Since that time Rhodes 



MODEKN^ HISTORY. 183 

ias boen the property of the Turks The commercial bws of the 
incient Khodians were adopted by the Komans, and al tliis day are 
the Ibuudaliou of the mariiirne jurisprudeoce ol" all the nations ol 
Europe. 

6. ISoIyman subdued the greater part of Hungary, Moldavia, and 
Walachi.i; and took from the Persians Georgia and Bagdal. His 
son .Selim II. took Cyprus from the Venetians in 1,571. They ap- 
plied to ihe pope for aid, who, together witli Fhiiip 11. of Spain, enter- 
ed into a triple alliance against the Ottoman power. An armament of 
250 ships ot war, commanded by Philip's natural brother, Don John 
of Austria, was opposed to 230 Turkish galiies in the gulf of I^- 
panto, near Corinth; and the Turks were defeated, with the loss of 
150 ships and 15.LM0 men, 1,571. This great victory was soon alter 
tbllo.ved by the tiiking of Tunis by the Siime commander. 

4. But these successes were of little consec[uence. The Otto- 
man power continued extremely formidable. Under Amurat^i 11. the 
Turks made encroachments on "Hungary, and subdued a part oi' Per- 
sia. Mahomet lU., though a barbarian in his private character, sup- 
ported the dignity of the empire, and extended its dominions. The 
Ottoman power declined from his time, and yielded to that of the 
Pershuis under Schah-Abbas the great, who wrested from the 'lurks 
a large part of their late-acquired dominions. 



SECTION XLV. 

STATK OE PERSIA AXD OTHER ASIATIC KINGDOMS IN THE 
SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES. 

1. The great empire of Persia, in the end of ih} fifteenth century, 
anderwent a revolution on account of religion. H -s /ar or Sophi, a 
religious enthusiast, established a new sect of 31ahometans, which 
held Ali to be the successor of Mahomet instead of Omar, and abol- 
ished the pilgrimages to Mecca. The Persians eagerly embraced a 
doctrine which distinguished them trom their enemies the Turks; 
and Israael, the son ot Sophi, I'oilowing the example of Mahomet, 
enforced his opinions by the sword. He subdued all Persia and Ar- 
menia, and lelt this vast empire to his descendants. 

2. Schah-Abb;is, suraained the great, was the great-grandson of 
Ism lel Sophi. He ruled his empire with despotic sway, but with 
most able policy. He regained the provinces which had been 
tiiken by the Turks, and drove the Portuguese from their settlement 
of Ormuz. He rebuilt the I'allen cities of Persia, and contributed 
greatly to the introduction of arts and civilization. His ^on Schah- 
:?esi reigned weakly and unt'ortun-itely. In his time Schah-Gean, the 
^reat Mogul, deprived Persia of Candahai ; and tne Turks took Bag- 
aat in l,6.i8. From that period the Persian monarchy gradually de- 
clined. Its sovereigns became the most despic^ible slaves to their 
own ministers; and a revolution in the beginning of the eighteenth 
century put an end to the dynasty of the Sophis, and gave tlie throue 
to the Atghan princes, a race of Tartiirs. 

3. The government of Persia is almost as despotic as that of Tur- 
key. The soveieign draws a small yearly tax trom every subject, 
and receives likewise stated gifts on particular occasions. The 
crown is hereditary, with the exclusion of females; but the sons of 



184 MODERN HISTORY. 

a daughu^r succeed in their course. There is no other rank 
aia thufi that Hunexed to otlice, which is tield during the mor.A 
pleHiiure. The national religion is the Mahometan, as reformed 
^>ophi. The sect of the Giiebres preserve the religion of Zoroastrr 
as contained in the Zendavesta and Sadder, aiid keep alive the sacred 
tire. (Part I., Sect XI.) 

4. 1 he poetry of the Persians displays great fancy and luxuriance 
of imagery. '1 he epic poet Firdousi is said to rival the various 
merits of Homer and Ariosto; and the writings of Sadi and Hafez, 
both in pro^ and poetry, are admired by all who are conversiuit in 
oriental literature. 

5. Tartary. From this vast tract of country sprang those con- 
querors who produced all the great revolutions in Asia. Tartary is no 
more than a vast desert, inhabited by wandering tribes, who follow 
tlie Wie of the ancient Scythians. The Turks, a race of Tartars 
overwhelmed the empire of the caliphs. Mahmoud, a Tartar, con- 
quered l'er>ia and great pert of India in the tenth century. Ttie 
Tartar Gengiscan sulnlued India, China, Persia, and Asiatic Russia, io 
the beginning of the tliirteenth century. Batoucan, one of his sons, 
ravaged to the frontiers of Germany. Tamerlane, the scourge of 
tlie Turks, r.nd the conqueror of a great pail of Asia, was of the 
race of GengL«ca:i. Babar^ great-grandson of Tamerlane, subdued 
all the country between Samarcand and Agra in the empire of the 
i\logul. The descendants of those conquerois reign in India, Persia, 
and China. 

6. Thibet. The southem part of Tartary, called Thibet, exhibits 
the phenomenon of a kingdom governed by a human being called 
the I)alai Lama, or Great Lama, whose divinity is acknowledged 
not only by his own subjects, but over China and a p;irt of lndi;i. 
This supposed god is a young man, whom the priests educate imd 
train to his function, and in whose name they in reality govern the 
kingdom. 



SECTION XLVL 
HISTORY OF INDIA. 

1. The earliest accounts of this great tract of civilized country 
are those of Herodotus, who lived about a century before Alexander 
the great : and it is remarkable that the chararler given of the people 
by that early writer, correspontis jwrfeclly with that ol the modem 
Hindoos. He h;ul probably taken his accoimts from Scylax of Cari- 
andria, whom Darius Hvstaspes had sent to explore the country, 
but till the age of Alexander, the Greeks had no particular knowl- 
edge of that extniordinarv people. Alexander |Knetrated into the 
Paniab. where his troops" refusing to proceed, he embarked on the 
Hydaspas, which runs into the Indus, and thence pursued his course 
tor above l.UUU miles to the ocean. The nari-ative given by Arrian 
of this expedition was taken from the verbal ticcounts ol Alexander's 
ofticers : and its particulars agree yet more remarkably than tliose of 
Hero^'otus with the modern manners of the Hindoos. 

2. Intiia was vi*ited by Seleucua, to whose share it fell in the par- 
tition of Alexander's empire; and Antiochos the great, 200 years 



MODERN HISTORY. 186 

afterward, made a short expedition thither. It is probable too that 
some small intercourse subsisted between the Greek empire of Bao 
triana and India ; but, till the hffeenth century, no European power 
thought of forming any establishment in that country. From tne age 
ol Alexander down to the period of the Portuguese discoveries there 
had constantly been some commercial intercourse between Europe 
and India, both by sea and across the desert. 

3. The Mahometans, as early as A. D. 1,000, had begun to estab- 
lish an empire in India. Mahmoud, a Tartar, conquered a great 
part of the country, and established his capital at Ghazna, near the 
sources of the Indus, extirpating, wherever he came, the Hindoo 
religion, and establishing the Mahometan in its stead. Mohammed 
Gori, in 1,194, penetrated to Benares; and one of his successors 
tixed the seat of his empire at Delhy, which has continued to be the 
capital of the Mogul princes. The sovereignty founded by Mah- 
moud was overwhelmed in 1,222 by Gengiscan, as was his empire in 
the following century by Tamerlane, whose posterity are at this day 
on the throni> of the Mogul empire. 

4. The Mogul empire was, even in the beginning of the 18th cen- 
tury, the most powerful and tlourishing of all the Asiatic monarchies. 
The emperor Aurengi^ebe, the son of Schah-Gean though a mon- 
ster of cruelty, and a n)ost despotic tyrant, enjoyed a life prolonged 
to a hundred years, crowned with iminterrupted prosperity and suc- 
cess. He extended his empire over the whole peninsula cf India 
within the G inges. 

5. The dominion of the Mogul is not absolute over all the coun- 
tries which compose his empire. Tamerlane allowed the petty 
princes, rajahs or nabobs, to retain their territories, of which their 
descendants are at this day in possession. They pay a tribute to the 
great Mogul, as an acknowledgment of his sovereignty, and ob- 
serve the treaties agreed to by their ancestors; but they are in 
other respects iwdependent princes. 

6. Bengal became a part of the Mogul's empire by conquest in the 
end of the sixteenth century, and was commonly governed by a son 
of the great Mogul, who had under him several inferior nabobs, the 
former jirinces of the country. Such was its condition when the 
British Last India company, between 1,751 and 1,760, conquered and 
obtained possession of that kingdom, together with Bahar and 
part of Orissa, a large, populous, and most flourishing country, con- 
taining above ten millions of inhabitants, and producing an immense 
revenue; and these territories have since that period received a con- 
siderable addition. The East India company has the benefit of the 
whole commerce of the Mogul empire, with Arabia, Persia, and 
Thibet, as well as with the kingdoms of Azem, Aracan, Pegu, Siam, 
Malaccaj China, and many of the oriental islands. 

The hxed establishments of the British in the country of Indostan 
have afforded opportunity of obtaining much instructive knowledge 
relative to the ancient state of that country, of which we shall give 
ft short sketch in ihe ioilowing section. 

Q2 24 



I8C MODERN HSITORT. 

SECTION XLN'K 

ANCIENT STATE OF INDIA. MANNERS, LAWS, ARTS, 
SCIENCKS, AND RtXIGlON OF THE HINDOOS. 

1. The remains of tlie nncient knowlcdi^e of the Hindoos have 
hcen preserved hy a hercdifan' ])riesthoo<l, in tiie Sansriit language, 
Inn^ since extinct, and only known to a lew of the I'.rah vs. iTie 
/.eal of some learned Kuroponns has lately ojiened that source of in- 
formation, whence we derive the most interesting particulars ol this 
exiraonlinary people, perhaps the liivt cultivators ot the scicno «, 
and the instfucters of all tlie nation? of antiquity. We shall brietty 
notice their singular division into casts, their civil policy, laws, prog- 
ress in the arts and sci»'nces, and religion. 

2. The whole body of the people was divided into four ordei-s, or 
casts. The hlzliest cast, that of the Bramins, was devoted to religion 
and the cuUivauon of the sciences; to the second belonged the pres- 
ervation of the .-^tate ; they were its sovereigns and its magistrates 
in pfMce, and iis soldiers in wai-; the. third were the husbandmen and 
aierchanls; and the fourth the artisans, laboui-ers, and servants. 
Tltese are inseparable distinctions, and descend from generation to 
genenition. Mon-over. tlie ijidividuals of each class follow invariably 
the profH<-ioiw oi' their lorefathers. Every man, trom his birth, 
Jtnows the funci.on allotted to him, and fullils with ease and satislac- 
tion the duty which he cannot avoid. Hence arise*? that per.nanence 
of mannei-s and histitutions which so singularly characterizes this 



ancient nation. 



ancienl naiion. , • , 1 1 i 

3. This classification is an artificial arrangement, which could have 
originated only from the mind of a legislator among a polished peo- 
ple! coMjpletely obedient to government. It is theretore a prool ol 
the highly civilized sbite of the Hindoo nation in the most remote 
peiiods ot antiquity. , r r.* ■ • * 

4 Tiie civil r,)olicy of the Hindoos is another proof ot their ancient 
civilization. Al the'lime of Alexander the great, hidia w:'S divided 
into large and powerful kingdoms, governed by sovereigns whose do- 
miiiion was not absolute, but controlled by the supenor authority of 
the Bramins. A system of feudalism has ever prevailed in India. 
The rights to land tlow from the sovereign, to whom a certain duty 
m payable by the class of the husbandmen,Mvho transmit their posses- 
sions' to their children under the same. tenure. Strabo and Diodorus 
remarked three classesofoliicers among the Indians: one class wiiose 
department was the regulation of agriculture, tanks, highways; 
another which superintended the police of the cities; a third which 
regulated the military department. The same policy prevails at this 
(lav under the Hindoo princes. 

5. Tlie jurisprudence of Hindostan is an additional proof ot great 
antiquity and civilization. The Ayen-.\kbery. and still more the 
compilation of Hijidoo laws from the ancient Sanscrit record-, made 
bv ordei .'f Mr. Hastings, contain the jurisprudence ot a rehned and 
<.;.inmercial people, among whom law had been a study and protes- 

G* Many monuments (ixist in India of the advanced state of the use- 

uland elegant arts m the remotest periods of antiquity. 1 he an- 

pagodas, of va»t extent and magnificence, whether cut m Uie 



MODERN HISTORY. 181 

solid rock, as in Elephanta and Salsette, or in the open air, as at 
Chiliirahruin ;ind Seringham ; the sumptuous residences of the Bra- 
mins; aiuj the ancient hill fortresses, constructed with prodigious 
strength and solidity, evince a great advancement in the arts. The 
resort of the most polished nations of antiquity to India for cotton 
cloths, line linen, and works in metal and ivory, proves these manu 
factures Lo have been superior to ail known at that time in Europe. 

7. The late translations from the Sanscrit of several in^cenious 
compositions of high antiquity, as the dramatic piece Sacontala^ the 
Hitopadcsa^ a series of moral apologues and lables, the Alukabcr-'U. 
an epic poem, composed above 2,000 years before the Christian era, 
all concur in proof of a similar advancement in literature. We have 
rea£on to believe from such works as are of a philosophical nature, 
that there is scarcely a tenet o-f the Greek philosophy which has not 
been antecedently the subject of discussion among the Bramins of 
India. 

S. The numeral ciphers first introduced into Europe by the Ara- 
bians were, as those authors confess, borrowed from the Indians. 
Above a century ago, the French mathematicians evinced, by the 
evidence of a Siamese manuscript, containing tables ibr calculating 
the places of the heavenly bodies, the astonishing advancement 
made by this ancient people in the science of astronomy. A set of 
astronomical tables obtained lately from the Bramins by M. Geitil 
goes back to an era termed Calyoug/iarn^ commencing :5,102 years 
before the Lirili of Christ These tables are used by the modern 
Bi'.imins, who are quite ignorant of the principles on which they 
have been constructed. iVl. Baiily has proved that they are the 
ftjune as those employed by the moderns, with which the Greeks and 
Chaldeans were utterly unacquainteJ. 

9. Lastly, from the religious opinions and worship of the Hindoos 
we must draw the same conclusion as from all the preceding facts. 
One uniform system of superstition pervades every religion of India, 
which is supported by the most sagacious policy, and by every thing 
that can exciie the veneration of its votaries. The Bramins, elevat- 
ed above every class of men, and exclusively acquainted with the 
mysteries of that religion, which it is held impious lor any other class 
CO attempt to penetrate ; the implicit reliance on the authority of 
tiiese Bramins ; the ceremonies of their worship, adapted to im- 
press the imagination and to atiect the passions ; all concurred to forti- 
fy this potent superstition, and to give its priests a supreme ascen 
dancy over the minds of the people. But those priests, enlightei.ed 
as they were, rejected chat false theology. Their writings demon- 
strate that they entertained rational and elevated conceptions with 
regard to the Supieme Being, and the support of the universe. 

10. On the whole, there is a high probability that India was the 
great school from which the most early polished nations of Europe 
derived their knowledge of arts, sciences, and literature. 

Persons who want more particular information respecting India 

are referred to Maurice's Indian Antiquities, and Tennant's indiar. 

Recreations. 



lae MODERN HISTORY. 



SECTION XLVIIl. 



OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 

1. As we proceed eastward in the survey of the Asiatic rff.tinent, 
Jie great empire of China next eoiicits our attention. In the end of 
the tenth century, China, Persia, ar d the greater part of It -a were 
niitd by tlie Tartar descendants of Gengiscjin. The Tartui- f imily 
of Yven, who conquered Chinn, made no change in its laws and «>»- 
tein of government, which had been permanent from tin«e immem - 
rial. Otthis family there reigned nine successive monarchs, without 
any attempt by the Chinese to throw ofl" the Tartar yoke. The 
odious and contemptible cliaracler of the last of these sovereigns at 
length excited a rebellion, which, in 1,357, drove the Tartars Irom 
the throne ; and the Chinese, tor 276 year«, obeyed their native 
princes. The Tartars, taking advantage of an insurrection in one ol 
the province^, invaded China in 1,(341, and made an easy conquest. 
The emperor shut liimself up in his palace, and, after putting to 
death all lus family, tinished the scene by hanging himself The 
sane Tartars occupy the throne of China at this <lay, aiui observe 
the same wise policy of mainUiining inviolate the Chinese laws, poli- 
cy, and manners. Of these we shall give a brief account in the sub- 
8*:quent section. 

2. The empire of Japan was discovered by the Portuguese aloul 
the middle of the sixteenth century. The open and unsuspicious 
character of this industrious and polistied people led them to en- 
courage the resort of tbreiguers to their ports; and the Spaniards, 
after they had obtained the sovercigntv of Portugal, carried on a 
most Ijeneticial trade to the co;ists ot Japan. The emperoi zeal- 
ously promoted this intercourse, till the insatiable ambition of the 
Spaniards gave him alarming conviction of its danger. Under the 
pretence of converting the Japanese from idolatry^ a vast number 
of priests was sent into the country ; and one halt of the people 
were speedily set at mortal variance with the other. It now be- 
came necessary to prohibit this work of conversion by an imperial 
edict. However a Iree trade was allowed till 1,637, when a con- 
spiracy of the Spaniards tor dethroning the emperor and seizhig the 
government was discovered. An edict was issued tor the expulsion 
of all the Spaniards and Portuguese, who resisted till they were 
overpowered by tbrce of arms. Since that period all the Europesm 
nations have been excluded from the ports of Japan. The Dutch 
only, who had been the discoverers of the conspiracy of the Span- 
iards, are allowed the privilege of landing on one of the small islands, 
for the purposes of trade, alter m.iking oath that they are not of the 
Portuguese religion. 



MODERN HISTORY. 189 



SECTION XLIX; 

OF THE ANTIQUITY OF THE EMPIRE OF CHINA. STAI£ 
OF THE ARTS AND SCIENCES, MANNERS, GOVERNMENT, 
LAWS. 

1. The antiquity of this vast empire, and the state of its govern- 
ment, laws, manners, and attainments in the arts and sciences, have 
furnished an ample field of controversy. Voltaire, Raynal, and other 
writers have ^iven to the Chinese empire an immense antiquity, and 
a character ot such high civilization and knowledge of the sciences 
and arts at a very remote period, as to be utterly irreconcilable to the 
state and progress of man as described in the books of Moses. On 
the other hand, it is probable that the desire of invalidating those 
opinions has induced other writers of ability to go to an opposite ex- 
treme ; to undervalue this singular people, and to give too little 
weight to any accounts which we have received either of the dura- 
tion of their empire, of the economy of their government and police, 
or of their attainments in the arts and sciences. Amidst this contra- 
riety of sentiments we shall endeavour to form such opinion as ap- 
pears most consonant to the truth. 

2. The f/inegyrists of the Chinese assert that their empire has 
subsisted above 4,000 years, without any material alteration in its 
laws, manners, language, or even fashion of dress; in evidence of 
which they appeal to a series of eclipses, marking contemporary 
events, all accurately calculated, lor 2,155 years before the birth ot 
Christ. As it is easy to calculate eclipses backwards from the pres- 
ent day to any given period of time, it is thus possible to give *.o a 
history, fictitious from beginning to end, its chronology of real 
ecUpses. This proof therefore amounts to nothing, unless it were 
likewise proved that all those eclipses were actually recorded at the 
time when they happened; but this neither has been nor can be 
done ; for it is an allowed tact, that there are no regular historical 
records beyond the third century before the christian era. The 
present Chinese are utterly ignorant of the motions of the celestial 
bodies, and cannot caiculale eclipses. The series mentioned has 
therefore in all probability been calculated by some of the Jesuits, 
to ingratiate themselves with the emperors, and tiatter the national 
vanity. The Jesuits have presided in the tribunal of mathematics 
for above 200 years. 

3. But if the authentic annals of this empire go back even to the 
third century beibre Christ, and record at that time a high state of 
civilization, we must allow that the Chinese are an ancient and early 
polished people, and that they have possessed a singular constancy 
in their government, laws, and manners. Sir William Jones, no 
bigoted encomiast of this people, allows their great antiquity and 
early civilization, and, with much apparent probybility, traces their 
origin from the Hindoos. He appeals to the ancient Sanscript records, 
which mention a migration of certain of the military class termed 
CAimw, from India to the countries east from Bengal. The stationa- 
ry condition of the arts and sciences in China proves that they have 
not originated with that people: and many peciiliuriiies of the maii- 
nerSf institutions, and popular religion of the Chinese, have a near 
affinity to thos« of th« Hindoos. 



190 MODERN HISTORY. 

4. The government of China is that of an absolute monarchy. 
The patriarchal system ponades the whole, and hinds all the mem 
bei-s of this \ast empire in the strictest •^iihor.liriition. Every talher 
is absolute ii) bis family, and may iiitlict any puni>bment short ol 
death upon bis cbiUlren. The mindarin ot" the district is absolute, 
with the power of life and <leatb over all its mi?mbers; but a capital 
sentence cannot be indicted without tht- euHieror's approbation. 
The emperor's power is absolute over all the nian<larins, and every 
subjjct of the empire. To reconcile the people to this des^ioUc 
authority, the sovereign alone is entitled to relieve the wants ol the 
poor, and to compensate public calamities, as well as the mislbrtunes 
of individuals. He is thcreibre ret;arded as the father ot his people, 
and even adored ;is a benevolent divinity. ^ 

5. Another cii-cumstance which conciliates the people to their 
government is, that all honours in China are conferred according to 
merit, and that chieHy literary. The civil mandarins, who are the 
magistrates and Judges, are appointed to ollice according to their 
measure of knowledge and mi'ntal endowments. Nd othce or rank 
is hereditary, but may be aspired to by the meanest of the people. 
The penal laws of China are remarkably severe ; but their execu- 
tion may be remitted by the emperor. The judicial tribunals are 
regulate'd by a body of written laws of great antiquity, and lounded 
on the basis of universal justice and equity. The emperor's opinion 
nirely differs from the sentences of those courts. One tribuiml 
judges of the qualifications of the mandarins; another regulates the 
morals of the people, and the national manners; a third is the tribu- 
nal of censors, which leviews the laws, the conduct ot the magis- 
trates and judges, and even that of the emperor himselt. These tn 
bunals are tilled by an equal number of Chinese and Tartars. 

6. It has been observed that the sciences have been stationary iu 
this empire for many ages. They are at this day extremely low 
though far beyond the attainments of a barbarous people. 1 he 
language of China seems to oppose the prosecution of speruUmve 
researches. It has no regular inflections, and can With di^hc-ilty 
express abstract ideas. \Vq have remarked the ignor.uice of the 
Chinese in mathematics and astronomy. Of physics they have no 
acqujiintance beyond the knowledge of apparent facts, i liey nevci- 
ascend to principles, nor form theories. Their knowledge ol medi- 
cine is extremely limited, and is blended with the most conteniplilde 
siiperslition. Of anatomy thev know next to^ nothing; and in s ir- 
gcry they have never ventured to amputate a Umb, nor to retluce a 
fr.ictnre. , , ,, , 

7. The state of the useful and elegant arts has been equally sta- 
tionary as that of the sciences. JNlanv ages ago they had attained 
a certain point of advancement, which they have never exceeded. 
The Chinese are said to have manuliictured gla^s lor 2,000 years ; 
yet at this day it is inferior in transparency to the Knronean, and is 
not u*ed in their windows. They are reported to have kno^vn gun- 
powder from time immemorial ; but they never employed H in artil 
fery or tire-arms till they were taught by the Europeans. T.>ey are 
said to have invented printing in the age of Julius Csesar, yet they 
know not the use of moveable types, and print Irom block-* of wo.hL 
When first shown tjie u^e of the compass in sailing, fhey afhrniej 
that they were well acquainted with it, but found no occasion lo em- 
ploy it. The art of painting in China is mere mechanical imitativjn, 
without gmcB, expression, or even accuracy of proportions. 01 the 



MODEKiS' HISTORY. 191 

rules of i)erspective they have not the smallest idea, in sculpture, 
as in the figures of their idols, the Ciiinesc artists seem to delight in 
distortion and deformity. Their music is not regulated by any prin- 
ciples of science. They have no semitones, nnd their instruments 
are imperfect and untnnable. The Chinese architecture has variety, 
lightness, and sometimes elegance ; but lias no grandeur, nor sym- 
metrical beauty. 

8. h) sonip of the mis the Chinese have attained great excellence. 
In China agriculture is carried to tlie highest pitch of improvement. 
There is not a spot of uiiste land in the vvhole empire, nor any land 
which is not highly cultivated. The emperor himself is the chief 
r^t' the husbandmen, and annually holds the plough with his own 
nands. From the high state ot agriculture, and the modes of 
economizing food, is supported the astonishing population of 'S32 
millions, or 2G0 inhabil;u)ts to every square mile of the empire. 
The gardening of the Chinese, and their admirable embellishment 
of rural nature, have of late been the object of imitation in Europe, 
but witji iar inferior success. The manufacture of porcelain is an 
original invention of this people; and the Europeans, though ex- 
celling them in the forili and ornament Df the jtensils, have never 
been able to attain the excellence of the material. 

9. The morals of the Chinese have furnished a subject both of 
praise and censure. The books of Confucius are said to contain an 
admirable system of morality. But the principles of morals have 
their foundation in human nature, and must, in theory, be every 
where the same The moral virtues of a people are not to be esti- 
mated from the books of their pliiiosophers. It is probable that the 
manners of the superior clashes are in China, as elsewhere, much 
influenced by education and example. The morals of the lower 
classes, are said to be extremely loose, and their practices most ii'» 
b'^nest. They ;ire regulated by no principle but seltish interest, 
rfiid restrained only by the fear of punishment. 

10. The religion of the Chinese is diflerent in the different ranks 
ot society. There is no religion of the state. The emperor and 
the higher mandarins profess the belief of one Supreme Being, 
Ckarigiu whom they worship by prayei nnd thanksgiving, without 
any niixture of idolatrous practices. They respect the lama of 
Thibet as the high-priest or prophet of this reiii^ion. A prevalent 
sect is that of Tao-sse^ wlio believe in the power oi" magic, the agency 
^" spirits, and the divination of future events: A third is the sect of 
^b, derived fron": India, whose priests are the Bon^.es, and whose 
fundamental doctrine is, that all things rose o-.it of nothing, and must 
finally return to nothin:^; that all animals are first to undergo a series 
of transmigrations; and that as man's chief happiness is to approach 
ns near as possible to a state of annihilation in this life, absolute idle- 
ness is more laudable tiian occupation of any kind. A variety of 
hideous idols is woi-sliipped by this sect. 

11. The Clunese have their sacred books entitled /i^in^.s ; as the 
Yking^ Chouktng^ k-c. ; which, among some good moral precepts, con- 
tain much mystery, childish superstition, and absurdity. These are 
chierty resorted to tor the divining of future events, which seems the 
ultimatmn of research among the Chinese philosophers The ob*er 
valion of the heavenly bodies is made for that purpose alone. The 
changes of weather, the performance or omission of certain cere- 
monies, the occurrence of certain events in particular times and 
places, are all believed to have their influenc« on futurity, and are 



m MODERN HISTORY. 

(hereforr carefully observed and rororded. The rulea by whkb 
♦hose omens are interpreted are said to have heen prescribod by the 
great Conl'urins, the latiier of the Ciiinese philosophy, 500 years be- 
fore the christian eni. 

12. We conclude, on the uhole, that the Chinese are a very re- 
markalije people; that their government, laivs, policy, and knowl- 
edj^e of the arts and sciences, exhibit unquestionable proofs of great 
antiquity and early civilization ; that the extraordinary measure of 
duration assigned to their empire by some modem writers rests on 
no solid proof's ; that their government, laws, manners, arts, and 
scientihc attainments, are not deserving of that superlative praise 
which has been bestowed on them. 



SECTION L. 

M. BAILLY'S THEORY OF THE ORIGIN OF THE SCIENCES 
AMONG THE NATIONS OF INDIA. 

1. Thk striking resemblance in many points of character between 
the Chinese and the ancient Egyptians, has led to the conjecture, 
either that they were originally the s;ime people, one being a col- 
ony of the other, or have had, at some remote period, such inter- 
course, either by conquest or by commerce, as to occasion a recipro- 
cal communication of manners and the knowledge of arts and sciences. 
M. de IMaiian has remarked the I'ollowing points of similarity. The 
Egyptians and the Chinese had the same permanence of manners, 
aiid abhorrence of innovations; they were alike remarkable ibr the 
respect entertained by children to their parents ; they were equally 
averse to war; they had the same general superlicial knowledge of 
tne arts and sciences, without the ability to make great attainments; 
they both, in the most ancient times, used hieroglyphics; the Egyp- 
tians had a solemn festival, called the Jea$'. of the tights; the Chinese 
have llicjeast of the lanterns; the features of the Chinese are said to 
resemble the ancient Egyptian statues; certain characters engraven 
on an Egyptian bust of Isis were found to belong to the Chinese lan- 
guage. 

2. ]\I. Bailly has taken a wider range of observation, and from a 
review o( the manners, customs, opinions, and attainments of the 
Indians, Persiai»s, Chinese, Chaldeans, and Egyptians, has discovered 
many circumstances of similarity between all those nations, equally 
remarkable as the foregoing. lie has thence formed the singular 
hypothesis, that the knowledge common to all those nations hasLeen 
derived from the same original source, a most ancient and highly 
cultivated people of Asia, of which every trace is now extinct. It we 
tind, Siiys he, in the scattered huts of peasants, iVagnients interspersed 
of -sculptured columns, we conclude lor certain that they are not the 
work of the rude peasants w ho reared those huts, but that they are 
the remains of a magniticent building^ the work of able architects, 
though we discover no other traces ol the existence of that building, 
and cannot ascertain its precise situation. 

\i. The sciences and arts of the Chinese have been stationary for 
2,(X¥) years. The people seem never to have availed themselves 
of the lights of their ancestors. They are like the inhabitants of a 
country recently discovered hv a polished people, who have taught 



MODERM HISTORY. 193 

them some of their arts, and left their instruments among them. 
The knowledge which they possess, seems to have been imported^ 
and not of original growth, for it has never been progressive. 

4. The Chaldeans were an enlightened people at the commence- 
ment of the Babylonish empire, 2,000 years before the Christian era. 
They were astronomers, and understood the revolutions of the ce? 
lestial bodies. The Chaldeans were probably the remains of this 
•incient people. The Bramins of India believe in the unity of God, 
and the immortality of the soul ; but with these sublime tenets they 
intermix childish absurdities. They derived the former from wise 
tuslructere ; the latter were the truit of their own ignorance. The 
Sanscrit, a copious and elegant language, and the vehicle of all the 
Indian knowledge and philos.-^phy, has been a dead tongue for thou- 
sands of years, and is intelligible only to a few of the Bramins. It 
was probably the language of that great ancient people. 

o. The coincidence or similarity of customs concurs to establish 
the belief of an original nation. Tiie custom of libation was com- 
mon to the Tartars and Chinese, and to the Greeks and Romans. 
All the Asiatic nations had festivals of the nature of the Roman satur- 
lalia. The tradition of the deluge is diffused among all those nations, 
'l he tradition of the giants attacking heaven is equally general. 
The doctrine of the metempsychosis was common to the Egyptians, 
Greeks, Indians, Persians, Tartarians, and Chinese. The rehgion of 
all those nations is founded on liie profound but erroneous doctrine 
of the two principles, a universal soul pervading all nature, and 
inert matter on which it acts. A conformity in a true doctrine is no 
proof of mutual communication or concert ; but it is ingeniously re- 
marked, that a conformity in a false doctrine comes very near to such 
a proof. 

6. The Egyptians, Chaldeans, Indians, Persians, and Chinese, all 
placed their temples fronting the east, to receive the first rays of the 
sun. Hence the worship of the sun has been the religion of the an- 
cient people from which these are descended. All these nations had 
a cycle, or period of sixty years, for regulating their chronology. 
They all divided the circle into 360 degrees; the zodiac into twelve 
signs; :ind the week into seven days. The Chinese, Indians, and 
Egyptians designed the seven days of the week by the names of the 
*even planets ranged in the same order. The long measures of the 
yncient nations had all one common origin. 

7. These singular coincidences, says M. Bailly, can be exclained 
^niy upon three suppositions : 1, that there was a free communica- 
Uon between all those ancient nations ; 2, that those circumstances 
li coincidence are so founded in human nature, that the most un • 
connected nations could not fail to hit upon them ; or, 3, that they 
have been all derived trom a common source. He rejects the two 
former suppositions, as contrary, in his opinion, to fact, and adopts 
the last. 

8. The precise situation of this great ancient people, M. Bailly does 
not pretend to fix with certainty; but offers probable reasons for 
conjecturing that it was about the 49lh or 50th degree of north lati- 
tude, in the southern regions of Siberia. Many of the European 
ond Asiatic nations attribute their origin to that quarter, which thence 
appears to have been extremely populous. Nitre, a production 
from animaJ substances, is more abundant there than in any other 
region. The observations of the rising of the stars, collected by 
Ptolemy, must have been made in a climate where the longest day 

R 25 



194 MODERN HISTORY. 

was sixteen hours, which corresponds to the latilade ol 50 degi 
No Enropenn nation m that latitude understood astronomy in those 
early perioils. The veneration ot' the hidians and Chijicse for the 
Lam I of I'liihet is a proof that the religion of those nations originat- 
ed i.i that quarter. 

. 9. But does that region exhibit any traces of having been ever 
inhabited by a poUslied people ? Here the tlieory of M. Bailiy seems 
to be least supported by proof He observes, that ancient mines 
l.ave iieen discovered in tiiosf pai-ts of Siberia, which have been 
wrought to great extent in a period beyond all record or tradition, 
that ancient sepulchres have been found, in which there were orna- 
ments of gold ot skilful worKmanship ; but tlie facta specihed are so 
few lis to warrant no positive inlerence. 

10. This theory is an amusing specimen of the author's ingenu- 
ity ; but it hiis not the force to draw our assent to his conclusions. 
\Ve have noticed it as specifying many curious I'acts relative to the 
manners and attainments of the ancient nations, and as furnishing 
strong evidence of the common origin of manltind. The nations 
nbove mentioned, though many of them remote from one another, 
;vere all connected, as Unks ol a chain, by proximity ; whence it is 
easy to conceive that knowledge should diverge trom a centre o 
a very distant circumference. M. Bailly has given no reasonable 
ground for tixing tiiat centre in the position which he has assigned 
to It 

SECTION LI. 

REIGN OF PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. REVOLUTION OF THE 
NETHERLANDS, AND ESTABLISH.MENT OF THE REPUBUC 
OF HOLLAND. 

1. After a short survey of the Asiatic kingdoms, we return to the 
history of Europe in the sixteenth century. .. .i i i 

In the ume of Philip II., the succes*:or ot Charles V.. the balance 
of power in Europe was sustained by Spam, t ranee, hngland, and 
Germany, all at this time higldy flourishing and respectable, either 
from the talents of their sovereigns, or their internal strength. Ehz- 
"abeth, Henry II.. and Philip 11., were all acute and able politicians; 
thoui'H the policy of Philip partook more of selhsn cralt, and had 
less of the manly and heroic, than that ot either ot his rival mon- 
arch" Philip was at this Ume sovereign ol Spain, the 1 wo Sicilic?', 
Milan* and the Netherlands. He ha.j likewise, lor a few years, the 
power of England at his command, by his marrmge wah iAlury, the 
ehier sister and predecessor of Elizabeth. 

•» Pope i*aul IV., jealous of the power of Phihp, formed an alli- 
ance with Henry IL of France to deprive the Spaniards ol Mi km 
and the Two Sicilies. PhHip, with the aid of the English, defeated 
the French at St. C^uintin in Picardv, and hoped from this .signal vie- 
torv, to force the allies into a peace ; but the duke of Guise recov- 
ered the spirits of the French, by the taking of Calais from Uie Eng- 
lish \vhich lh*»y h;id now possessed for two Imndred years. Anoth- 
er Croat victory, however, obtained by Philip near Gravelin<.s, 
hrou'rht on tiie treaty of Catteau-Cambresis in 1,559, by which the 
French surrendered to Snain no less than eighty -nme torlihed towns 
in the Low Countries and in Italy. 



MODKRN HISTORY. 195 

3. Philip, now at oase from loreign disturbances, began to be dis- 
quieted on the score of religion. An intolerant bigot by nature, he 
resolved to extirpate every species of heresy from his dominions. 
The Netherlands, an assemblage of separate states, were all subject 
to Philip, under various titles ; and he had conferred the government 
of Holland, Zealand, Friesland, and Utrecht, on William, prince of 
Orange, a count of the German empire. The Lutheran and Calvin 
istic opinions had made great progress in those quarters ; and Philip, 
determining to repress tbem, established the inquisition with plenary 

f)owers, created new bishops, and prepared to abrogate the ancinnt 
aws, and give the provinces a new political institution. These inno- 
vations created alarm and tumult; and the duke of Alva was sent into 
Flanders to enforce implicit submission. 

4. The inquisition began its bloody work, and many of the prin- 
cipal nobility of the provinces were its victims. The minds ot the 
people were completely alipnated, and a chief was only wanting to 
give union to their measures. The prince of Orange, who was 
under sentence of the inquisition, found no difficulty to raise an army; 
and having easily reduced some of the most important garrisons, 
he was proclaimed stadtholder of Holland and Zealand in 1,570. 
Eighteen thousand persons perished by the hands of the executioner 
in the course of the duke ot Alva's government, which was of five 
years' duration. His place w;is supplied by Requesens, a man of hu- 
manity, but bound to obey his inhuman master, who, on the death of 
Requesens, sent his own brother don John of Austria, to endeavour 
to regain the revolted states ; but the attempt was fruitless. The 
whole seventeen provinces had sutiered alike from the tyranny of 
their sovereign ; but particular jealousies prevented a general nnicr*, 
and only seven of them asserted their independence, by a solemn 
treaty formed at Utrecht, on the 2^4 of January, 1,579 ; by which it 
was agreed that they should defend their liberties as one united 
republic ; that they should jointly determine in matters of peace and 
war, establish a general legislative authority, and maintain a liberty 
of conscience in matters of religion. These seven united provinces 
are, Guelderland, Holland, Zealand, Friesland, Utrecht, Overyssel, 
and Groningen. William prince of Orange was declared their chief 
magistrate, general, and admiral, by the title of Stadtholder. 

5. Philip vented his indignation by a proscription of the prince of 
Orange, offering 25,000 crowns for hi? head ; and he compassed his 
revenge ; for this illustrious man was cut off by an assassin in 1,584. 
His son Maurice was elected stadtholuer in his room, and sustiiined 
his important office with great courage and ability. With a slender 
aid from Elizabeth of England, who delighted to traverse the pLins ot 
Philip, this infant commonwealth accomplished and secured its inde- 
pendence, which it maintained till its recent subjugation 

6. The other ten provinces, whose discontents were expressed 
onlj by murmur and complaint, were soothed by a new charter from 
Philip confirming their privileges; while at the same time he took 
evei-y possible measure to prevent any attenrpt on their part to 
throw off the yoke. 



,96 MODERN HlbTOKV. 



SECTION LIl. 



OF TUE CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED 
PROVINCES. 

1. The treaty of r.orifedcraliou of the Seven United Province*, 
framed in 1,579, :md solemnly renewed in l,58o, is declared to be, 
bv its nature, indissoluble. Each province thereby preserved its 
own laws, magistrates, sovereignty, and independence. They form, 
however, one body politic, having renounced the right of makine 
separate alliances or treaties, and established a general council, with 
power of assembling the states, and regulating the common aflairs ot 
the republic. The assembly of the stales-general was originally held 
only twice a year, but became afterwards a perpetual council. 

2. In all matlei-s which regard not the general interest oi the na- 
tion, each of the states or provinces is in itself a republic, governed 
bv its own laws and magistmtes, and possessing a supreme legislaUve 
authority. The deputies from each of the towns lorm the council of 
the province, in which is vested its separate government; and these 
deputies are regulated by the instructions of their constituents. 1 he 
votes of the majority of deputies decide in the provincial council in 
all matters which regard not the general interest ot the nation 

3. The great council of the states-general always met in assembly 
at the Hague, and is composed of the deputies Irom the seven prov- 
inces of which Hollard sends three, Zealand and Utrecht two, and 
the others one ; each deputy being regulated by the councd oi his 
province \ majority of voices is ncre decisive, unless m the great 
questions of peace, war, and alliance, in which unanimity is lequisite. 
The disadvantage of this constitution is the delay and dithculty in 
the execution ot public measures. All the towns and all the nobles 
of a province must deliberate and instruct their deputy, belore the 
states-genend can take the matter under consideration. This great 
delect is partly corrected by the power and iniluence ot the stadt- 

holder. , ,..'.• j i j 

4. The stadtholder is commander m duet oi the sea and land 
forces, and disposes ot all the military er^iployments. He presides 
over all the courtsof justice, and ha^ the power ot ^^ardoning crimes. 
He appoints the magistrates of the towns, from a list made by them- 
selves ; receives and names ambassadors, and is charged with the ex- 
ecution of the laws. He is supreme arbitei in all ditierences between 
the provinces, cities, or other members of the state. 

5 William, the tir^t stadtholder, did not abuse these high poivers ; 
nor did his successors, Maurice and Henry-Frederick. But under 
William 11. the states became jealous of an exorbitant authority in 
their chief magistnite, and on his death the olhce was for some t;me 
nl)oli8hed. In that interval the republic was almost annihilated by 
the arms of Lewis XIV.; and, sensible of their error, they lestored 
the otlice of stadtholder in the person of Wilham 111., who retrieved 
the ibrtunes and honour of his country. In gratitude tor his services, 
the dignity was made hereditary in his family, a solecism in ttie gov 
ernmenf of a rei)ublic. On the death of William without issue, the 
cilice was once more abolished for twenty years, when it was again 
restored, declared hereditary in the family of Orange, and descenrli- 
ble ©yen to the issue o( a daughter. The only restrictions are, that 



MODERN HlSTOllY. 197 

the socceedmg prince shall be of the protestant religion, and neither 
king nor elector of the German empire. 



SECTION LIII. 
REIGN ON PHILIP II. CONTINUED. 

1. The loss of the Netherlands was in some degree compensated 
to Philip II. by the acquisition of the kingdom of Tort jgal. Muley 
Slahomet, king of Fez and Morocco, dethroned by his uncle Muley 
Moluc, solicited the aid of don Sebastian king of Portugal to regain 
his throne, Sebastian landed with an army in Africa, out was de- 
feated hy the Moors and slain; and the contending Moorish princes 
peiished in the ?ame engagement. Sebastian was succeeded by his 
grand-uncle don Henry, who died after a reign of two years. The 
competitors for the crown were don Antonio prior of Crato, and 
Philip II., paternal ani maternal uncles of the last sovereign. Philip 
defeated his rival in a decisive engagement at sea, and, without fur- 
ther opposiition, took possession ot the throne of Portugal, 1,580. 

2. Elizabeth of England had warmly espoused the cause of the 
revolted Netherlands, and her admiralsir Francis Drake had taken 
some of the Spanish settlements in America.^ To avenge these in- 
jfuries, the invincible armada, of 150 ships of war. 27.000 men, and 
3,000 pieces of cannon, was' equipped by Philip for the invasion of 
England. The English fleet, of 108 ships, attacked them in the 
night, and burnt and destroyed a great part of the squadron. A 
storm, wnich drove them on the rocks and sands of Zealand, com- 
pleted their discomfiture, and only 50 shattered vessels, with 6,000 
men returned to Spain, 1.588. 

3. The restless spiiit of Philip 11. was engaged at the same time in 
the reduction of the Netherlands, the project for the invasion ol 
England, and the dismembering of the kingdom- of France. The 
last scheme was as ineflectual as the two former. It was defeated at 
once by the conversion of Henry IV. to the catholic religion. The 
policy of Philip had nothing in' it great or generous. His restless 
ambition was fitted to embroil Europe ; but he had not the judgment 
to turn the distresses which he occasioned to his own advantage. 
In hb own kingdoms, as in his domestic life, he was a gloomy and in- 
human tyrant Yet, from the variety and magnitude of his designs, 
the power by which they were supported, and the splendour of his 
dominion, thie character of Spain was high and respectable in the 
scale of the nations of Europe. 



SECTION LI\'. 

STATE OF FRANCE IN THE END OF THE SIXTEENTH CEN- 
TURY; UNDER HENRY II., FRANCIS II., CHARLES iX., HENRY 
lU., AND KENTIY IV- 

1. The reformed religion had made the greater profress in 
France from the impolitic persecution which K susramod from 
Henry II., the son and successor of Francis I., who, though he aided 
the protestants of Germany in resisting the despotism of Charles V., 
ihowed DO mercy to their brethren in his own kingdom. 



198 MODERN HISTORY. 

2. On the death of Henry II. the conspiracy ot Ambofee was plan 

nod by the prince of Conde, for the destruction of tlx^ duke of<jiiise. 
who ruled the kingdom under Francis II., and to whose intolerance 
and cruelty the prote.>tanb> atiributed all their calamities. Guise 
owcil his ascendancy chielly to the marriage of his niece, Mary 
queen of Scots with the young monarch ; and the detection ot tlii* 
conspiracy, the massicre of its principal leaders, and the barbarous 
punishment of all who partook in it, wliile they confirmed his power, 
served only to increase the rancour of the contending parties. 

3. Francis II. died after a reign of one year, l,5ti0, and was suc- 
ceeded by his brother Charles L\., a boy of ten years of age. The 
queen-mother, Catharine de Medicis, who had no other principle but 
the love of power, was equally .jealous of the inHueirce of the 
Condes and the Guises. An ecclesiastical assembly, held by her de 
sire at Poissv, gave toleration to the prolestants to exercise their 
worship through all France;, without the walls of the towns. The 
zeal or the imprudence of the duke ot Guise infringed this ordinance, 
and both parties tlcw to arms. The admiral Coligni commanded the 
troops of the protestants, who were aided l>y 10,000 Germans from 
the Palatinate. Philip of Spain, to increase the disortlers, sent an 
army to the aid of the catholics. 

4. The horrors of civil war were aggravated by murders and 
assassinations. The duke of Guise was the victim of the Irantic zeal 
of an enthusiast. After m..ny desperate engagements, with various 
succes^!, a treacherous peace was agreed to by the catholics ; and 
Coligni, with the chiefs of the protectant party, were invited to 
court and received by the qucen-tnother and her son with the most 
extraordinary marks of favour: among the rest Henry of Navarre, 
iO whom the' young monarch had given his sister in marriage. Such 
w"re the preparatives to the infernal massacre of St. Bartnolomew. 
On the night of the 23d of August, 1,572, at the ringing of the matin 
bell, the catboiics made a general massacre of all the protestants 
throughout the kingdom ol France. Charles IX., a monster of 
cruelty assisted in the murder of his own subjects. 

5. Amid those horrors I lenry duke of .\njou, brother of Charles 
IX., was elected king of Poland ; but had scarcely taken possession 
of Ids throne, when he was called to that of France by the death 
of its execrable sovereign, 1,574. The weakness of the new mon 
arch, Henry III., was unht to compose the disorders ofthe kingdom. 
Equally bigoted and protligate, he became the scorn of his subjects, 
and the dupe of the contending factions. 

6. The protestant party was now supported by the prince of 
Conde and young Henry of Navarre, descended from Robert 6t 
Bourbon, a younger son of Lewis IX. The duke of Alencon, the 
king's brother, had likewise joined their party. The catholics, to 
accumulate their strength, formed a bond of union, termed the /eazriic, 
nominally for detence of the state and its religion, but in reality for 
y^urping all the powers of government, and suppressing the protes- 
tant faith. Of this dangerous association Henry III., witli the weakest 
policy, declared himself thj head, and thus the avowed enemy ot 
one half of his subJ!;cts. He saw Ills error when too late, and, 
dreading the designs «f the duke ol Guise, and his brotlier the cardinal 
of Lorraine, whose authority had superse(ied his own, he basely rid 
himself of his tears by p'-ocuring tbeir assassination. This vicious 
and contemptible tyrant, after a reign of tUteen years, was assaaainatc - 



MODEllJN HISTORY. 19 

by Jaqnes Clement, a jacobin monk, from the frenzy of fanaticism, 
1,539. 

7. The next heir of tlie crown was Henry of Navarre, who had 
been educated a protestant by liis mother, the dauijliter of Henry 
d'Aibert king of Navarre. At the age of sixteen he had been declared 
head of tiie party of the Huguenots; his uncle the prince of Conde 
and the admiral Coligni acting as his lieutenant?. His tirst military 
enterprises were unsuccessful. Invited to Paris, at the pei.je ol 
1,572, to marry the sister of Charles IX., he narrowly escaped from 
the massacre of St. Bartholomew, but remained three years a prison- 
er. On the death of Charles he again took the field against the 
army of the league, which he defeated in the battle of Coutras, 
1,587, and still more signally in that of Arques, 1,589. After the 
death of ifenry HI., he won the celebrated battle of Ivry ; and, 
being acknowledged sovereign of France by all but the party of the 
league, then in possession of Paris, he laid siege to the city, which 
must have capitulated if Philip il. had not sent succours. Religion was 
the sole cause of the disunion of France, and the only obstacle to 
the acknowledgment of Henry's title by the greater part of his sul>- 
jects. By the earnest persuasion of Rosni (duke of ouUy), a nrotes- 
tant, Henry was prevailed on to declare himself a catholic. He ab- 
jured at St. Denis, and was crowned king at Chartres, 1,594. He 
soon after tooK possess!' ;n of Paris ; but it took him several years, 
both of war and negotiation, belbre he gained the whole of his king- 
dom, 'exhausted as it was, and ruined by civil discord. 

8. The subsequent life of this excellent prince was devoted to the 
repaiation of those misfortunes. After forcing Philip 11. to conclude 
the advantageous peace of V'ervins, 1,598, his whole attention was 
bestowed on the improvement of his kingdom, by refonriing its laws, 
^•egulating its finances, encouraging agriculture and manufactures, 
enlarging and embellishing the cities, and finally by successfully 
reconciling tne partisans of the contending religions. In all his bene- 
ficial schemes, he found an able assistant in his minister the duke of 
Sully, who has beautifully depicted the life and character of his mas- 
ter. In his memoirs we see not only the great designs, but the pri- 
vate virtues, the engaging and amiable manners of this illustrious 
man, who while he was the arbiter of the contending powers ol 
Europe, was the indulgent father of a happy people. 

9. The period of the splendour and happiness of France was ol 
short duration. Henry IV., worthy to be immortal, was assassinated 
at the age of fifty-seven, May 4, 1,610, by Ravaillac, an insane fanat- 
ic. At the time of his death, he meditated the great project of a 
perpetual peace between the states of Europe, a design highly char- 
acteristic of the benevolent mind of its author. But the weaknesses ol 
mankind, and the impossibility of reasoning with nations as with wise 
indivif'uals. must certainly have rendered this design impracticable at 
that periocL 



SECTION LV. 

HISTORY OF ENGLAND AND OF SCOTLAND IN THE REIGN3 
OF ELIZABETH AND MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS. 

1. Elizabeth, laughter of Henry VIIL, by Anna BuUen, succeeded 
to the throne on the death of her sister Mary, 1,558; and England 



200 MODERN HISTORY. 

attained a high degree of splendour, under the rule of ddsfre&f mil 
politic princess, wiiose talents enabled her to pursue the true interests 
of hor people, while her vigorous and intrepid mind led her to take 
an important part in maintaining the balance of power in Euiope. 
While she encouraged at home every useful art and manutacture, 
she colonized a great part of ^orth America, supported the infant 
republic of Holland against its tyrannical enemy, hun^hled the pride 
of Spain in the defeat of its invincible armtida, and assisted Henry IV. 
in the recovery of his kingdom. It was her fortune to have the aid 
of most able ministers, and her merit to place her confidence in their 
counsels. 

2. If Elizabeth had been equally endowed with the virtues of the 
heart as with the powers of the rr.iud, she would have shone the 
most illustrious character in the annals of modern Europe. Her 
conduct to her cousin Mary queen of Scots has hxed an indelible 
stain on her character. Miuv, the daughter of James V., and great 
grand-daughter of Plenry \'ll., educated in France, and married, 
when very young, to the dauphin, afterwards Francis IL. had im- 
prudently assumed the arms and title of queen of England, by the 
persuasion of her maternal uncles the Guises. The pretence was 
the illegitimacy of Elizabeth, declared by Henry \ III., on his divorce 
from Anna Bullen. This false step laid the toundation of all the 
miseries of the queen of Scots. 

3. The reformation was at this time going forward in Scotland 
with the most ardent zeal. The earia of Argyle, Morton, Glencairn, 
and others, its chief promoters, had, by their own authority, suppress- 
ed the worship of the mass over a great part of the kingdom. 
The catholic bishops, by an ill-judged persecution of the reformers^ 
greatly increased the number of their proselytes. They began to 
muster their strength, and, headed by John Knox, a disciple of Cal- 
vin, a virtuous man, but of the most lurious and intemperate zeal,' 
threw down the altars and images, expelled the priests, and demol- 
ished the churches and monasteries. The protestants were now 
acting in arms, and in open deiiance of government ; and the queen 
mother, Mary of Guise, attempted, by the aid of French troops, to 
reduce her subjects to submission. They applied lor aid to Elizabeth 
the protestant queen of England, who sent an army and a tlcet to lh»^ir 
assistance. The death of the queen-mother was' followed by a capit- 
ulation, by which it was agreed that the French should evacuate 
Scothmd, and that Mary should renounce all pretension to the crown oi 
England. The protestant religion, under presbyterian fo^ms^, was 
now estabhshed in the room of the catholic. 

5. In this situation of Scotland, Mary, at the age of eighteen, on 
the death of her mother, and of her husband Francis II., returned 
to hei; heredit'iry kingdom ; having fortunately escaped an English 
fleet, which Elizabeth had despatched to take her prisoner ou her 
passage. Her misfortunes began from that hour. Her protestant 
subjects i-egarded their catholic queen with abhorrence, and looked 
up to her enemy Elizabeth ;is their support and defender. That 
artful princess had secured to her interest the ver-y men on whom 
the unsuspecting Mary placed her utmost confidence, her bastiU'd 
brother the earl of Murray, the earl of Morton, and secretary Leth 
ington. The views of Murniv aimed at nothing lei^s than his sister's 
crown, and the obstiicles which opposed his criminal ambition served 
only to render his attempts more daring and flagitious. 

5. The marriage of Mary with her cousin lord Damley, son of the 



MODERN HISTORY. 201 

earl of Lennox, who srcod in the same relation to Elizabeth, was not 
agreeable to that princess. Encouraged by Elizabeth's ministers, 
Randolph and Cecil, Murray formed a conspiracy to seize and impris- 
on Mary, to rut to death her husband, and usurp the government ; 
and on the detection of his designs, attempted to support Ihem by 
open rebtUion. Defeated, exiled, pardoned, and loaded with benefits 
by his injured sovereign, he pei'severed in the same atrocious pur- 
poses, till he at length accomplished them. 

6. The spouse ot Mary had incurred her resentment by his vices 
and follies. Taking advantage of the weakness of his mind, Mur- 
ray, Morion, and Lethington, had rendered him jealous of the par- 
tiality of Mary for her foreign secretary, the aged Rizzio, and en- 
gaged him in the barbarous act of murdering this ill-fated wretch 
at the feet of the queen, to whose garment* he clung for protection. 
The purpose ot' this shocking outrage was to procure the abortion 
of Mary, then big with child, and possibly her death ; or, if she 
should survive, to alienate completely her affections from her hus- 
band, and thus to render her suspected of the design which they 
had projected of cuttiiig him off by assassination. In the latter pur- 
pose they succeeded. The house which Darnley inhabited was blown 
up by gunpowder : his body was found strangled near the place, and 
a report immediately prevailed, that Mary had been accessory to his 
murder. 

7. A most imprudent step, to which she was conducted by the 
same band of traitors, gave countenance to this suspicion. At the 
eaniest recommendation of Morton and some of her chief nobility, 
she married the earl of Bothwell, a man openly stigmatized as one 
of the murderers of her husband. He had, it is true, been absolved 

^n irial for that crime, and had by force made himself master of her 
person. The plans of Murray and his associates, successful to the 
utmost of their wishes, were now ripe for consummation. On the 

Eretext of the queen's guilt of murder and adultery, she was confined 
y Murray in the castle of Lochleven, and there compelled to resign 
her crown into the hands of her un latural brother, who was to govern 
the kingdom as regent during the minority of her infant son, now 
proclaimed king by the title of James VI., 1,567. Bothwell escaped 
beyond sea, and died in Denmark. 

3. A great part of the nation reprobated those infamous proceed- 
ings. Mary escaped from her confinement, and at the head of an 
army gave battle to the rebels at Langside ; but, being defeated, she 
jQed ibr shelter to the north of England. Elizabeth, who had secretly 
encouraged all the machinations of her enemies, had now gained a 
great object of her ambition ; she had in her hands a hated rival, and, 
by her support of Murray and his party, the absolute command ol 
the kingdom of Scotland. Yet policy required some show ol 
friendship and humanity to the queen of Scots, who claimed, as a 
suppliant, her protection and aid. She professed her desire to do 
her justice, but first requiied that she should clear herself of the 
crimes alleged against her. To this Mary agreed, with the intrepid- 
ity of conscious innocence. In a conference held for that purpose, 
Murray openly stood forth as the accuser of his sister and queen, 
appealing to certain letters said to have been written by her to Both- 
well, plainly intimating her guilt. Copies of these letters were pro- 
duced. Mary demanded the originals, boldly declaring them to be 
the forgeries of her enemies; but they were never produced. She 
retorted on Murray and Morton the charge of Damley's murder. 



f02 MODERN HISTORY. 

and the conference was broken off at the command ot the queen of 
tnglanil, who deliiined Mary in close imprisonment 

0. The ungenerous policy ol Ehziibelh was condemned by her 
own subjects. The duke of Norfolk, the hrst of her nobility, and, 
though a protestant, favoured by the catholic party in England, 
secretly projected to marry tbe queen of Scots. The discovery of 
his views having given alarm to Elizabeth, brouojht that ill-fiited 
nobleman to the bloe.k, and lutstened the doom of^the unfortunate 
Mary. Worn out with the miseries of her continement, she private- 
ly solicited the aid of foreign princes for her deliverance. Her 
cause was espoused by all the catholics of England ; and some of the 
most intemperate of these had tbrmed a plot to deliver her from 
captivity, and to place her on the throne, by the murder of Eliza 
beth. Ihis dangerous conspiracy was discovered, and its auihors 
deservedly suffered death. The schemes of Mary for her own de- 
liverance were held presumptive of her acquiescence in the whole of 
the plot. Though an independent sovereign, she was brought to 
trial before a foreign tribunal which had already decreed her fate ; 
and, being condemned to suffer death, she was beheaded at Fother- 
ingay castle, 1,587, in the forty-iifth year of her age, and the nine 
teenth of her captivity in England. Previously to this event, Murray 
had fallen the victim of the private revenge of a gentleman whom he 
had injured ; Lethington poisoned himself in prison, to escape the 
sentence of his enemies ; and Morton, some time regent of the king- 
dom, was afterwards tried and sufiered death lor his concern in the 
murder of Damley. 

10. We have mentioned the fonnidable preparations of Philip 11. 
for the invasion of England, and their disastrous ipsue in the total 
destruction of the invincible armada. The English, in their turn, 
made descents on the Spanish coasts ; and the glory of the nation 
was nobly sustained by those great admirals, Haleigh, Howard. 
Drake, Cavendish, and Hawkins. The earl of Essex distinguished 
himself in those expeditions, and won the favour of Elizabeth, both 
by his prowess and personal accomplishments. The death of Lei- 
cester, her former favourite, and of her minister Burleigh left Essex 
unrivalled in her affections, and of chief authority in the direction of 
her councils. Haughty, and impatient of control, he disgusted the 
nobles; and his failure in quelling a rebellion in Ireland gave them 
ground to undermine liim in the favour of his sovereign. In the mad- 
oess of inordinate ambition, he proposed io possess himself of the 
person of the queen, and compel her to remove his enemies, and 
acquiesce in all his mcftsures. This treasonable enterprise brought 
him to the scaffold, 1,(;UU. 

11. From that time Elizabeth fell into profound melancholy, and soon 
after died in the seventieth year of her age, 1,G03, having nnmed for 
her successor James VI. of Scotland. Her talent** were gieat, and 
the hrmness of her mhid was unequalled ; but her private char- 
acter was tarnished by cruelty, hypocrisy, and an iasiitiable desire 
of admiration. Her maxims of government were despotic, and she 
had little regard for the liberties of her people, or the privileges of 
her parliaments, to whom she never allowed the liberty of disputing 
her commands. The actual government of England in those days 
was little different liom an absolute monarchy. 



MODERN mST(mY. tOS 



SECTION LVL 



HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN IN THE REIGNS OF JAMES I. 
AND CHARLES I 

1. James VI. of Scotland succeeded by hereditary right to the 
throne of England, thus uniting the two crowns; a prince of consio- 
erable learning and talents, but of little vigour of mind or political 
energy. He became unpopular from his notions of an uncontrollable 
prerogative, to which unwisely proclaiming his title, he provoked 
nis subjects to question h. The current of public opinion was now 
strongly turned to an extension of the rights of the subject, c;nd to a 
retrenchment of the powers of the crown ; and during this reign the 
seeds were sown of that spirit of resistance on the part of the peo- 
ple, which was destined in the next to overturn the constitution. 

2. Domestic events were such as cliiedy distinguished the reign 
of James 1. A conspiracy was discovered in l,6U3 tor subverting 
the government, and placing the king's cousin, Arabella Stuart, on 
the Sirone, in which the lords Cobham and Grey, and Sir Walter Ra- 
leigh were principally concerned. The two former were pardoned, 
and Raleigh was conclemned, but reprieved. On the ground of his 
infringement of the peace with Spain, by unw^arrantably attacking 
one of her American settlements, he was beheaded on his former 
eentence, after an interval of tit^een }'ears. 

3 Another conspiracy followed,^ of a still more dangerous nature 
the gunpowder tresison ; a plot of the catholics to destroy at one 
blow the king and the wtiole body of the parliament, 1,604. It was 
discovered from a circumstance of private friendship, on the very 
eve of its accomplishment; and the principal conspirators suffered 
capital punishment- The public indignation now raged against the 
catholics ; and the humanity of James, which sought to mitigate this 
fury, was as ungenerously as absurdly :onstrued into a favour which 
he entertained for their religious principles. 

4. It was a peculiar weakness of the king to attach himself to 
andeserving tavourites, Sucii was Carre eadof Somerset, who had 
no other recommendation but a handsome person, and who, after 
several years' exercise of all the insolence of power, fell into dis- 
grace, on conviction of his concern in an infamous murder. His 
place was supplied by Viiliers, afterwards duke of Buckingham, a 
man devoid of every talent of a minister and odious to all ranks 
•jf the state. He planned a journey of Charles prince of Wales into 
Spain to court the infanta, and by Lis folly and insolence fnistratec 
tlie treaty on the brink of its conclusion. 

3. Elizabeth, the daughter of James, was married to the protestant 
elector Palatine, who \vas dispossessed of his electorate by the empe- 
ror Ferdinand II., for im}:)rudently accepting the crown of Bohemia, 

^<JU11 then an appanage of the empire. James was urged by parlia- 
ment to a war in defence of his son-in-law, which touched the natior 
Ix^Lli as a point of honour and as the cause of the protest^int interest. 
He sent a teeble armament, which was of no service, the only mili- 
tary enterprise of his reign. His favourite project was a complete 
union of the kingdoms of England and Scotland ; a measure wnich, 
however beneficial, the mutual prejudices of the two nations were as 



204 MODERN HISTORY. 

jet too violent to bear. As a preparutory step, the episcopal hie* 
;rarcliy was introduced into Scotland ; but this served only as the 
'incentive of future commotions. James I. diet! in 1625, in the 59th 
year of his age, and the 2'2d of his reign over England. 

6. On an impartial estimate of the character of the succeeding 
monarch, Charles I., it may be alloweil, that this unfortunate prince 
would have reigned with high popularity, if the nation in his reign 
nad entertained the same opinions of the regal prerogative, of the 
powers of parliament, and of the liberty of the suiyect, which had 
prevailed Tor the two preceding centuries. But it was his lot to 
mount the throne at that critical period when the public opinion had 
undergone an entire revolution on those topics ; and, with many 
excellent endowments both of head and heart, he wanted that po- 
litical prudence which should have taught him to yield to the ne- 
cessity of the times. 

7. Charles was offended with his first parliament, on their refusal 
of adequate supplies for the war in support of his brother-in-law, the 
elector Palatine. Engaged to his allies, the kinir, dissolving the par- 
liament, issued warrants for borrowing money of the subject. A new 
parliament was found equally uncomplying, and evinced its jealousy 
of thekingby theimpeachment of his minister, Buckingham. Charles 
avenged the insult by imprisoning two members of the house of com- 
mons. A dissension thus begun was continually aggravated by new 
causes of oflTence. The levying of money from the subject was en- 
forced by billeting soldiers on those w ho refused to lend to the crown ; 
and some were even imprisoned on that account. A war was under- 
taken against France, by Buckingham's instigation, a sufBcient cause 
of its unpopularity ; and it ended in a fruitless attempt on Rochelle. 
The king again dissolved his parliament, 1,626. 

8. A new parliament exhibited a spirit of determined reformation. 
A Petition of Right was passed by both houses, which declared the 
illegality of raising money without their sanction, or of enforcing 
loans from the subject, annulled all taxes imposed without the consent 
of j>arliament, and abolished the exercise of the martial law; and 
Charles was obliged, with much reluctance, to give his assent to 
this great retrenchment of prerogatives, sanctioned by the usage of 
the most popular of his predecessors. 

9. The taxes of tonnage and poundage had usually been contin- 
ued from one reign to another. On this ground the king conceived 
that he was warranted to levy them without a new grant; and a 
member of the house of commons was imprisonerf on refusal to pay 
them. This arbitrary measure excited an outrageous ferment in 
that assembly, and the consequence was a new dissolution of th-e 
parliament, 1,629. 

10. It was now a measure of necessity to make peace with Franc* 
and Sp^iin. The king perseve-red in levying the tonnage, poundage, 
and ship-money; and hiijh fines were im])osed for various offences, 
without trial, by authority of the star-chamber. The legality ok' 
the tax of ship-money was disputed by John Hamp<len, who wai 
condemned by the court of exchequer, contrary, as was generally 
thought, to justice and the laws of the realm. 

11. Those discontents were increased by religious enthusiasm. 
Charles, by the advice of Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, had relax 
ed the penalties against catholics, and countenanced some innova- 
tions in the ceremonials of church worship, preludes, as they were 
termed, to the popish idolatries. He had likewise irnpnidently olr 



MODERN HISTORY. 20b 

tempted to introduce the liturgy ot the church of England among the 
Scots. These measures excited in Scotland very general discontent, 
and produced the most violent commotion. A bond, termed the Na- 
tional Covenant^ containing an oath of resistance to all religious inno- 
vations, was subscribed in Scotland by all ranlts and conditions ; and 
m a general assembly at Glasgow the episcopal hierarchy was sol- 
emnly abolished, 1,638. To maintain this violent procedure the 
Scots reformers took up arms, and, after seizing and fortifying the 
most important places of strength in the kingdom, boldly marched 
mto the heart of England. 

12. It was now absolutely necessary to assemble a parliament, and 
the king at length saw that the torrent was irresistible, and resolved, 
though too late, to yield to it. A bill passed for abolishing the ton- 
nage and poundage without consent of parliament, and received the 
royal assent. Monopolies of every kind were abolished. A parlia- 
ment was agreed to be summoned every third year. Unsatished 
with these concessions, the commons impeached the earl of Strafford, 
the king's tirst minister, of high treason, together with Laud, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, who were charged, as the chief counsellors of 
the crown, with a design of subverting the laws and constitution of 
the realm. The fate of Straflbrd, whose trial by his peers would 
have terminated in his acquittal, was secured by a bill of attainder, 
to which the king was, with the greatest reluctance, forced to give 
his assent. The commons seized that moment of anguish to ob- 
tain his consent to a decisive measure, a bill which rendered the 
parliament perpetual, by declaring that it should not be dissolved nor 
adjourned except by its own decree, 1,641. Strafford and Laud were 
i&<otl^. beheaded. 

13. rhis last measure of the commons evinced a determined pur- 
pose to overturn the constitution. Their proceedings hitherto had 
the chow of justice, and most of them might be vindicated on the 
principles of true patriotism. But from this period their conduct 
u'as treason to their country and its government. The last bill de- 
"^troyed the equal balance of the constitution of England, and every 
subsequent measure was a step towards its annihilation. 

14. The Irish catholics took advantage of those disorders, and, 
with the purpose of assuming the entire command of that kingdom, 
and shalcing off its dependence on England, attempted, in one day to 
massacre all the protestants in Ireland. To extinguish this^ horrible 
rebellion Charies consigned to the parliament the charge of the war, 
which they interpreted into a transference to them of the whole mil- 
itary powers of tne crown. Under this authority a great force was 
levied, and supplied with arms from the royal magazines. 

1 5. The bishops having complained that their lives were in danger 
from the populace, and having protested against the proceedings of 
the lords in their absence, were impeached of treason by the com 
mons, and committed to the Tower. The patience of Charles was 
exhausted. He caused five of the commons to be impeached, and 
went in person to the house to seize them ; a breach of the privilege 
of parliament, for which he found it necessary to atone by a humili- 
ating message. 

16. A new bill of the commons, naming the commanders of all the 
fortified places, who shoald be responsible to parliament alone, was 
understood to be a declaration of war. The next step was to assume 
the whole legislative power, by declaring it a breach of privilege to 
dispute the law of the lanvJ promulged by the lords and commons. 



4M)6 MODERiS HISTORY. 

But the lord* were merely a name, being entirely under the control 

of the commons, , 

17. The sword was now to decide the contest The royal caiwe 
was supported bv a grent proporlion of the landed mterest, al Uie 
triends of the esLiblished church, and all the catholics in the kmg- 
dom. On the side of the parliament were the city of London and 
most of the greater towns, with all the dissenteis and sectaries. 1 he 
fir^t aunpaign was favourable to the royalists, who defeated the par- 
liamentaiy torccs at Worcester and Edgehill, but lost the batUe ot 

18 The parliament now entered into a strict confederacy with 
the Scots, both in the articles of politics and rel'gion; and the Holeinn 
l^a'Tue iuui Covenant, a new bond more specihc in its objects than 
the former, and more treasonable in its purpose, was framed at hdin- 
burgh, for the purirication of both churches, the reformation ol both 
kingdoms, the maintenance of the privileges ot king and parlia- 
ment, and bringing to justice all malignants. In consequence ol this 
confederacy, 20,Ui)0 Scots took the fteld to co-operate with the forces 
of the parliament. ^ „ i . • » r.f 

19 At this time Oliver Cromwell commanded a re^imenX ol 
horee under Fairfax, general of the parUament ; but in reahty direct- 
cd all the me<u«ures of the army. In Scotland the royal cause was 
Eallantlv sustained by the marquis of Montrose; but all was lost m 
England by the defeat at x\;iseby, in 1,G45. The troops of the roy- 
ali4 being entirely dispersed, the king threw himseli into the hands 
of \he Scots, who basely deUvered him up to the commissioners ol 
parliament, from whom he was Uiken by CromweU s orders, and con 
ducted to the army, which was now master of the kingdoni. CroiD 
well entering London assumed an absolute control over the pariia 
ment. and imprisoned all who disputed his authority Charles c*cai- 
mg from his confinement, tied to the isle of Wight ; but was theie de 
tained a prisoner in Carisbrook castle. 

20 The parliament, suflering under this military usurpation, were 
noA-' sincerely desirous of terminating a miserable anarchy by a 
treaty with the king, and, after a long negotiation, all terms were 
finailv adiusted. Charles agreed to resign to parliament the military 
power, the disposal of aU the offices of state, and the right of creat- 
ing peers without the consent of parUament: he agreed to abolisl- 
the episcopal hierarchy, and to establish the presbytenan di^iphne. 
Th.-se concessions the parliament accepted b^ a majority of suflra 
aes' and declared them to be a sutHcient basis for the setUement ol 
The kingdom. Cromwell insUntly surrounded the house of commons, 
and, excluding all but his own partisans (about sixty m number), a 
second vote was passed, rescinding the former, and declaring it 
treason in a king to levy war against his parliament A court o. 
jd-<ice was then appointed to try the king for this act ol treason. 
The house of lords, having unanimously rejected this decree, were 
immediately voted, by this junto of indepemlents, to be a useless 
branch of the constitution. , , *u 

21 Charles was brought tc tri;il, and, refusing to acknowledge the 
authority of his judges, was condemned to suffer deatli. He was 
beheaded on the iiUih of January, 1,649. The arbitrary proceedings 
ot this monarch in the beginning of his reign were certainly sutH- 
cient to iustifv that resistance on the part ol the people which at 
lengtli produced its effect, in confining the regal nuthorlty withja iLs 
jii«t ho.Mid^. and securing the rdtioniil liberties ot the suLuect But 



MODERN HISTORY. 207 

firorri the period when this end was attained, resistance ceaaed to be 
lawful. Its further opemlions were criminal m the extreme. The 
Bubseqtient usurpations of the commons can no more be justified on 
any constitutional principle, than the murder of the king can be de- 
fended on the score of legality, justice, or humanity. 



SECTION LVn. 
THE COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND. 

1 . The parliament of Scotland had taken no part in these lattei 
scenes, and had formally protested against the trial of the king. On 
his death they proclaimed Charles II. their sovereign, but on the ex- 
press condition of his signing the covenant, and ratifying their con- 
fession of faith. Ireland recognised hira without any conditions. 
The heroic marquis of Montrose landed in the north of Scotland with 
a few foreign troops, and attempted to reduce the party of the cove- 
nanters, and to establish the legal authority of the king, independent 
of the servile restrictions with which they had fettered it. Being 
attacked by a much superior force, he was defeated, and betrayed 
into the power of his enemies, who put him to death by the hands 
of the executioner, 1,650, displaying in the circumstances of his 
punishment all the insolence of cruelty which distinguishes revenge 
m the meanest of souls. Charles retired to Scotland, and was obliged, 
however reluctantly, to acquiesce in all the terms that were imposed 
on him. 

2. Cromwell, with 1G,000 men, marched into Scotland against the 
royalist covenanters, whom he defeated in the battle of Dunbar. He 
then followed the royal arm)', which retreated into England, and 
destroyed it in the decisive battle of Worcester, September 3, 1,651. 
Charles fled in disguise through the western and southern counties, 
till he found an opportunity of escaping to France ; and Cromwell 
returned in triumph to London. 

3. The republican parliament formed and executed great designs. 
A war with Holland ^vas most ably maintained on both sides by three 
great naval commanders, Blake, the British admiral, and Van Tromp 
and de Ruyter, the Dutch admirals ; but the advantage was greatly 
in favour of the English, an ho took above 1,600 Dutch ships. The 
parliament, elated by these successes, justly conceived that, while 
the nation was thus powerful at sea, the army was an unnecessary bur- 
den, and determined to reduce it. To prevent this measure, Crom- 
well framed a remonstrance of the army, demanding the election of 
anew parliament. This remonstrance being disregarded, he entered 
the house of commons, which he Lad .surrounded with his troops, and 
declaring the parliament dissolved by his authority, forcibly turned 
the members out of doors. The republic of England, w hich had 
subsisted tour years and three months, was thus annihilated in one 
moment, April 20, 1,653. 

4. It was necessary, however, that there should be the appearance 
of a parliament. A few mean persons, of fanatical character, were 
chosen by Cromwell's partisans, from the different counties of Eng- 
land, with live from Scotland, and six from Ireland, to hold theirfunc- 
tion for fifteeen months. This assembly, termed Barcbone^s parUa- 
tnent^ from its leading member, a leather-seller, became the scorn ol 
the publiCj and was dissolved, by its own vote, after five months. 



808 MODERN HISTORY. 

5. The government was now vested in the council of officers, 
^ho nominate*! Oliver Cromwell lord protector of the three king- 
doms, invested him wilh the power of making peace, war, and alli- 
ance, and authorized a standing army of 3t),UO0 men to be kept up 
for the support of government. His administration was despotic, 
vigorous, and spirited. He maintained the honour of the nation in 
the war with the Dutch, compelling them to yield the honour of tHe 
dag, and to compensate to the India company all its losses. He was 
successful likewise in his negotiations with Vrance and Spain. But 
in his domestic government he was traversed by his parliaments, 
whom it cost him a continual struggle, and even violence, to keep in 
order. One parliament, properly prepared, voted him the regal 
title, which, by the council ot his best friends, he was forced, most 
unwillingly, to' refuse. In recompense of this self-denial, the parlia 
ment confirmed his title of protector, with a fixed revenue, an<l de- 
creed his right of appointing a successor. He was king in all but 
the name. 

6. By consent of parliament Cromwell appointed a house of lords ; 
but all the ancient peers declined the proffered honour. He was 
forced to choose peers tVom the commons ; and thus he lost the ma- 
jority in the lower house. His temper soured with disappointment, 
a prey to chagrin, and in continual tear of assassination, he I'eli at 
length into a mortal disease, and died in the fiily-ninth year of his age. 
September 3, 1,638. 

7. Richard Cromwell, son of Oliver, succeeded to the protectorate 
by his fathers appointment He was a man of weak understanding 
and facile temper, utterly untit for his hazardous situation, which 
accordingly he maintained onlv tor a few months, resigning his othee 
on the 22d of April, 1,659. His brother Henry, viceroy of Irelanc, 
immediately followed his example. The family of the Cromwells, 
whicn the talents of one man had elevated above the sovereigns of 
their country, returned to its original obscurity. 

3. The remains of that nominal parliament which had nut the king 
to death, termed, in derision, the nunp^ was now dissolved by the 
council of olhcers. Of these every aspiring individual had his own 
separate views of ambition. Intrigue, cabal, and anarchy, were univer 
saf; and the nation, looking forward with horror to a series of calam 
ities, began earnestly to desire the restitution of its ancient govern- 
ment. George Monk, commander of the army in Scotland, judged 
tho?e symptoms favourable tor restoring the exiled monarch to the 
throne of his ancestors. Marching his army into England, he declar- 
ed his resolution to bring about the election of a tree parlianieut, 
which all men knew to be synonymous with the r n of the 

king. It was ot course violently opposed by the i pj^rty, 

who even attempted to excite a"ne\v civil war; but u.. , .w .c forced 
at length to acquiesce in the measure. A free parliament was assem- 
bled, and a message was presented from Charles, offering a full in 
demnjty, complete liberty of coascience, and payment of all arrears 
to the army. The mess-.ige was received with transports of joy, and 
Charles 11. was proclaimed king on the 29th day of May, 1,660. 



MODERN HISTORY. 209 

SECTION LV UI. 
THE REIGNS OF CHARLES II. AND JAMES II. 

1. The nation, without imposing any terms on their new sove- 
reign, trusted implicitly to his good dispositions. Charles v^as humane 
ana complacent, but indolent, luxurious, and prodigal; and therefore 
was neither able to support the national honour abroad, nor to com- 
mand obedience and respect to his domestic government. The sale 
of Dunkirk was a measure offensive to the pride of ihe nation. A 
war with Holland, supported at a vast expense, and n?ainiained in 
many desperate but indecisive engagements, was attended hnallj 
with' no material benefit. By the treaty of Bieda, concluded in 1,667, 
New York was secured to the English, the isle of Polerone to the 
Dutch, and Acadia in North America to the French. 

2. The sale of Dunkirk, and the unsuccessful issue of the war) 
attributed to the counsel of the earl of Clarendon, procured the di;&- 
grace and banishment of that illustrious man, 1,667. The peace was 
scarcely concluded with Holland, when England joined with her an I 
Sweden in a triple alliance, to oppose the progress of the arms of 
Lewis XIV. in the Low Countries; and that object being attained by 
Ihe treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1,668, the French monarch gained 
the English over to his interest in a new war against the Dutch, 
which brought their republic to the brink of destruction. 

3. The domestic administration of Charles was embroiled from 
various causes, originating in the personal character and dispositions 
of the sovereign. He trusted to profligate and worthless counsellors. 
His arbitrary notions of government, and the partiality which he 
showed to the catholics, gave perpetual alarm and uneasiness to a 
great proportion of his subjects. Complaints resounded from every 
quarter; and the parliament required a test-oath, abjuring popery, 
from all persons in public employment. On refusal to take this oath, 
the king's brother, James duke of York, was deprived of his office 
of high admiral. 

4. Titus Oates, a worthless impostor, pretended to have discov- 
ered a plot of the catholics for assassinating the king, burning Lon- 
don, massacring the protestants, and placing the duke of York on 
the throne. Another villain, named Bedloe, joined his evidence 
to that of Oates; and on their perjured testimony, id^terward fully 
exposed, a few miserable priests sutiered death. A new test was 
imposed, which excluded all papists from both houses of parliament. 
The treasurer Danby was impeached for advising the last peace with 
France, though it was proved that he had acted by his sovereign's 
orders ; and a bill passed the house of commons, excluding the duke 
of York from the succession to the crown. A more important bill 
for the general liberty, the act of habeas corpus was the work of the 
same session of parliament. (Sect. LIX., § 14.) 

5. The distinguishing epithets of xvfiig and ton/ were now first 
kno\vn ; the former, the opposers of the crown, a'gainst the latter, 
its partisans ; and each party, as in all factions, carried its principles 
to an extreme. The whigsL, predominant in the next parlianTcnt, 
raged with fury against the catholics, and insisted on the king's assent 
to the bill for the exclusion of his brother. His only expedient was 
to dissolve the parliament, but he found their successors equaJJy vic- 
S? 27 



810 MODERN HISTORY. 

lent After various fruitless attempts to conciliate tiielr favour to hh 
meusures, a dissolution ol" this parliament ensued, the last which 
Charles assembled. 

6. But the great cause of dissatisfaction remained. The duke of 
York \v;ls at the bottom of all the measures of government. A con- 
suiracy was formed by Shaftesbury, Russel, Sydney, and the dtdic of 
xMoninoulb, natural son of the king, on the pn'tence of vindicating 
the national liberties. It was discovered by one of the associates, 
and Kussel and Sydney suffered capital punisliment. The detection 
of tliis conspiracy strengthened the authority of the sovereign. The 
duke of York was restored to his ofhce of high admiral, and tacitly 
acknowledged as the successor to the crown. Charles II. died on 
ti)e tith of February, 1,685, in the 55th year of his age, and the 23th 
of his reign. 

". The duke of York succeeded to the throne by the title ot 
James II. His reign was short and inglorious. He was the instni 
ment of his own mislbrtunes, and ran headlong to destruction. The 
catholics at this time were not the hundret'ih pant of the nation. 
yfii James was weak enough to make the desperate attempt of sub 
stituting the popish failii in room of the protestant. Discarding the 
nobility from his councils, he was directed solely by Romish priests. 
In the very outset of his reign he expressed his contempt of the au- 
thority of parliament, and a tirm purpose to exercise an unUmited 
despotism. 

8. The duke of Monmouth, having excited a new rebelUon, was 
defeated, made prisoner, and beheaderl ; and the most inhuman 
rigour was exercised in the punishment of all his partisans. T.he 
parliament was in general submissive to the king's will, which for a 
while met with no opposition nor control. A declaration was pub 
lished, establishing full liberty of conscience in matters of religion; 
and several bishoj)S, who refused to publish it in their diocesses, 
were committed to prison. A catholic president was appointed to 
one of the colleges at Oxford. An ambassador was sent to the ipope, 
and a papal nuncio received in London. The catholics openly boast- 
ed that theirs would soon be the religion oi" the slate. 

6. James had three children; Mary, the wife of the stadtholder 
William prince of Onmge ; Anne, married to prince George of Den- 
mark; and James, an intant. The stadtholder had considered his 
right to the crown of England as certain before the birth of this 
inlimt, and, after that event, projected still to gain it by arms or in- 
trigue ; tiie infatuation of the king and the general discontent of the 
people giving hini the most liattering invitation. James was inform- 
ed of those views of his son-in-law, but would give them no credit, 
till actually apprized of his landing with an army, November 15th 
1,(388. ^ . . L 

10. The principal nobihty and officers immediately joined the 
standard of the prince of Orange; and James was at once abandoned 
by his people, ministei-s, favourites, and his own children. Leaving 
London in disguise, he was discovered and brought back by the pop- 
ulace , but tiie prince ol" Orange wisely favoured his escape, and he 
(bund means a lew days after, to convey himself to France. 

11. The throne being declared vacant, it was proposed in a con- 
vention-parliament, that the crown should be settled on the princess 
Mary and her issue, her husband governing as regent, whom failing, 
on the princess Antie. The stadtholder declining the otiice of regent, 
it wa* linally resolved to confer" the crown on the prince and prin- 



^ MODERN HISTORr. SU 

cess of Orange, the former to have the sole administration of the 
gorernment. 

12. To this settlement was added a declaration fixing the rights of 
tlie subject and the royal prerogative. Of this the most important 
articles are the following. The king cannot suspend the laws, nor 
their execution ; he cannot levy money without consent of parlia- 
ment; the subjects have right to petition the crown; a standing 
army cannot be kept up in time of peace but by conseiit of parlia- 
ment ; elections and parliamentary debate must be free, and parlia- 
ments must be frequently assembled, &lc. Such was the tinal settle- 
ment of the British govempient at the great era of the revolution. 
At this period, when the constitution became fixed and determined, 
we finish the sketch of the history of our own country. 

SECTION LIX. 

ON THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION. 

1. The rudiments of the constitution of England may be traced as 
far back as the Norman conquest. William distributed a great pix)- 
portion of the lands among his Norman followers, gubjecting these, 
as well as the Anglo-Saxons who retained their property to the fcu- 
dal tenures, and thus extinguishing at once the ar.cient Uberties of the 
people. England was divided into 60,215 mihtary fiefs, all held 
of the crown, under the obligation of the vassafs taking arms for 
his sovereign whenever required. In the continental kingdoms of 
Europe, as in France, the feudal system arose by slow degrees, nor 
was there of consequence the same union of the fabric as in 
England. The feudal lords were independent of one another, ever 
at variance from their mutual pretensions, and often owning but a 
very slender allegiance to the crown. Their vassals suffered from 
oppression, and often struggled for their freedom ; but those efforts 
being partial produced no consequence favourable to the liberty of 
the nation. In England all v.'ere oppressed by the enoi-mous weight 
of the crown ; it was a common grievance, and produced at times a 
violent effort for the general liberties of the people. 

2. The forest-laws imposed by the conqueror (Sect. XV., § 2, 11.) 
were a grievance felt by the whole nation, as rendering every man's 
property precarious, and subject to the arbitrary encroachments of 
the crown. It was no wondej-that the barons and their vassals should 
cordially unite to rid themselves of so intolerable a hardship. Henry 
I. found it necessary to conciliate his subjects, by mitigating the most 
rigorous of the feudal laws. A greater advance was made under 
Henry II,, by the institution of the trial by jury. But John impru- 
dently resisting this natural progress toward a rational freedom, was 
soon compelled into those important concessions, the C/uirta de Foresta 
and JVktgna Charta. From that time the constitution of England was 
that of a limited monarchy, whatever we may judge of the actual 
government, which was often most arbitrary and despotical. 

3. The next memorable era in the progress of the English consti- 
tution was the reign of that weak prince Henry III., when the par- 
liament received a new form, bv the admission of the i<ipresentatives 
of the people, the deputies of the counties and boroughs. (Sect, 
XXII., <5 2.) His successor Edward 1. acknowledged their authority 
in obtaining all his subsidies, and ratified a new law which declared^ 



212 MODERN lilSTORY. 

that no tax should be levied without the consent of lords and com- 
moris. The Alagna C/uirta was conHrmed no less than eleven times 
in the course of this reign. 

4. Thuy the constitution continimd advancing till its progress was 
suspended by the civil ware ol' York and Lancaster. T ne rights oi 
both prince and people seemed then to be entirely forgotten; and 
the race of Tudor found no resistance trom parliament to their vigor- 
ous and despotic sway. The talents of Lliznbeth, and the high 
character which her government sustained with foreign powers, ex- 
tinguished all domestic disquiets, while the j>redominant feeling was 
the maintenance of the power and dignity ot the crown. 

.5. But under the succeeding prince, when his power and dignity 
were abased by his own weakness, the nation began to awake iVom 
its lethargy ; and that spirit of opposition, which in this rei^n con- 
fined ilseh to complaints, in the next broke forth with alarming vio- 
lence. Charles I., endowed with superior energy of character, acted, 
as he conceived, on a principle of duty, which obliged him to main- 
tain the prerogative ofhis predecessors, and to transmit it unimpaired 
to his posterity ; but he was imprudent in exerting with rigour an 
authority which he wanted ultimate resources to support. He was 
compelled to sign the Petition nf Rights^ 3. grant more favourable to 
liberty than Ma;^na Charta. The true patriots were satisfied with 
this concession, which conferred the most ample constitutional free- 
dom. But the popular leaders made patriotism the cloak of insatia- 
ble ambition; and advanced in their demands with every new com- 
pliance. The last appeal was made to the sword, and the contest 
ended in the destruction of the constitution. 

6. The despotism which succeeded, and the fluctuation of power 
from the long parliament to the protector, and fimilly to the leaders 
of a standing army, afforded demonstrative evidence how vain w<vs 
the project of a republic, under which the demagogues had masked 
their designs. Weary of anarchy, the nation returned with high 
satisfaction to its former constitution, a limited monarchy. 

7. New encroachments under Charles 11. produced new limita- 
tions; and the act of //n6eas Corpus gave the utmost possible security 
to personal liberty. The violent and frantic invasion of the consti- 
tution by James 11.. banished himself and his posterity from the 
throne, and produced a new and solemn contract between the king 
and the people. Regarding, therefore, the revolution as the tinal 
settlement of the English constitution, we shall endeavour briefly to 
delineate the chief features of that great political structure. 

8. The constitution of Great Britain may be viewed under two 
distinct heads, the legislative power, and the executive power ; the 
Itist comprehending the prerogative of the crown. 

The power of legislation belongs to parliament, whose constituent 
parts are, the king, lords, and commons. The house of lords con- 
sists of the temporal peers of England, and ol the spiritual, or the 
two archhishops and twenty-four bishops. To these, since tlie 
unions with Scotland and Ireland, are added sixteen delegates from 
the peerage of the former kingdom, and thirty-two from the latter. 
The house of commons consists of the deputies or representatives 
of the counties and principal towns and boroughs of England, and 
the two universities, amounting in all to 513 members; to whom, 
since the unions, are added 45 Irom Scotland and lOU iVom Ireland. 
These deputies are chosen by the freeholders who possess a prop- 
erty yielding a certain yearly rent. Tho chancellor generally pre- 



MODERN HISTORY. 213 

sides in the liouse of lords ; the speaker is president in the house oJ 
commons. 

9. The king is the most essential component part of parliament, 
because he alone has the power to convoke, prorogue, and dissolve 
it. He has likewise a negative on all its acts, which are invalid 
without his approbation ; and each house.Jias a negative on the de- 
crees of the other. It is likewise competent to the king to propose 
any measure to be laid before the parliament. 

10. All questions regarding public affairs and national measures 
may originate in either house of parliament, except grants of money, 
which must always take their rise in the house of commons, and 
cannot be altered, though they may be reiected, by the lords. Any 
matter must be primarily discussed in thai house in which it origi- 
nates, and, until it is there decided, cannot be received by the other 
house, unless a conference should be demanded. A bill refused by 
either house is utterly void; and a bill passed by both houses is void, 
if refused by the king 

11. The executive power of government is vested in the king. 
(1.) The first branch of his office is the administration of justice. 
The judges of all courts of judicature are the king's substitutes. 
He is the prosecutor of all crimes, and has the power of pardoning 
and suspending the execution of all sentences. (2.) He is the foun- 
tain of all honour, the giver of all titles and dignities, and the dis- 
poser of all the offices of state. (3.) He is the superintendant of 
commerce, and has the power of regulating weights and measures, 
and of coining mCHiey. (4.) He is the head of the church, and 
names the archbishops and bishops. (5.) He is commander in 
chief of all the sea and land forces, and can alone equip fleets, levy 
armies, and appoint all their officers. (6.) He has the power of mak- 
ing war, peace, and alUance, and of sending and receiving ambassa- 
dors. (7.) He is above the reach of all courts of justice, and is not 
responsible to any judicature for his conduct in the administration ol 
government. 

12. These high powers of the sovereign, which, at first sight, 
would seem to render him an absolute monarch, are thus admirably 
controlled. The king is dependent on parliament ibr all subsidies, 
without which he. can neither maintain his fleets and armies, nor pay 
the salaries of officers. The parliament indeed settles a revenue on 
the. king for Ufe, but this is merely sufficient for the maintenance oi 
his household, and for supporting a proper dignity of establishment. 
As the king's revenue must be renewed by parliament at the begin- 
ning of every reign, it is in their power to withhold it till all abuses 
shall be remedied. At those periods therefore the constitution may 
be brought back to its first principles, and all encroachments '* the 
prerogative may be restrained. 

13. The king can never reign without a parliament. It must by 
law be assembled once in three yeare, on a notice of forty days 
before its meeting. Though the king is the head of the church, yet 
he cannot alter the established religion, nor frame ecclesiastical 
regulations. These must be made by the assembly of the clergy. The 
king cannot interfere in the ordinary administration of justice, nor 
refuse his consent to the prosecution of crimes. He may pardon 
offences, but cannot ejfempt the offender from pecuniary compensa- 
tion to the party injured. He cannot alter tlie standard of money, 
either in weight or alloy. He cannot raise an army without the con- 
sent of pprliament ; and though a moderate standing force is kept up 



«14 MODERN HISTOKY. 

with their couseut, yet the funds lor its payment require an annual 
renewal by parliament. Though the sovereign is not amenuble to 
any judicature, yet his ministers are responsible for all the measures 
of government, and are impenchable b^ the commonsi at the bard 
the house of lords, for every species ot misconduct or misdemeanour, 
'rhe tVeedom of parliamentary discussion is secured, because no 
member can be questioned for any opinions or words, except in that 
house of parliament in which they were uttered. 

14. The personal security and the rights of the subject are fur- 
ther guarded by these three peculiarities of the F3ritish constitution, 
tiie habeas corpus^ trial by juries, and the lit>erty of the press^ By 
the act of habcis corpus^ every prisoner must be brought before a 
judge, the cause of his detainer certitied, and the judge is authorized 
and bound to discharge him, if tlie cause of his imprisonment be in- 
sufficient or illegal. The violation of this statute is punishable by the 
highest penalties. The luibeas corpus may be suspended in times of 
danger to the state, as during the existence of a conspiracy or rebel- 
lion. Though this act does not extend to Scotland, yet the subjects ot 
that part of the united kingdoms are equally secured by their own 
laws. (Statute 1,701, c. 6.) 

15. All crimes must be tried bv a jury of twelve men in England 
and Ireland, and fifteen in Scotland. The prisoner has a right oi 
challenging or objecting to the jurors ; and (except in Scotland), with- 
out showing any cause, he may challenge twenty successively in or- 
dinary cases, and thirty-rive in cases of treason. The jtiry are judges 
both of the law and the fact; nor has the opinion of the court any 
weight in their decision, but such as they choose to give it. 

16. The liberty of the press is a guardian of the constitution, be- 
cause it is competent for any individual to convey to the public his 
opinion of the whole conduct of government, and the merits of its con- 
ductors ; to canvass every counsel of state, and to examine every ptib- 
Uc .Treasure ; thus forcibly restraining all ministers and magistrates 
within the limits of their duty. It is further the guardian of injured 
innocence, and the redresser of all wrongs that evade the cognizance 
of law. Yet this most valuable ri^ht, if unrestrained, would be the 
source of the greatest mischief If it were allowable with impunity 
to assail the established government, to convulse society, to dissem- 
inate atheism, to injure the reputation, or to endanger the life and 
property, of individuals, by false accusations, there would be an end 
of all liberty and civil happiness. The liheriy o{ the press consists 
in this, that there is no examination of writings previous to the print- 
ing and publishing of them; but. after publication, such writings as 
ol^nd in any of the above particulai-s are ptmishable by law, on trial 
of the offence by jury. Thus the public is properly constituted the 
judge and censor of all writings addressed to itself 

17. Such are briefly the outlines of the admirable fabric of tiie 
Briiish constitution. Esto perpetua ! (//wy it exist for ever!) 



SECTION LX. 
OF THE PUBLIC REVENUE OP GREAT BRITAIN. 

1. The property belonging to the crown of Great Britain, which 
was anciently very great, and fully adequate to the maintenance of 
govenunent, consisted of domain-lands, tne first fruiti and tenth* of 



MODERN HISTOKV. 216 

church-benefices, the rents of vacant bishoprics and abbeys, the prof* 
its of military tenures, fines imposed in courts of justice, forfeitures, 
&.C. From alienations made by the sovereigns, and retrenchments of 
their prerogative, the property of the crown is now become so in 
considerable, that the king may be regarded as entirely dependent 
on the people for the support of his dignity, and the means of carry- 
ing on the business of the state. The public revenue, destined for 
these two purposes, arises now from the subsidies granted by the 
people. The supplies are voted by the commons, and the means 
of furnishing them, by taxes proposed by the chancellor, of the 
exchequer, must receive their sanction. 

2. Of these taxes some are annual, as the land tax and malt tax ; 
others are perpetual, as the customs, excise, salt duty, post-ofiice 
duty, stamps, house and windovy tax, duties on servants, hackney 
coacnes, pensions, ^c. The customs are a tax paid by the merchant 
on all imported and exported commodities ; the excise is an inUuid 
imposition, laid sometimes on the consumer, and sometimes on the 
retail seller. 

2. The produce of these taxes is, in the first place, destined to 
the payment of the interest of the national debt, and afterward to 
the ordinary support of government. 

The national debt arose soon after the revolution, when it was 
thought hazardous to impose annual taxes equal to the annual ex- 
pense of government, and more expedient to borrow large sums for 
the immediate service of the state, raising annually no more than 
to pay the interest of that debt. The same system has been since 
persevered in ; so that the national debt, which a century ago was 
16 millons, is now above 300 millions. To pay the interest of this 
enormous sum the produce of the taxes (excepting the malt and 
land tax) are primarily destined ; and as somewhat more is annually 
raised than the interest of the debt and the maintenance of govern- 
ment demand, the surplus constitutes a sinking fund ibr paying off 
the principal of the debt. 

4. The produce of the taxes, originally separate funds, is now 
thrown into two or three capital funds; one of which is mortgaged 
by parliament ibr the maintenance of the king's household and the 
civil list, namely, the salaries of otlicers of state, judges, and ambas- 
sadors, private expenses, pensions, &c. 

5. JNotwithstanding the little prospect of an extinction of the 
national debt, goverument maintains its credit, and will always find 
lenders, because the terms granted are beneficial, and the security is 
transferable; so that a lender can thus always obtain payment of'his 
principal sum, and frequently make gain by the iransi'ercijcc. The 
value of stock rises and falls from various occasional causes, as na- 
tional prosperity, or the reverse, plenty or scarcity of money, quan- 
tity ot public debt. On this variation is ibunded the practice ol 
stock-jobbing, that is, either buying and selling actual property in the 
public funds, which is a lawful speculation, or gaming and wagering 
on the price of stock, which is an illicit but common practice. The 
practice of stock-jobbing, even by the transference ol actual proper- 
ty, and far more by gaming on that which is fictitious, is prejudicial 
to commerce and manufactures, by engrossing a great part of the 
national wealth, repressing industry, encouraging fraud, and often 
tempting to the most treacherous and dangerous devices for raising 
and sinking the funtls. 



MODKKIS HIS'1X)KV 

SECTION LXl. 
HISTORY OF FRANCE UNDER LEWIS XIII. 

1. FpuOicB, which under Henry 1\'. had risen from a state of miser- 
able aii;ux;iiy to high prosperity and splendour, sunk, upon his death, 
into iveuitne!<s, faction, and disorder. Mary of Medici, regent in the 
minority of Ijcr sua Lewis Xlli., a weak woman, and of restless am- 
lution, tlisgu?ted liie nobility by her partiality for her ItiiUan courtiers 
Concini, her tirst minister, created marshald'Ancre, became so uni 
versally odious, that he was openly murdered in the Lourre, and 
hi^ boily torn to pieces. The queen was removed from Paris, and 
kej>t lor two years a prisoner at Blois, till relieved by the duke 
d'Lperaon, to serve his own purposes of ambition. The queen's party 
was at war with that of her son, and the whole kingdom in a state of 
anarchy. 

2. The genius of cardinal Richelieu, who was now brought into 
power by Mary of Medici, soon effected a wonderful change. He 
reconciled the mother and her son, soothed the contending tactions, 
and, on the king's assuming the government, directed every public 
measure to the complete re-establishment of the power and dignity 
of the monarchy. The party of the Calvinists, afienated by perst^ 
cution, attempted to throw off their allegiance, and to establish an iii- 
depemlent state of which Kochelle was to be the capital. Richelieu 
bargained with the Dutch to furnish a fleet for subduing their prot- 
estant trethren, arid the Dutch now fought as keenly for the catho- 
lic religion as they had lately fought for the protestant. The Eng- 
lish sent a fleet to the aid of the people of Rochelle, who for a year 
maintained a most obstinate siege against the French troops, com- 
manded by the cardinal in person. They were at length lorced to 
surrender. Rochelle and all the other protestant cities of France 
were stripped of their privileges, and their fortifications were de 
stroyed. Thus Calvinism was for ever crushed in France. 

3. Lewis Xlil., though a weak prince, saw his advantage in en- 
tering into all the great designs of his minister. Richelieu influ 
enced the politics of all Europe ; and the power of Austria was 
atta<:ked in Germany, Flanders, Spain, and lUily. His talents were 
equally displayed in active war, in foreign ncgotiatign, and in his 
domestic arrangements. Yet at this very time a formidable caba3 
was undermining him. Mary of Medici was jealous of the man 
whom she ha«l raised : and the duke of Orieans, the king's brother, 
sought to supplant him in power. Richelieu, with astonishing intre- 
pidity ol mind, repressed this conspiracy. Fortified h} the king's 
authority he seized the marshal de Marillac, one of his most danger 
ous enemies, at the head of his army ; and tried and put him to 
death by a lawless stretch of power. Orleans, apprehensive of n 
Similar late, fled trom the kingdom; and Mary of Medici, arresUtd 
and removed from court, ended her career of ambition in voluntary 
exile at Brussels. Orieau^ supported by the duke de Montmorenct 
attempted a rebellion ; but their army was defeated, and Montmo- 
re"ci executed for treason. The queen had taken part with the 
enendes ol the cardinal, who imprisoned her confessor, and seized 
and examined her jKipers. Anne of Austria was very near gharinF 
the fate of Mary of Medici ^ 



MODEKN HlSTORr. 217 

4. Amidst all this turbulence of foreign war and state cabal, Riche- 
Ueu cultivated literature, encouraged the sciences, instituted the 
French academy, and composed pieces for the theatre. The admin 
Mtration of Richelieu, though turbulent from taction and civil war 
was, on tlie whole, extremely giorious for France ; and sowed the 
se«ds of its splendour in the succeeding reign of Lewis XIV. The 
death of this great minister^ in 1,642, was soon after followed by the 
death of his sovereign Lewis XIIL, in 1,643. 



SECTION LXII. 

SPAIN UNDER PHILIP III. AND PHILIP IV. CONSTITUTION OF 
PORTUGAL AND OF SPAIN. 

1. From the death of Philip II. Spain declined in power, and, not- 
withstanding its great sources of wealth, the national finances were 
in the utmost disorder. Philip III. was forced to conclude a peace 
with the Dutch, and to restore to the house of Nassau its confiscated 
estates. With a weak and despicable policy he expelled from his 
kingdom all the Moors, who were the most industrious of its inhabi- 
tants, 1,610. This depopulation, with that already produced by its 
American colonies, rendered Spain a lifeless and enervated mass. 
Philip was entirely under the influence of his minister the duke of 
Lerma. 

2. The national weakness and disorders increased under Philip IV., 
who, equally spiritless as his father, was implicitly ruled by his min- 
ister Olivarez. His reign was a continued series of miscarriages and 
aefeats. The Putcli seized Brazil ; the French invaded Artois ; 
Catalonia revolted to France; and Portugal shook off its yoke, and 
became an independent kingdom. 

3. No revolution was ever eflected with such ease and celerity 
as that of Portugal. The people were disgusted with the rigorous 
and impolitic administration of Olivarez. The duke of Braganza, 
descended from the ancient kings of Portugal, had the command of 
the army. Instigated by the ambition of the duchess, and seeing the 
spirit of the nation favourable to his views, he caused himself to be 
proclaimed king at Lisbon. The Spanish guards were attacked and 
routed, and the chief partisans of the government put to death by 
the populace. All the principal towns Ibllowed the example of the 
capital, and soon after all the foreign settlements. From that era, 
1,640, Portugal became an independent sovereignty, after having 
been sixty years an appanage of the kingdom of Spain. 

4. The government of Portugal approaches to an absolute mon- 
archy. The consent of the states or cortes^ consisting of clergy, 
nobility, and commons, was formerly necessaiy to the imposition of 
taxes, and ti?e settlement of the succession to the crown. But this 
assembly, convoked only by the royal mandate, has for a long time 
ceased to meet. The ordinary business of government is transacted 
by the king and his council ot s!ate, which is appointed by himself. 
Ihe revenue of the crown aris' s from its domains, including the 
family estates of Braganza ; from 'he duties on exports and imports, 
from the taxes, and from a stated proportion of the gold brought from 
Brazil. The state of the commerce and manufactures of Portugal 
is extremely low. Though the soil and climate are favourable to 
cultivation, yet the agriculture of the kingdom is much neglected. 

T 2S 



S18 MODERN HISTORY. 

6. The rei|jns of Philip 111. and IV . of Spain, though an rra ot 
nRli(»nnl humiliation, derived some fame I'rom the state of Uter-Uure. 
Dramatic composition, poetry, romance, and even history, were 
riilliv.iled with threat success. Hut lliese pui-suits are in somi sort 
the ainusem.'nLs of indolence, which was iht pretlominant chan cter 
r>f ll»e pi'opie. This char.icler may have arisen iVoin two somcea. 
The to"TO|ii ol wealth poured in from Americii retarded, in the lower 
classes cloincsiic industry and manufactures, while it inrieased the 
pride A the gentry, and mule iheni disdain all occupation; and the 
de>pi)ti?m of the govenuuent strongly repressed all euleipribe .unl 
uclivitv in the people. 

6. The constitution of Spain, of which the sovereignty was In an- 
cient times elective, is now that of an absolute nuwarchy. Ihe 
crown is hereditary; though at dillerent times, as in l,G19and 1,713, 
there has been a new limitation of the succession made by the njon- 
arch. The Cortes^ or states of the kingdom, limited in former times 
the power of the sovereign; but Charles V. annihilated their author- 
ity, bv depriving the nobility and clergy oi their seat in those as- 
semblies. The remaining members, the deputies of the towns, are 
entirely under the control of the monarch. The king's council, or 
CoiLsejo Heal^ is the organ of government; but no department of the 
state has any constitutional power to regulate the will of the prince. 



SECTION LXIII. 

^AFFAIRS OF GERMANY FROM THE AliDlQATIOxN OF CHARLE3 
V. TO THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA. 

1. To preserve the connexion of the affairs of Germany with 
those of the other kingdoms of Europe, we mu?t return to the perio( 
of the abdication of Charles V., when the empire was disracted 
by the political factions and quarrels of its independent princj-.s, and 
by the contending sects of the catholics, Lutherans, and yal nnists. 
Fe"d'T;'r.c vainly attempted to reconcile tliose tactions, and to unite 
tf fc tnrec religions. Maximilian 11. had still less power to elixt this 
object than ius predecessor; noi was the state otaflairs c:iangcd 
durin.' the succeeding reigns of Uodolphus II and Matthias. A civil 
war of thirty years^ duration reduced tlie empire to exlreimty 
Under Ferdinand 11., a zealous catholic, the protestant states ot Bo. 
hernia, whi'-h had suffered under the government ot Matthias, con- 
ferred'thcir CDwn on the elector Palatine. Ferdinand, m revenge, 
deprived him l)0th of his crown and electorate. 

^> The protestant cause was declining last in Germany, and every 
Ihincr seemed to indicate success to the schemes ot I<erdinand lor it.^ 
enti^ annihilation, when it received new vigour Irom th«' interven- 
tion of Gustavtis Adolphus king of Sweden. This great prince do- 
feated the imperial generals, and carried the protestant banners triunri- 

• nhantly through Germany. The emperor was completely hiuribled, 

* and the elector Palatine was on the eve of restoration to his domm 
ion« when the heroic Gustavus was slain in the battle of Lutzem 
1 0^2 The war was successfully prosecuted hv the Swedish gener 
ais while cardinal Kichelieu harassed the house oi Austria both m 

^ 3^.^In°{he" su^iecding reign of Ferdinand 111., the protestanti of 



MODERN HISl'ORY. 219 

Germany found the most active support both from the Swedes and 
the French. The emperor was ibrced to conclude the peace of 
Westphalia in 1,648 ; and these powers dictated the terms. By this 
celebrated treaty all disputes were settled between the contending 
princes of the empire, and also between the contending religions ; 
the Swedes were indemnified for the charges of the war, and ac- 
quired Pomeronia, Stettin, Wismar, and other provinces, and their 
sovereign the dignity of prince of the empire ; its chief posses- 
sions were restored to the Palatine family ; tne king of France was 
made landgrave of Alsace ; and an equal establishment of the three 
religions was decreed. This salutary peace laid the foundation of 
the future greatness and prosperity of the German empire. 



SECTION LXIV. 
FRANCE UNDER LEWIS XIV. 

1. On the death of Lewis XIII. in 1,633, his son Lewis XIV. suc- 
ceeded to the throne in the fifth year of his age. Europe, as we 
have seen, was in a most turbulent slate ; and France, under the ad- 
ministration of Richelieu, acted a conspicuous part in exciting those 
general commotions. The queen mother Anne of Austria, appointed 
regent by the states, chose for her minister the cardinal Mazarin, an 
Italian, and from that circumstance odious to the people. The Span- 
iards, taking advantage of the king's minority and the popular dis- 
contents^ made an attack on Champagne ; but were deteated in a 
series of engagements by the great Conde. The marshal de Tu- 
renne shared with him the palm of glory. The peace of Westpha- 
lia composed those differences. 

2. At this very time the commotions of the Fronde broke out in 
Paris. The jealousy of Mazarin's power, felt by the nobility, the 
unpopularity of his measures, the disorder of the finances, and the 
oppression of new taxes, inflamed the nation ; and the intrigues of 
the coadjutor, afterwards cardinal de Retz, blew the flame into a 
civil war. The parliament of Paris took part with the rebels, who 
were headed by the prince of Conti, the dukes of Longueville and 
Bouillon, and the chief nobility. The queen and the Royal family 
removed to St. Germain's, and the ministerial party besieged Paris. 
Turenne, who at first supported them, was gained over by the 
rebels. The women, who are always concerned in the disturbances 
of France, acted a conspicuous part in those of the Fronde. A short 
pacification ensued ; but the imprudent violence of Mazarin soon re- 
newed the disorders. At length the parliament of Paris assumed 
the right of banishing this unpopular minister, who retired to the 
imperial dominions ; but his influence continued to regulate the 
measures of state. 

3. A change ensued on the king's coming of age, 1.652. De 
Retz and Orleans, the chief promoters of the rebellion, were ban- 
ished, and Mazarin resumed his station as mini'^ter. Conde had 
joined the Spaniards in an attack on the French Netherlands, but 
was overmatched by Turenne, who revenged this insult by the taking 
of Dunkirk and several fortified towns under the Spanish govern- 
ment. Ky convention with Cromwell, Dunkirk had been ceded lo 
(he English, and afterwards sold to France by Charles II., as has been 
related. 



««0 MODERN HISTORY. 

4. The war wJth Spain ended in 1 ,659, by the peace of the Py 
renees. Many cessions were made on both «i(les, but France kept 
Koussillon and part of Artois. It wa^ stipulated that Lewis XIV. 
should marry the infanta, daughter of l-'iulip IV., but should renounce 
all ri^ht wliich might thence open to the crown of Spain. 

5. The treaty ol the Pyrenees gave peace to the south of Europe. 
The wars in the north between Sweden, Poland, and Denmark, 
»vhich arose after the abdication of Cliristina of Sweden, were termi- 
nated in the year following by the treaty of Oliva. Christina, a sin 
giilar, but not a great woman, held the sceptre of Sweden for t>\en- 
ty-two yeai-s atter tlie death of her lather, Gustavus Adolphuc?. At 
length, tired of the cares of government, and affecting a passion for 
literature and philosophy, she resigned the crown to her cousin. 
Charles X., in 1,654. Soon after this event Casimer king of Poland 
was induced by age and sickness to abdicate the throne, after an hon- 
ourable reign. 

6. Mazarin died in 1,661, and Lewis XIV^ entered on a vigoroua 
and splendid career. The tinances, u^hich from the time of Heni-y IV. 
had been in extreme disorder, were admirably regulated by Colbert; 
and the commerce and manufactures of the kingdom, wisely en- 
couraged by government, were soon in the most tlourisliing situation. 
The canal of Languedoc joined the bay of Biscay and the Med- 
iterranean; the principal sea-ports were enlarged and fortitied; and 
the internal police of the kingdom was regularly and strictly enforc- 
ed. At the same tin)e the arms ot France aided England against the 
Dutch. Germany against the Turks, and Portugal against Spain. 

7. On the death of Philip IV., Lewis, pretending that Spain had 
failed in payment of th<; dowry of his queen, besieged and took Lisle, 
with several other fortitied towns of 1- landers; and in the next cam- 

f)aign made himself master of Franche-Comte. Lewis marched with 
iis armies, but the glor}' of these conquests was owirig to Turenne 
and V^aub.an. The triple alliance I'ormed by England, Holland, and 
Sweden, checked this career, and brought about the treaty of Aix- 
ia-Chapel4e, 1,668, by which Lewis, though he retained Flanders, 
restored Franche-Comte, and contirmed the peace of the Pyrenees. 

0. The strength and prosperity of the kingdom continued to 
increase under the able administration of Colbert and Louvois. The 
civil factions of Holland betwoen the stadlholder and the party of 
the De Wits, tempted Lewis to undertake the conquest of tliat coun 
try. England, Germany, and Sweden, lavoured his views. He 
o\ernm the provinces of Utrecht, Overysscl, and Guelderland, and 
advanced almost to the gates of Amsterdam, when the Dutch inun 
dated the country by letting in the sea, and Ihe French were forced 
to retreat. 

9. The confederate powers now became jealous of the ascendan- 
cy of Fi.ance; and the prince of Orange had suiVicient iniiuence 
with England, and both branches of the house of Austria, to obtain 
their alliance in aid of the republic. The arms of Lewis, however, 
continued to be successful, and the peace concluded at Nimeguen, 
in 1,678, was much to the honour of France. Franche-Comte was 
assured as a part of hor donjinions, and Spain allowed her right by 
conquest to a great proportion of the Netherlands. 

10. Notwithstanding the peace, Lewis, with the most culpable 
insincerity, seized Strasburg, and secretly assisted the Hui;garians 
and Turks in their attack on the imperial dominions. Vienna must 
have lallen into the hands of the Turks, if it had not been seasonably 



MODERN HISTORY. 221 

relieved by the victorious arms of John Sobieski king of Poland, in 

U. One of the weakest and most impoUtic measures of Lewis 
XIV., was the revocation of the edict of Nantes, granted by Henry 
IV. for the toleration of the protestants. While their woi-ship was 
suppressed, their churches demolished, and their ministers banished, 
the protestant laity were forbidden, under the most rigorous penal- 
ties, to quit the kingdom, 1 ,685. France, however, by this measure, 
lost above 500,000 of her most industrious and useful subjects ; and 
tlie name of Lewis XIV. was execrated over a great part of Euit)pe. 
Not long after this time a similar excess of intolerant bigotry pre- 
cipitated James 11. from the throne of Britain, and forced him to seek 
an asylum from the monarch of France. 

12. William prince of Orange, the inveterate enemy of Lewis, 
brought about the league of Augsburg, 1,686; and the war was 
renewed with France by Germany, Spain, England, and Holland. 
The French arms were still successful. Luxemburg defeated 
William in the battles of Steenkirk and Nerwinden; Noaille? was 
victorious in Spain; and an army of 100,000 French ravaged the 
Palatinate, and took many of the most important towns on the Rhine. 
This was the crises of the glory of Lewis, whose fortunes were to 
sustain the most mortifying reverse. 

13. Those various and most extensive military enterprises, how 
ever flattering to the pride of the monarch, had been attended with 
enom>ous expense, and no solid advantage to the nation. The 
finances had fallen into disorder after the death of Colbert, and a 
peace was absolutely necessary. By the treaty of Ryswick, concluded 
in 1,697, Lewis restored to Spain all the conquests made in the two 
last wars, several towns to the emperor, the duchy of Lorraine to its 
duke, and acknowledged the right of William to the crown of Eng- 
land. 

14. The succession of the kingdom of Spain, on the expected 
death of Charles II., without issue, was now the object of political 
intrigue. The emperor and the king of France had the only natural 
right of succession ; but William III., of England, from the dread 
oisuch an increase of power to either, proposed a treaty of partition 
of the Spanish dominions, at home and abroad, between the elector 
of Bavaria, the dauphin, and the emperor's second son. Charles II. 
chose rather to make his own destination, and appointed by will that 
the duke of Anjou, second son of the dauphin, should inherit Spain; 
on whose death without issue, it should devolve on the archduke 
Charles, youngest son of the emperor. 

15. On the death of Charles the duke of Anjou succeeded to the 
throne of Spain, in virtue of this settlement. The emperor, the 
king of Eng^land, and the Dutch, proposed to separate from his 
crown the Spanish dominions in Italy. In this enterprise pnnce 
Eugene, son of the count de Soissons, commanded tne imperial 
troops, an illustrious renegado from France, of great prowess and 
military skill. 

16. James II. of England died in 1,701 at St. Germain's, and Lewis 
gave mortal offence to the government of that country by acknowl- 
edging the title of his son. On the death of king William in the 
year lollowmg war was declared by England, Holhmd, and the em- 
pire, against France and Spain. Lewis XIV^. was now in the decline 
of lii'e. He had lost the ablest of his ministers and his greatest gen- 
erals. The finances of the kingdom were exhausted. The annies 

t2 



«S MODERN HISTORY. 

of his enemies were commanded by Eugene and the duke of Marl 

borouwii, the ablest generals of the age, and supported by the treas- 
ures ol the united powers. iSavoy andPorlugal joined thi}< formiilable 
coiitedency, to overwhelm both branches of the house of Bourbon 
and place the emperors »on on the throne of Spain. 

17. Marlborough took Venlo, Kuremonde, and Liege. Eugene 
Rfid Marlborough defeated Tallard anu Marsin, with the elector o* 
Bavaria, in the signal battle ot Blenheim, 1,704. England and Hol- 
land att.icked Sp^iin by sea and land. Catalonia and Valencia were 
sulnJiied in six weeks. Gibndter w.is taken by the Engli>h, an-l 
ha» ever since remained in their possession. In the battle of Kami- 
lies Marlborough defeated Villcroy, and left20,U0U dead on the held. 
'1 he contest, at first doubtful in Itiily, ended alike disastrously for the 
house of Bourbon. The archduke Charles was in the mean tini'* 
proclaimed king at Madriil ; and Philip V. had serious thoughts of 
abandoning S|)ain, and establishing his dominion in America. Bjt 
the successes of the duke of Berwicli, natural son of James 11., recov- 
ered for a while his desponding spirit^ and even prompted his gnind- 
fatber Lewis to avenge himself on England, by aiding the biHd but 
desperate enterprise of estiiblishing tne pretended Jan.es on the 
throne of Britain. 

18. But France and Spain ^vere daily losing ground. The pope 
had acknowledged the title of the archduke Charles; the English 
seized the Mediterranean islands ; and Lewis, fallen from all his 
proud pretensions, humbly entreated a peace, which was refused, 
unles^^ on the condition of dethroning hisgraixlson with his own anoft. 
He maintained for a while this unequal contest, and was at lenftb 
forced to propose terms equally humiliating ; the cession of all his con 
quests in the Netherlands and on the Rhine ; the acknowledgment ol 
the archduke's title to the crown of Spain; and a promise to give no 
aid to his grandson. But these terms were relused, and the inhuman 
condition still insisted on, that he should assist in dethroning iiis 
grandson. A last exertion was made in Spain under the duke of 
V'endome, at the head of a prodigious anny ; and the victory ob- 
tained by the French at \ illa-vitiosa restored Philip V. to the throne 
of Spain. His ct-mpetitor, the archduke, soon aller became em- 
peroi , on the death of his elder brother. 

19. The intrigues of the cabinet of queen Anne, and the coming 
in of a tory ministry, changed the politics of Europe. It was re- 
solved to make peace with France and Spain, and the treaty was 
concluded at Utrecht in 1,713. It was stipulated that Philip king 
of Spain should renounce all eventual right to the ciown of France, 
and his brother to the crown of Spain. The Dutch obtained an ex- 
tension of frontier, an<l the emperor a great part of Spanish Flanders. 
The English gained iVom Spain, Gibraltar and Minorca, and from 
France, Acadia, Newfoundland, and Hudson^ Bay, With the demoUtion 
Df the harbor of Dunkirk, hi the following year, a peace was con- 
cluded at Rctstadt between France and the empire. 

20. The conclusion of this j)eac€ after an honourable war, was 
the most memorable event in the reign of queen Anne, if we except 
the union of the two kingdoms of England and Scotland, in 1 ,706, which 
was brought about by the negotiation of commissioners mutually 
chosen, to secure the rights of each kmgdom in the best manner for 
their mutual benefit. It was stipulated that both should be represent 
f d by one parliament (Sect. LIX., § 8), that they should have the 
same privileges with respect to commerce, and that each kingdom 



MODERN HISTORY. 223 

eboald retain its own laws and established religion. The succession 

to the crown was limited lo the house of linnovcr. Queen Anne 
died on the :50th of July, 1,714. Lewis XIV. dii-d on ihe Isl oi 
September, 1,715, in tlie 78lh year of hi:? ;ige. lie was a priiK'" of 
great vigour of mind, of good talents, though unimproved \>\ educa- 
tion, of diguitied yet amiable manners. His grealcsl liiuU was iiur*-- 
dinate ambition, to which he sacriticed the real interests of his ptople. 
(t was his highest honour, that he discerned and recompensed every 
species of merit, t ranee was in his time equally illustrious by the 
great military talents of her generals, and by the splendour of liter- 
ature and of the arts and sciences. 



SECTION LXV. ^ 

OF THE CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE UNDER THE MONAR- i 

CHY. 

1. It is necessary for understanding the history of France, that 
we should have some accjuaintance with its former monarchical con- 
stitution : we shall theretore briefly trace the progress of the gov- 
ernment under the different races of its sovereigns. The regal pre- 
rogative was extremely limited under the Merovingian priu'.es. 
(Sect. 11., 111.) The general assembly of the nation had tl)e right of 
electing the sovereign, and the power of legislation. Under the 
Carlovingian race the authority acquired by Fepin and Charlemagne 
sunk to nothing in the hands of their weak posterity ; and though 
tlie crown had ceased to be elective, the regal dignity was a mere 
sliadow. 1'he power of the state had passed into the hands of a 
turbulent aristocracy, ever at variance among themselves, and uniting 
only to abase the crown and to oppress the people. 

2. Under the third or Capetian .race the crown acquired more 
weight, and many of the sovereigns exerted a proper spirit in re- 
straining the power of the nobles, and in punishing their lawle.es 
outrages. To balance the weight of the aristocracy Philip the fair 
introduced the third estate to the national assemolies, which for 
above four centuries had consisted only of the nobles and clergy. 
The chief power of the state began now to shift to the scale of tlie 
monarch. The national assembly interfered rather to r.ilify than to 
decree ; and in the fifteenth century the right of legislation was under- 
stood to reside wholly in the crown. The right of taxation seemed 
to Ibllow of course. The ass»?mbUes or states-general were now 
rarely convened, and from the reign of Lewis Xlll. were discontinued. 

3. "But another power gradually rose in the state, which in some 
measure supplied the function of the assemblies in limiting the royal 
prerog.itive. The parliaments were originally the. chief courts'ol 
justice in the territory where they were established. The parlia- 
ment of Paris naturally claimed a higher respect and dignity than 
the parliaments of the provir.ces; and, acquiring a right of "appoa! 
from their decrees, was considered as the paramount Jurisdiciion, 
and the depository of the laws of the kingdom. The sovereigns of 
France, on tii-st assuming the powers of legislation and taxatii.n, pro- 
duced their edicts to be registered in the court of the parliament of 
Paris, and frequently consulted with its members on momentous 
affairs of state, as in questions of peace, war or alliance. Thus the 



te MODEltN HISTORY. 

nation began to regard the parliament of Paris as a body whic< 
shared the powers of government nith the monarch. In the lattei 
reigns the parliament availed itself of that general opinion, and made 
ft bolJ stand in opposing an}' arbitrary stretches of the king's author 
ity, by refusing to veriiy and register his edicts. 

4. But as this power of the parliament was in reality a usurpation, 
it was constantly a subject of dispute. The members of this court 
were in no sense the representatives of the people, nor vested with 
any portion of the constitutional authority of the national assemblies. 
They were in the king's nomination, removable by him at pleasure, 
and even subject to entire annihilation as a body at his command. 
Even without so violent a remedy, the sovereign could at any time 
frustrate their opposition to his will, by personally appearing in the 
hall of parliament, and commanding liis edict to be registered. 

5. Yet a power thus easily defeasible had its advantages to the 
state, and operated as a considerable restraint on the royal authority. 
Considering itself as the guardian ot the public liberty, it remonstrat- 
ed against all arbitrary encroachments of tlie crown, and by giving 
alarm to the nation, furnished an opposition suihciently powerful to 
obtain its ends. The provincial parliaments, though they likewise 
registered the royal edicts, never assumed any similar authority. 
TTiey were only tlie chief courts of civil judicature. 

6. The king of France was therefore to be considered as an ab- 
solute monarch, whose authority was in some degree limited by the 
consuetudinary regulations of the state, and could not easily bec-me 
entirely despotic and tyrannical. The crown was herecfitary, bu' 
could not descend to a iemale, nor to a natural son. The royal rev 
enue was partly fixed and partly arbitrary. The fixed revenue com 
prenended the royal domains, the duties on wines and salt, the land 
tax, capitation tax, and gift of the clergy ; the other arose from all 
other taxes which the monarch thought fit to impose, and from the 
sale of offices. Most of these duties were leased out to the farmers- 
general. 

7. The Gallican church, though catholic, and acknowledging 
the spiritual authority of the pope, had greatly abridged his ancient 

Srerogatives within the kingdom. The assembly of the church 
eclared, in 1,682, that no temporal sovereign could be deposed by 
the pope, nor subjects absolved from their allegiance : it decreed the 
subjection of the pope to the coimcils of the church, and denied his 
infallibility when in opposition to the canons of those councils. The 

Cope had no power to levy money in France without the royal 
cense. In short, the ecclesiastical authority was in all repects suK 
ordinate to the civil. 



SECTION LXVl 

OF PETER THE GREAT, CZAR OF MUSCOVY, AND CHARLES 
XII., KING OF SWEDEN. 

1. Two most illustrious men adorned the north of Europe in the 
latter part of the age of Lewis XIV., Peter the great of Muscovy, 
and Charles Xll. of Sweden. 

Russia is said to have received the light of Christianity m the 
tenth century, but its history is utterly unkno>vn till the middle of 



MODERN HISTORY. 226 

the hfteenth. At that period John Basilowitz redeemed the empire 
from its subjection to the Tartars, and extended its limits. His suc- 
cessors maintained a considerable splendour as sovereigns ; but theii 
dominions were uncultivated, and their subjects barbarians. Alexis 
Michaelowitz, father of Peter the great, was the first who published 
a code of laws. At the end of the sixteenth century Siberia was 
added to the empire, which till that time had been bounded by the 
limits of Europe. 

2. Peter, the youngest son of the emperor Alexis, became mas 
ter of the empire in 1,689, by setting aside a weak elder brother 
and banishing a factious sister who had seized the government. He 
Wcis uneducated, and his youth had been spent in debauchei-y ; but 
his new situation immediately displayed his talents, and gave birth to 
the wisest plans for the improvement of a barbarous people. The 
army and navy demanded his first attention. He began by breaking 
the turbulent "militia of the Strelitzes, and by degrees Ibrmed a regu 
lar army of 12,000 men on the strictest model of discipline. He em 
ployed some Dutchmen to build a small fleet, and made the first ex- 
periment of his arms in taking Azof from the Turks in 1,696. 

3. Having gained the little instruction which he possessed from 
foreigners, Peter resolved to travel in search of knowledge. Ap- 
pointing Le Fort, an able Genevese, his ambassador, he travelled 
as a private person m his suite through Germany to Holland, and 
studied the art of ship-building, by working in the docks with his 
own hands. Thence he passed to England, and in a similar manner 
acquired the knowledge of every art fitted for the improvement of 
his kingdom. The relative sciences were cultivated with the same 
ardour and success ; and in sixteen months he returned to Moscow to 
reduce those important acquirements into practice. 

4. Regiments were raised and trained to exercise on the German 
model • the finances arranged and systematized ; the church re- 
formed by new canons and regulations; the partriarchate abolish- 
ed ; and a much abused civil and criminal jurisdiction taken from 
the clergy. It was necessary to carry this reform even to the abo- 
lition of the national dress, and the suppression of ancient usages 
and habits of life, innovations reluctantly submitted to, but enforced 
by absolute power. 

5. While this greai genius was thus employed in new-modelling 
and polishing a barbarous empire, a competitor arose to dispute with 
him the sovereignty of the north, and to divide the admiration of 
Europe. Charles aII. succeeded to the throne of Sweden in 1,69;!', 
at fifteen years of age ; a prince whose singular heroism of character 
and extraordinary achievements have ranlced him with the greatest 
conquerors of antiquity. The situation of his kingdom speedily 
brought his genius into display. Russia, Poland, and Denmark, joined 
in a league to seize and divide his dominions. The attack was 
begun by the Danes on Holstein, while the king of Poland invaded 
Livonia, and the czar, Ingria. Charles immediately landed an army 
on Zealand, at the gates of Coj)enhagen, and in six weeks forced the 
king to purchase the safety of his capital and kingdom, by laying 
down his arms, and making full indemnity to the Juke of Holstein. 
He now hastened into Ingria, and at the battle of Narva defeated 
60,000 of the Russians, and took 30,000 prisoners. Such was the 
first campaign of Charles XII., then a boy of seventeen. 

6. Poland was destined to receive a more humiliating chastise- 
ment. Charles reducedCourland and Lithuania,penctrated into the 



K6 MODERN HISTORY. 

heart of the kingdom, and subdued the capitals of Warsaw and Cra» 
cow. He then assembled the states, dedaned king Augustus de- 
posed, and signified his pleasure that Stanlshius, his own dependant, 
should be elected sovereign of Poland. The factions of the king 
dom aided this revolution, and the will of Charles was complied 
with. The deposetl king retired to his electoral dominions of 
Saxony. 

7. A negotiation begun with the czar was abruptly terminated by 
Charles, who declared that he would negotiate only at Moscow. 
Entering the Russian dominions with 45,000 men, he was in the way 
of executing his threat, when he was induced, by a treacherous 
promise of aid from the Cossacks, to march throi^h the Ukraine in 
the dejpth of winter. His army was wasted by fatigue and famine, 
when ne was encountered by the czar at Pultowa; and the fate of 
Russia, Sweden, and Poland, hung upon that battle. Charles was 
entirely defeated: 9,000 Swedes tell in the field, and 14,000 were 
taken prisoners, 1,709. Augustus was restored to the throne oi 
Poland, and the czar took possession of Finland and Livonia. 

8. With the wreck of his army, reduced to 1,800 men, Charles 
retreated into the Turkish dominions, and formed a camp near Ben- 
der. H»* endeavoured to prevail^ upon the grand seignior to arm 
against the czar, and succeeded after a long negotiation. Two hun- 
dred thousand Turks took the field, and the czar's army, far inferior 
in number, was surrounde J, and, after inetl'ectual resistance, forced 
to capitulate to the grand vizier. The news of this capitulation de- 
stroyed all the hopes of Charles ; and his subsequent conduct seems 
the result of frenzy. The grand seignior having intimated his de- 
sire that the Swedes should quit his territories, Charles fortified his 
camp, and declared that he would defend it to the last extremity. 
After every means ineffectually tried to make him alter this resolu- 
tion, he was attacked by the Turkish army, and taken fighting sword 
in hand amidst a massacre of his troops. 

9 In the mean time the czjir and the king of Denmark were rav 
aging Sweden. Charles returned in disguise with two of his officers, 
to his own dominions, and immediately conceived the^ design of 
wresting Norway from Denmark. Failing in the outset of this enter- 
prise, he was persuaded by Gortz, his prime minister, to attempt to 
dethrone George II., to seize a part of nis continental dominions, and 
to place the pretender James on the throne of England. This 
project was concerted between Gortz and Alberoni, prime minister 
of Philip V. The czar joined in the scheme, and made peace with 
Sweden ; but an unforeseen event broke all tneir measures. In be- 
sieging the Norwegian fortress of Frederickshall, Ciiarles was killed 
by a canron-ball. on the 1 1th of December, 1,718. 

10. Sweden gained by the denth of Charles a reformation of her 
government, and a salutary limitation of the arbitrary power of the 
sovereign. His sister Ulrica succeeded to the throne, and raised to 
it her husband, Frederick landgrave of Ilcsse-Cassel. The states 
made peace with all the hostile powers. The czar was now engaged 
m a war with Persia, in the view of obtaining the command and 
commerce ot the Caspian. This object he accomplished, and gained, 
by cession from the sophi, three provinces of the Persian empire. 

Peter the great died January 28, 1,725, and was succeeded hy the 
czarina Catherine, l*ormely a Livonian captive, who possessed merit 
equal to her elevated station. His only son, Alexis Petrowitz, had 
been condemned to lose hw life for treason, and the mode of hia 



M0D£HN history. 227 

death, which immediately followed his condemnation, is unkncivn. 
Russia owes to Peter the great all those beneficial improvenientg 
which have raised her, within the period of a century, Irom barbii- 
rism and obscurity, to the highest raak among the powers of Europe. 



SECTION LXVU. 

A VIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE AND LITERATURE 
IN EUROPE, FROM THE END OF THE FIFTEENTH TO THE 
END OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 

1. V^E have seen how much literature and the sciences were in- 
debted to the art of printing for their advancement and disseminativin 
toward the end of the tiFteenth century. (Sect. XXX IV., § 12.; 
From that period classical learning, criticism, poetry, and history, 
m<ade a rapid progress in most of the kingdoms of Europe. Philos- 
ophy did not keep pace with literature. The dogmas of Aristotle 
had kept possession of the schools till the seventeenth century, and 
had engrafted themselves even on the doctrines of theology. It 
required a superior genius to dissipate the mist of error, and to 
break the fetters on all advancement in uselul science. Such was 
the great Bacon lord Verulam, the most profound philosopher, and 
perhaps the most universal genius, that any age has produced. We 
find in his works an estimate of the actual attainments in ail the 
sciencesj a catalogue of the desiderata in each department, and a 
detail of the methods best suited to prosecute improvement and new 
discoveries. In fine, we owe to Bacon the sure method of advanc- 
ing in knowledge by experiment and the observation of naturCj 
instead of system and conjecture. 

2. The philosophy of Bacon produced its effect only by slow de- 
grees. Gassendi, though he exposed the doctrines of Aristotle, was 
still a theorist, and attempted to levive the atomic system of Epicu- 
rus. Des Cartes followed in the same track, and reared a whimsical 
theory of the universe, produced, as he supposed, by the fortuilc4J9 
combination of atoms, moving in vortices throy.gh the immensity of 
space ; a theory recommended by the ingenuity with which it was 
supported, and its apparently solving many ot the jphenomena ol 
nature. A century before Copernicus had published his system oj 
the planets, which^ though condemned by the church, was received 
by Des Cartes and the best philosophers. 

3. Galileo, in 1,609, constructed telescopes (Sect. XXXIV., § 5), 
and discovered the satellites of the larger* planets, Jupiter and Saturn, 
and their motions, for which he was rew^arded by imprisonment, as a 
supporter of the Copernican heresy. Kepler investigated the laws 
which regulated the motions of the planets, and the analogy between 
their distances from the sun and periodical revolutions. Tne discov- 
eries in astronomy led to improvements in navigation, and a great ad- 
vancement of geometry in all its branches. Napier, in 1,614- abridg- 
ed calculation by the invention of logarithms. The Toricellian ex- 
periments determined the weight of the atmosphere. In 1,610 
Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood. 

4. The Royal Society, which originated from private meetings of 
the English philosophers, was incorporated by Charles II.. in l,662f 
and has greatly contributed to the advancement of the sciences and 



228 MODEKIN HISTOKY. 

useful arts. The Royal Academy of Sciences was instit»ited in 1,666 
by Lewis XIV. Simiiiir institutions were founded in most of the coua- 
tries of Europe; among which there is a communication of science, 
and a laudable emulation excited by the publication of theii transact 
tions. 

5. In the end of the seventeenth century arose the immortal Newton, 
who, by exhausting the most important discoveries of the laws of na 
ture, has rendered it impossible lor posterity to eclipse his fame. He 
bad discovered, before the age of twenty-four, the theory of universal 
gravitation, a principle which solves the chief phenomena of nature, 
and connects and regulates the whole machine of the universe. His 
theory of light and colours is the foundation of the whole science of 
optics, and his Frincipia the basis and elements of all philosophy. 

6. Locke, the contemporary of Newton, successfully applied lord 
Bacon's mode of investigation to the study of the human mind ; and, 
utterly rejecting the systems of the old philosophers, examined the 
soul by attending to its operations From the simple fact that all 
knowledge is progressive, and that an inlimt gains its ideas gradually 
through the medium of its senses, he drew the general conclusion, 
that there are no innate ideas in the mind, but that all are either im- 
mediate perceptions conveyed by the senses, or acts of the mind re- 
flecting on those perceptions ; a conclusion wnich has been obstinate- 
ly controverted, chietiy by drawing from it false consequences, but 
which has never yet been shaken. 

7. The progress of literature in the sixteenth and seventeenth 
centuries was equally remarkable with that of science and philoso- 
phy. Trissino was the tii^t of the moderns who composed an epic 
poem in the language of his country, U Italia liberata da God, ivod 
the first Italian who wrote a regular tragedy, Soplionisba. Of merit 
much superior to the epic poem of 'rrissino is the Lusiad of the 
Portuguese Camoens, a work abounding with passages of high poetic 
beauty, and displaying a sublime imagination. In the end of the six- 
teenth century Spain produced the Arauama of Ercilla, an epic poem 
of great inequality of merit, but frequently exhibiting novelty of 
figures and bold conceptions. The subject is a revolt of the Peru- 
vians against the Spaniards. 

8. But the principal epic poems of this age are the Orlando Fxir 
rioso of Ariosto, and the irienisalenime Liberata of Tasso : the former 
u work most irregular in its plan, most unconnected and desultory in 
its conduct, most extravagant and absurd in the characters of its per- 
sons, but displaying alternately every excellence of poetry in the 
various departments of the descriptive, comic, satiric, moral, and 
bublime. The Gierusaletnine of Tasso, of a regular plan and perfect 
polish in its structure, has been frequently brought in comparison 
with the equally highly finished poem of the jhncid ; nor does ine 
Italian suffer much in the comparison. There is a romantic charm 
both in the incidents and characters of his poem, which must ever ren- 
der it a favourite with all readers of genuine taste. 

9. From the time of Tasso the genius of epic poetry lay dormant 
for a century, till the days of Milton; lor the Fairy (^ueen of Spenser 
is rather a romantic allegory than an epic poem. The Paradise Lo»L 
compared with the great poems of antiquity, is more irregular and 
less perfect as a whole than the lluid, Jrliieid, and Odyssey ; but ex- 
hibits, in detached parts, more of the sublime and beautiful than any 
of them. It has been well remarked, that the inequality of this poem 
arises in a great measure from the nature of the subject of which 



MODERN HISTORY. 229 

gome parts are the most lofty which can enter into the human mind, 
and others could only have been suppoited h" a laborious elegance 
and polish, which the author's genius could not stoop to bestow. 

10. Lyric poetry was cultivated in the sixteenth century, in Italy, 
France, and England, but with no great success. The less poems of 
Ariosto and Tasso have no tincture of the genius displayed in their 
gi:eater works. Chiabrera is perhaps the only lyric poet of this 
period that merits distinction. In France, Ronsard and Bellay imi- 
tated Petrarch with all his false wit, but without his passion. Marot, 
aowever, in the naivete and easy vein of his humour, is justly ac- 
counted the master of La Fontaine. In the beginning of the seven- 
teenth century French versification received a considerable polish 
from the compositions of Racan, and yet more from those ot JMal- 
herbe ; and toward the end of that century lyric poetry was cultivat- 
ed with high success by La f arre, Chapelle, and Bachaumont, Chau- 
lieu and Gresset. 

11. I'he English lyric poetry of the sixteenth century, of Spenser, 
Surrey, Harrington, Sydney, and even Shakespeare, is harsh and 
unharmonious ; nor is much improvement discernible till the time of 
Cowley and Waller. The merit of Cowley as a lyric poet was too 
highly prized in his own age, and is underrated in ours. With all his 
talse wit, pedantry, and obscurity, he is often both sublime and 
pathetic in no moderate degree. The lyric ode in the third book of 
the Davideis has few parallels in the English language. As ajprose 
writer, Cowley shines in that age with superior excellence. Waller 
is more'polished and harmonious than any of the preceding or con- 
temporary poets, but his wit is quaint, and his elevation too frequent 
ly bombast. 

1 2. Dryden, in the end of the seventeenth century, carried lyric 
poetry toperfection. His Ode on St Cecilia's day surpasses all the 
lyric compositions both of ancient and modern times. He shines 
conspicuously as a satirist, possessing the keen and caustic wit, with- 
out the indelicacy, of Juvenal or Horace. His versions from Chau- 
cer and Boccacio are easy and spirited, and display a happy talent 
for poetical narrative. His numerous dramatic pieces, though exhib- 
iting both invention and poetic beauty, are deficient in true passion, 
and in the just delineation of character. 

13. At the end of the sixteenth century the drama in Europe be- 
gan to furnish a rational entertainment. At that period, Lope de 
Vega and Calderona in Spain, and Shakespeare in England, produced 
those pieces, which, though irregular and stained with blemishes, 
are at this day the admiration of their countrymen. The Spanish 
plays of that age have been a rich mine for succeeding dramatists, 
both among the French, Italians, and English. The merits of Shakes- 
peare are familiar to every person of taste. Ignorant of the rules 
of his art, he is the pure child of nature, i.nd thus exhibits often her 
caprices ahd absurdities ; but these are redeemed by the most trans- 
cendent beauties. The old English drama is, with all its irregular 
ities, incomparably superior to the modern, both in touching the pas 
sions and in displaying just views of human character. The persons 
are more discriminated by various and appropriate features, and the 
nicer shades of nearly resembling characters are thus more distinctly 
marked. The mixture of the comic and tragic in the same plot,^ 
though condemned by modern practice, is a great source of pleasure 
in the pieces of Shakespeare and his contemporaries j nor is there any 
thing in such a mixture but what is consonant to nature. To a per- 

U 



«30 MODEKN rilSlORY. 

•on ot true tnste it will be found often to heighten, by centrist, the 
capital emotion to be cxcite»l. 

14. The compositions for the French stage, in the end of th» 
•eventeeiith century, are strictly conformable to dramatic rulesj 
and many of those pieces are models of a correct ana poiisheii tjwte. 
The morality of the French drama of that age and the next is in gen- 
eral purei than ours ; but their pieces are deticient in the nice delin- 
eation of character, and in the power of exciting the p;ission8. 
Comeille and liiicine brought the French tragedy to its highest ele- 
vation ; as JVIoliere the comedy. Corneille lias more grandeur and 
subUmity than his rival, who excels him in the ten<ler and pathetic 
The comedies of Moliere, highly amusing in the present time, were 
more particularly valuable in the age when they were written, and 
had a sensible eflfect in correcting its prevailing lollies; the pedantry 
of the ladies, the ignorance and quackery of tlie physicians, and lUe 
pride and arrogance of the French noblesse. The bst of the emi- 
nenl dramatists who adorned France in the seventeenth century waa 
the elder Crebillon, who drew many sublime aiid impassioned scenes 
from the source of terror ; and who, in all his works, was as emi- 
nently the friend of virtue as his worthless son has been the pander 
of vice. 

15. nie moft eminent historians of the sixteenth century are, 
De Thou, Davila, and Machiavel. De Thou has written the annals 
of his own time, from 1,545 to 1,607, with great judement, and in 
most elegant Latin composition. The history of Davila, the annals 
of the civil wars of France in the time of the league, though the 
work of a partisan, is composed with no common degree of candour 
and impartiality. In .he beginning of the sixteenth century Machia- 
Tel wrote his History of Florence, of which the style is classical and 
the matter well arranged, but too much interrupted by reflections and 
political discussions. In the seventeenth century lientivoglio com- 
posed his History of the Civil Wars of Flanders, with the most ac- 
curate knowledge of his subject, perspicuity of narrative, and ele- 
gance of style. Among the Englisli historians in the beginning of 
that period Kaleigh is the most distinguished ; though his History of 
the World is, in point of style, inferior to the judgment shown in the 
arnmgement of the matter. In the latter part of the seventeenth 
century. Clarendon's History of the Re-bellion is a work of the high- 
est merit, whether we consider the authenticity of the facts, the deep 
knowledge of human nature displayed in the delineation of the 
characters, or the grave and manly eloquence of the style. If, in 
tlie opposition of political opinions, he has been deemed too partial 
in defence of his sovereign, even his adversaries have admitted his 
porfert integrity, and entire conviction of the rectitude of the cause 
which he supports. 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 



SECTION 1. 



A GENERAL VIEW OF THE HISTORY OF MANKIND IN THE 
PRIMEVAL AGES. 

1. In contemplating those great outlines of history, the memorable 
anil important events which have determined the condition of man- 
kind, and rendered the aspect of the moral and intellectual world 
such as we now view it, we shall find abundant subjects for observa- 
tion and reflection. In many cases we shall be obliged to have re- 
course to conjecture, founded on difl'erent degrees of probability ; 
and some of those probabilities may be so corroborated by general 
existing circumstances as to amount almost to certainty. 

2. Of the primeval state of mankind we know little from historical 
information, and can form an opinion of it only from conjecture 
founded on the nature of things. From the extremely slow progress ol 
civilization it is reasonable to suppose that men must have existed a 
long time before they began to write the history of such transactions 
and events as they deemed most important. All their care and atten- 
tion would at first be employed in providing the means of supplying 
their physical wants, and of rendering their existence tolerable. In 
that state of simple nature they would not think of transmitting an ac- 
count of their actions to poste ity, and could hardly have any oc- 
currences worth recording. Here our knowledge of human nature 
an, of human wants will supply the deficiency of history. From 
the experience of our own wants, and of the means of supplying them, 
we may infer almost with certainty, that habitations would be built as 
a shelter from the inclemency of the weather: and in fact we find 
this to be the case in all those countries which are at present occupied 
by savages, kx process of time some attention would be given to 
the cultivation of the soil, to make the earth produce such vegetables 
as were fit for the food of man. The arts most essential to the com- 
fortable existence of the human species would be invented before 
the use of letters. 

3. From all these circumstances we may reasonably suppose that 
the first rude sketch of history would be the traditionary tales de- 
livered from father to son through successive generations ; and these 
in reality constitute the basis of the first historical records. Such aie 
the fabulous relations of the first historians among the Greeks. It 
appears that the Greeks had adopted the historical legends of the 
Egyptian priests, wh: were accustomed to cover their religion and 
learning with the mystical veil of allegory ; and that in many cases 
they mL^took the Egyptian mode of allegorizing the early periods of 
history, and have presented to posterity an absurd anil monstrous 
tissue of fabulous narrative of kings who never reigned, and of heroes 

f celestial descent 



«32 MODERN HISTORY. 

4. Superstition being natural to man before the mind isenlightened 
by philosophy, it is no wonder that the writings of the f'.rst historians 
contain many relations of the communication of gods and demi-gods 
with mankind, and of the frequent intcrti'rence of supernatural 
agents in human*aliaii*s. The vivid imaginations of tiie early Greek 
authors, heated with superstition, and unrestrained by ptiilosophy, 
expanded into wild exuberance, and fabricated the most absurd and 
ridiculous tales. Hence the period of time which elapsed between 
the establishment of political and civil society in Greece, and the 
Trojan war nuiy be justly denominated the fabulous age ; and indeed 
most part of what is related concerning that war, has evident marks 
of fiction stamped upon it; for all the historical accounts of it are 
originally founded on the poems of Homer. No writings can claim 
the title of an authentic history of Grecian affairs before the Per- 
iian wars. The histories of all other heathen nations were not less 
fabulous and absurd thar those of the Greeks; and indeed all that 
we know concerning them has been transmitted to us through the 
medium of Greek writers. 

5. When we consider the general state of the world in the early 
ages, with respect to political, commercial, and literary commimica 
iion, however we may amuse ourselves with perusing the accounts 
transmitted to us of the transactions of remote antiquity, reason teiia 
us that they are nothing but fiction or historical romance. Until 
the Greeks (who were the inventors, or at least the improvers of 
arts and sciences) had attained a considerable degree o{ civilization 
and opulence, and had begun to cultivate the arts of conveniency, 
luxury, and elegance, little credit is due to profane history. Thk» 
period cannot be fixed long before the first Persian war, which hap- 
pened about 503 years belbre the birth of Christ. For inlbnnation 
relative to the state of mankind, and the events which occurred 
before that period, we must liave recourse to the writings of the 
Jews. 

6. This consideration naturally leads us to turn our attention to 
those ancient records of the Jews, which have always been deemed 
sacred by them, and of which the authenticity has been acknowl- 
edged by the generality of mankind, who have perused them with 
due attention. The Jewish annals are tiie most ancient of all that 
have been transmitted to us, and the most intrinsically rational and 
probable. They likewise contain a series of transactions and events 
equally curious and interesting. In them we find the only rational 
account of the creation of the world, and the beginning of things; 
of the dispersion of manldnd, and the origin of ancient nations. 



SECTION II. 
SUMMARY VIEW OF JEWISH HISTORY. 

1. The Israelite?, or ancient Jews, were those distinguished peo- 
ple, who were favoured by the immediate care of the Almighty, 
and conducted by his especial guidance to Judea, a place of resi- 
dence promised to their remote ancestors. In consecjuence of their 
obstinacy, idolatry, and wickedness, and more particularly for the 
rejection of their Messiah, they were subdued by the Romans, after 
sustaining a siege in their metropolis, Jerusalem, unparalleled in the 



MODEKN HISTORY. 233 

annals of history for its distresses, calamities, and slaughter. Jerusa- 
lem wan reduced to ruins, the Jewish government was totally sub- 
verted, and the surviving people were dispersed over most parts ot 
the world. Their descendants still remain unmixed with the rest 
of mankind, and are marked by their original features of national 
peculiarity : thejr adhere with the most zealous attachment to the 
religion of their forefathers, and cherish the hopes of restoration to 
their former prosperity and country by means of a glorious and tri- 
umphant Ueliverer. 

2. They preserve, with the most watchful care, the sacred books 
of their ancient writers. And astoiiishing, very astonishing it w to 
observe^ that in the prophetical parts jf these sacred books are contmneU 
all the events before mentioned of their extraordinary history, 'i'heir 
particular conduct, and the vicissitudes of their national afiairs, were 
predicted by their prophets, and more especially by Moses, their 
great law-giver, in the Infancy of the world, at the vast distance ct 
thirty-three centuries from the present times. The accomplishment 
of these predictions bears the fullest and most striking evidence to 
the truth and inspiration of their prophets, and illustrates the dis- 
pensations of Providence to his chosen people. 

3. These sacred books contain likewise predictions the most exact 
of the character, office, and actions of the Messiah of the Jews, the 
great Law-giver o^'the christians, the appointed Saviour of the world 

4. Such interesting circumstances as these, in addition to the pe- 
culiar nature of the Jewish polity, considered as a divine institution, 
the curious manners and customs, and the memorable actions of the 
descendants of Abraham, the most ancient people of whom we h?ve 
any authentic accounts, combine to place these bo^s first in order 
of "importance, as in order of time. If we consider the great antiqui- 
ty^ the stitjects, and the characters of the -writers, of these booh, and the 

{)lace which they occupy in the order of general history, partirular- 
y as they stand connected with the christian revelation, they will be 
found to deserve our very earnest attention. 



SECTION III. 
THE ANTIQUITY OF THE SCRIPTURES. 

1. No writings of any other nation can be brought into competi- 
tion, in respect of antiquity, with those of the Jews. In proof of 
this assertion it may be remarked, that Moses lived more than a 
thousand years before the age of Herodotus, who is reputed the 
father of Grecian history. As another proof of the priority of the 
Jews to the Greeks, it appears by the confession of the Greek wri- 
ters, that they received the letters of their alphabet from the Phoe- 
nicians ; and there are very sufficient grounds for believing that tne 
Phoenicians derived the art of writing from the Jews. The learned 
and acute Porphyry, who was an equal enemy both to Jews- 8nd 
christians, and much attached to the learning of Greece, candidly 
acknowledged tha>. Moses, and the prophets who immediately suc- 
ceeded him, (lourished nearly a thousand years before any of the 
Greek philosophers. 

2. The books which compose the canon of the Jewish scriptures 
have the concurrence of all antiquity in favour of their originality. 
They were delivered to the Hebrews in their own language, with 

U 2 30 



AM MODEliN HISIXDRY. 

every mark of genuineness, by the persons whose names fhey beaf 
and those persons, by recording cont'^mporary events, constantly 
appp;»loil to well k\iown proofs of their regaul to truth. The pro- 
phetical hooks in particular cojilain the eviiienccs of their inspira- 
tion, as well as of the integrity and piety of their aulhoi-s. Tlie ex- 
ternal prools are clear and strong, a^ well as the internal ; in conse- 
uuence of which all these hooks have always been preserved wiUi 
the greatest care, and have been held in the highest \eneration. 

3. It is no less curious than important to remark the tr.iditions 
preserved in the pagan world, which contirin the truth of the Pen- 
tateuch, or the tive books written by Moses. The Chaldeans pre- 
served the history of their Xisurus, who was the Noah of Moses. 
The Egyptians asserted that Mercury had engraved his doctrine 
upon columns, which had resisted the violence of a deluge. The 
Cninese historians record that Feyrun, a mortal beloved and protect- 
ed by the gods, saved himself in a vessel from the general inundation 
The Hindoos say that the waters ot the ocean spread over the surface 
of the earth, except one mountain to the north; that one woman 
and seven men saved themselves on this mountain, with certiiin 
pliMits an 1 animals. They add, in speaking of their god Vishnou, that 
at the deluge he transformed himself" into a fish, and conducted the 
ves'-el ivhich preserved the relics of the human ra'-.e. T. his vessel 
is likewise a subject of tradition in the northern parts of the world. 
Sulivan's View of Nature, Letter 67. 

4. That the sncritice of animals was necessary to appease the 
oflended gods, was a religious tenet very general and veiy ancient 
The account of the long lives of the patriarchs is confirmed by wri 
ters of various •countries. Their primitive mannei-s, and their 
mode of perlorming sacritices, and ofleririg prayers to the great Au 
thor of nature on the summits of mountains, and in the retirements 
of groves, agree with the descriptions of Homer, and many other 
early writers. Zoroaster, the great teacher of the .indent Persians, 
derived from the books of Moses the tirst principles ol his religion, 
his ceremonial laws, his account of the creation, of the tirst parents 
of mankind, of the patriarchs, and particularly of Abraham, whose 
pure reli-gion he professed to restore. 

5. In the attributes and charactei-s of the heathen gods may be 
found allusions to the ancient expressions of the Hebrew scriptures 
In the customs, laws, and ceremonies of many other nations may be 
traced a resemblance to the Mosaical institutions. In the accounts 
of thi? deities of the Pagans, and the early heroes ^nd benefactors of 
mankind, particularly in those which adoi-n the pages of Grecian 
history, are represented many of the patriarchs and illustrious per- 
sons of scripture. Many principles of the most eminent philoso- 
phers, many fictions of the most celebrated poets, both of Greece 
and liome, ahd many institutions of the most renowned heathen law- 
givers, cannot fail, by their circumstances of resemblance, to direct 
our attention to the great legislator of the Jews. The most venera 
hie mid ancient traditions of the world seem to contain the p;trts ol 
one original and uniform system, which was broken by the disper- 
sion oi tije primeval fimilies after the deluge, and corrupted oy the 
revolution of ages. Tlwy were the streams which flowed through 
the various countries of the earth, from the great source ol" Mosa- 
ical history.'*' 

♦ See Stillingfleet. b. iii, c 5 ; Bryant's Mythology ; Mauric«'i IndiM 
Antiquitiei ; FUleig^h''8 History of the World, p. 71. 



MODERN HISTORY. 23b 

6. Josephus, the Jewish historian, flourished in the reigii of the 
emperor Vespasian. He was a person of great learning and emi- 
nence, and conducted his inquiries with singular diligence, indjstry, 
and care. He corroborates the testimony ot" the sacred writers, and 
dhistr.jtes their truth ; as he not only gives a regular detail of the most 
remarkahle transactions of the Jews, but intioduces considerable 
notices of all those people, with whom they formed alliances, or car- 
ried on wars. In his treatise against Apion he exposes the contra- 
dictions which occurred in the Egyptian, Chaldean, and Phoenician 
records; vindicates the authority of the Jewish scriptures; describes 
the care which was taken in their preservation ; and states their 
Fuperior pretensions, more particularly in point of antiquity, to the 
respect and reverence of mankind.* 



SECTION IV. 

THE SUBJECTS OF THE BOOKS, AJfD CHARACTERS OF THE 
WRITERS. 

1. The subjects of the books of the Old Testament are truly 
■v\onderful and striking, and of such a nature as to surpass all monu- 
ments of profane leaning, equally in importance as in antiquity 
Of all parts which compose the sacred canon, aone are more curious 
than Genesis, the tirst book written by Moses ; because it contains a 
sketch of the earliest history of mankind. There stand recorded 
the creation of the world and its inhabitants, the fall of our tirst pa- 
rents from their state of innocence and happiness, and their banish- 
ment from the garden of Eden ; the repeated and signal promises of 
a future restorer of the lost blessings ot mankind ; the history of the 
pp'riarchs, honoured by the revelations of Jehovah ; the description 
pf the general deluge ; the dispersion of the progenitors of the hu- 
man race over all the earth ; the adoption of a particular family to 
pf-iT-etnate the remembrance, and establish the worship of the true 
God, and their prosperous settlement in Egypt. Instances indeed are 
mentioned of early depravity, and of the violence of the passions, 
attended with suitable punishments ; yet society appears under it:^ 
simplest form in point of manners, and we discern no traces of the 
luxury and false refinement of subsequent times. 

2. In the books of the Jews is recorded an account of the descen- 
dants of Israel ; a race of men selected from all others, and favoured 
with successive revelations of the divine will. Here are shown the 
instances of their fidelity, perverseness, and disobedience; their 
glory and triumphs ; their disgraces, and their subjection to foreign 

Powers. Here is seen the superintendance of a divine and especial 
rovidence watching over innocence, suspending wrath, and taking 
the most signal vengeance upon unrepented otfehces. Here are 
developed the failings of the most virtuous persons, and the obdurate 
wicke(lness of confirmed sinnere. Here are displayed the mixed 
characters even of the most excellent men, the eminent examples ol 
faith and piety, of courage and patience, in the conduct of Abraham, 
Lot, Job, Joseph, Moses, David, Hezekiah, Josiah, and Daniel 

* KetOs Interpreter of Prophecy, vol. i, p. 200. Lardner, vol vii, p. 
30,269,&c. 



136 MODLRJV HISTORY. 

And moat interesUng is it to observe, that the knowledge of the 
one tme God was coinnvnicated to this people, and preserved by 
Ihenx alone ; tliat tliey liad the most sublime ideas of his nature 
ami attributes; that a magniticent temple was erected to his honour; 
a regular sewice was instituted ; holy ceremonies were perlbnned; 
an onler of priests of one particular family was consecrated ; a pure 
worship was established by his express command, ana regulated by 
his particular laws. Thus were the Jews enlightened by a knowl- 
edge of the true object of divine worship; and thus were the purity 
and holiness of their religious ordinances conducted, at a time when 
all other nations presented a wide scene of gross superstition and 
mental darkness ; when the rest of the human race, and even the 
most intelligent and polished nations of Kgypt and Greece, showed 
the most abject degradation of their nature, by prostrating them- 
selves before idols of their own workmanship ; and abused the evi- 
dence of sense, and the faculty of reason, by imputing to wood and 
stone the attributes of divine power. 

3. We see likewise a succession of prophets raised up among the 
Jews, to communicate the divine will, to warn them of evils, and to 
announce to them blessings to come. These holy men, ever obedi- 
ent to the call of Heaven, rose superior to all worldly considerations; 
and with a spirit of intrepidity and independence, which clearly 
showed that Heaven was the source of their reliance, they executed 
their sacred commissions, unawed by the threats of kings, or the 
resentment of the people. They foretold remote events in times 
when they appeared moot improbable ever to take place, and when 
no human foresight, and no calculation of chances, could guide them 
to the discovery of the particular affairs, which t'ulfilled their pre- 
dictions, Moses, in a long and most interesting detail of threats and 
promises, foretold the exact manner in which his people were ordain- 
ed to be happy or miserable, acK:ording as they followed or disobeyed 
the divine laws. At a subsequent period, when Jerusalem was laid 
in ruins, and the Jews were groaning under the sorrows olthe Baby- 
lonish captivity, Isjiiah solemnly addressed Cyrus by his name, mor§ 
than a hundred years before his birth, as the dehverer of Israel, and 
the new founder of the Holy City.* When Babylon was shining in 
the meridian of its glory, and its monarchs ruled over all the nations 
of the east with the most despotic sway, the same prophet predicted 
the total subversion of their empire, and the complete desolation of 
their vast metropolis. That all these and numerous other predictions 
were exactly verilied by the events, are truths confirmed by the evi-- 
dence of profane as well us sacred history. 

4. The same inspired prophets had a much more grpnd and im^ 
portant object m view, than to declare the future dispensations of 
rrovidence to one nation in particular; for they announced, in terms 
at first dark and mysterious, but progressively more clear and cir 
cumstantial, the future birth of a xMessiah, a glorious king, a divine 
legislator, who was to abolish the sacrifices and religious inslitulions 
of the Jews, and to proclaim and establish a general law lor the 
observance and happiness of all mankind. Here the evangelists ccn. 
tribute their aid to illustrate the declanitions of the prophets, and 
unite the history of the Old with that of the jVew Testament, in 
the most close and indissoluble bonds of union. 

♦ Isaiah, B. C. 757. Cyrus, B. C. 589. Kett's Interpreter of Prophecy, 
Tol. i. p. 130. 



MODERN HISTORY. 237 

5. The historical books of scripture, considered from the time of 
the giving of the law to Moses to the reformation in the worship and 
government by Nehemiah, after the Babylonish captivity, contain a 
summary account of the Jewish affairs for a period of eleven centu- 
ries.* They were evidently not intended to give a complete detiiil 
of national transactions, as their writers had a more sublime and im- 
portant end in view. To illustrate the prophecies, by relating cir- 
cumstances which existed at the time when they were uttered, and 
to show their accomplishment; to record various revelations ot the 
divine will, and to describe the state of reUgion among the Hebrews, 
and the various dispensations of Providence, in pMblic as well as in 
private occurrences, seem to have been their chief objects. Hence 
It is that the chain of history is sometimes broken into detached parts, 
and its detail is interrupted by a recital of private transactions. The 
books of scripture occasionally assume the form, and comprise the 
beauties of a very interesting kind of biography. Of this nature are 
the several accounts of Job, Ruth, and Esther ; but they are far from 
being unconnected with the principal design of the sacred writers ; 
inasmuch as they show that the same divine Providence which presid- 
ed over the nation at large, extended its particular care to individ- 
uals, and that the examples of private virtue were inseparable from 
the great interests of public welfare and happiness. 

6. The Israelites, for many ages separated from the rest of man- 
kind by their peculiar institutions, were little acquainted with com- 
merce, and made small advances in those arts, which, with a refine- 
ment, and a diversity of employments, introduce luxury and corrup- 
tion of manners. They were governed by equal laws, and possessed 
nearly equal property. They admitted no hereditary distinction of 
raok, except in favour of the regal tribe of Judah, and the sacer- 
dotal family of Levi. Their occupations from the earliest times were 
of the most simple kind, and consisted in pasturage and agriculture. 
To guide the plough, and tend the flock, were employments which, 
recommended by the innocence of primeval manners, and dignified 
by length of time, were exercised by kings, prophets, and generals. 
Moses was called from feeding his flock, to conduct the Israelites to 
the promised land ; Elisha forsook the plough, to be invested with 
the mantle of prophecy ; and Gideon left the threshing floor, to lead 
the army of his country to battle. 

7. The country of J udea presented a scene diversified by truit- 
ful vallies, barren rocks, and lofty mountains, and was watered by 
numerous streams. It produced the palm-tree, the balsam, the vine, 
the olive, the fig, and all the fruits which abound in the more temr- 
perate regions oi Asia. From the labours of the field, and from cul- 
tivating the vine, the attention of the Israelites was regularly called 
by religious worehip, which was intimately blended with the civil 
constitution of the state. The splenJour of their public services, the 
pomp and magnificence of their rites and ceremonies, the stated re- 
currence of their various festivals and sacrifices, the sabbath, the 
passover, the celebration of the sabbatical year, and the jubilee ; and, 
more than all, the constant experience of divine interposition, filled 
their minds with the most awful and grand ideas, and gave them the 
deepest impressions of the majesty, power, goodness, and justice of 

• Moses, B. C. 1,571. Nehemiah, B. C. 546. Gray'i Key to the Old 
Testament, p. 124. 



M8 JEWISH HISTORY. 

0. Tliese were the circumstances which, comhining to form their 
national manners, had the greatest iiitluence upon their writings. 
The hisiorical style is marked hy the purest simplicity of ideas, oc- 
casionally raisetl to a tone of elevation. In the works of Moses there 
is a majesty of thought, which is most strikingly expressed in plain 
and energetic language. In the prophetical writings the greatest 
splendour and sublimity of composition are conspicuous. They are 
enriched by those glowing images, and raised hy that gnmdeur oi 
diction, which charm tne classical reader in tiie most admii-ed pro- 
ductions of Greece and Rome. The royal psalmist is eloquent, dio;- 
nitied, and pathetic. All the beauties of composition unite in Isjiiah, 
such is the majesty of his ideas, the propriety, beauty, and tieriility 
of his imagery, and the elegance of his language, employed upon the 
noblest subjects which could possibly engage our attention. Jere- 
miah excels in those expressions of tenderness, which excite, with 
the most pleasing enthusiasm, the feeUngs of compassion. 

9. By such peculiar beauties of composition are recommended 
the most interesting details of events, and the most faithful deline- 
ations of characters. The great Creator calls all things into ex- 
istence with his omnipotent word. The first parents ol mankind, 
innocent and happy, are blessed with his immediate converse, and 
enjoy the blooming groves of Paradise. Joseph, the pious, the 
chaste, and the wise, after having undergone great atBictions, and 
rising by his extraordinary merit to an othce of the highest honour 
in the court of Pharaoh, discovers himself in a manner the tnmi 
pathetic to his repentant brethren, and is restored to his aged and 
affectionate father, whom he invites into Egypt to share his pros- 
perity. The children of Israel, guided by the divine Power, which 
veils its glory in a cloud, pass sately through the Ked Sea, in which 
the host of the impious Pharaoh are overwhelmed. Upon the sum- 
mit of Mount Sinai Moses receives ^he two iables of tlie command- 
ments, amid the thunder, lightning, clouds, and darknoss, which 
o^»scure the great Jehovah from his eyes. The royal psidmist sings 
tlie wonders of creation, the powers of his God, and his own de- 
feats and triumphs. The peaceful and prosperous Solomon, whose 
renown was extended over all the east, rears the structure of the 
magniticent temple ; and amid the multitudes of his adoring sub- 
jects consecrates it to the service of the one true God, in a prayer 
which equally attests his wisdom and his piety. In the visions of 
futurity Isaiah beholds the deliverance of the chosen people ; the 
complete destruction of the great empire of Babylon, by which 
they were enslaved ; and the promised Messiah, the Saviour ol 
mankind, sometimes depressed by want and sorrow, and sometimes 
arrayed in the emblems of divine maje^ty and power. He predicts 
the tiual recal of the Jews to their native land, and the wide diffu- 
sion ot the christian faith. Jeremiah sinks a weeping mourner over 
the ruins of his native city, deplores its calamities, and consoles his 
countrymen by expressly declaring, that they should never cease 
to be a nation to the end of the world. Daniel explains to Bel- 
shazzar the mystic characters inscribed upon the walls of his palace, 
and views, in his wide prospect of tuture times, the tiites of the four 

f;reat empires of the world. C^ius, long before announced by 
saiah, as the great subverted of the Baoylonish empire, and the 
restorer of the glory of Jerusalem, publishes his decree for the 
restoration of the captive Jews; and the holy city a[Ml teiiK-le 
rise from their ruins with new grandeur and magniffcence. The 



JEWISH HISTORY. 2S9 

Jews are settled and reformed by the pious care of Nehemiah, and 
the canon of the scriptures is closed by Malachi. This last of the 
prophets enjoiQS the strict obsen'ance of the law of Moses, till the 
great Frecui-sor should appear, in the spirit of Elijis, to announce 
the approach of the Messiah, who was to establish a new and an 
everlasting covenant.* 

10. Such are a few of the interesting circumstances contained in 
the books of the Old Testament, which engage our attention, charm 
our imagination, and gratify our curiosily, while they confirm our 
belief in the great evidences of revelation. In all these works 
we may remark the bright truths of religious instruction, shining 
forth amid the venerable simplicity of the most ancient history ; a 
history unrivalled for the grandeur of the ideas which it conveys, 
the livehness of its descriptions, and the number of its beautiful and 
sublime images. 

11. In these books of sacred history there is an impartiality oi 
narrative, which is an undoubted characteristic of truth. If we 
read the Lives of Plutarch, or the History of Liyy, we soon dis- 
cover that these writers composed their works under the influence 
of many prejudices in favour of their respectives countries. A veil 
is thrown over the defects of their heroes, but their virtues are 
placed in a strong light, and jpainted in vivid cr lours. In the scrip- 
tures, on the contrary, both of tne Old and the New Testament, the 
strictest impartiality prevails. The vices of David, Solomon, and 
their successors, are neither concealed nor palliated. There is no 
ostentation of vanity, no parade of panegyric ; virtue charms with 
her native beauty, and vice requires no disguise to conceal her de- 
formity. The characters of persons are sketched, and the effects of 
the passions are represented without reserve or concealment; and 
the moral to be drawn from each description is so obvious, as to ac- 
count for the frequent omission of remarks and applications. The 
abject condition of the Jews, when prohibited the use of weapons of 
war by the victorious Philistines ; their relapses into idolatry, their 
perverseness of disposition, and their various defeats and captivities, 
with every circumstance of private as well as public disgrace, are 
recorded without palliation or reserve. Always rising superior to 
the motives which induce other authoi-s to violate the purity and de- 
giade the majesty of truth, these writers keep one great and most 
important end constantly hi view, and show the various methods by 
which the providence of God effected his gracious designs; how he 
produced good from evil, and employed the sins and follies of man- 
kind as the instruments of his gmcious purposes 

12. An acquaintance with tlie affairs of the Jewish nation forms 
the first link in the chain of ancient records. Thus we may observe 
the connexion which subsists between the branches of sacred and 
profane history. We place the works of pagan writers in their 
proper situation, and give them additional value, by making them 
subservient to the cause of religion, and instrumental in the illustra- 
tion of revealed truth. If the student is not called upon by profes- 
sional inducements to read the scriptures in their original languages, 
he may rest contented with translations ; and it seems to be a well- 

• For these very impiessive passages of the Bible, see Gen. i, ii, xliv, 
xlv ; Exod. xiv, xx ; the Psalms ; 1 Kings viii ; Isaiah ii, vi, ix, x, xi, xiv, 
xxviii, xxxii, xi, xliii, Ix, Ixi, Ixiii, Ixv, and more particularly liii ; la- 
ment, i, &c. ; Daniel v, vii ; Ezra vii ; Nehem. xiii ; Malachi iii. iv. 



t4% )L\Vij>|{ HISTOKY. 

foanded opinion among the learned, that he may rely with confidence 
upon the general tJdeUty of our English version. 

SECTION V. 
OF THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 

1. An authentic account of the creation of the world, and of the 
primitive state of mankind is to he found only in the bible. There 
we arc informed by Moses, the mo?ii ancient of all historians, that in 
the beginning Ciod created the earth, the celestial bodies, and all 
things both animate and inanimate ; that he created one man and one 
woman, named Adam and Eve, and placed them in a garden or para- 
dise, situated in the land of Eden. According to the best chronolo- 
gers the creation of the world was accomplished in the year 4,004 
A. C. Adam and Eve soon transgressed the commands of God, and 
were therolbre expelled from their delightl'ul abode. 

2. Adam and Eve had two sons, whose names were Cain and Abel. 
Cain, the elder, was a husbandman, and Abel was a shepherd. Cain 
was of a vicious, Abel of a virtuous disposition. Hence the worship 
of Abel was more acceptable to the Lord than that of Cain. Insti- 
gated by envy and malice, Cain killed his brother when they were 
together in the tield. For this atrocious crime he was severely pun- 
ished by the Lord, and became " a fugitive and a vagabond upon the 
earth." 

3. After the murder of Abel, another son, named Selh, was bora 
to Adam. From this time the descendants of Adam multiplied rapid- 
ly, and at length spread over the lace of the earth. 

4. One of the most remarkable circumstances ot the former world 
is the longevity of the people. Adam lived 930 years, Seth 912 
years, Jared 962 years, Methuselah 969 years, Noah 950 years. 

5. In process of time mankind became so wicked that the Lord 
was resolved to destroy them by a deluge. Amid the general cor- 
ruption and depravity of the human race one virtuous man was found. 
Noah, the son of Lamech, zealous for the reformation of men, be- 
came a preacher of righteousness to the degenerate and viciou* 
people among whom he lived, and employed both his council and au- 
thority to reclaim them ; but in vain. And God commanded Noah to 
build a great ship, called an ark^ and to put in it his wife, his three 
sons and their wives, and also a few males and females of every spe- 
cies of living things, tiiat they might be saved from the general del- 
uge which would shortly overwhelm the whole earth, and extirpate 
ail creatures. The llooti continued loO days, and then gradually sub^ 
sided. Noah and his funily, and all the animals, went out of the 
ark (2,343 A. C.) ; and in process of time they multiphed and spread 
over the surface of the earth, as we now see them. 

G. Of the literary and scientific attainments of the antediluvians 
we know very little. From the Mos;iic account they do not appear 
to have been great. Moses h:is brielly informed us what was the 
oiigin of various customs and arts, and has recorded the names of 
their inventors. Lamech the son of Cain gave the tirst example of 
polygamy. Cain built the tirst city, and introduced the use of 
weights and measures. One of Cain's grandsons " was the father of 
such as dwell in tents, and of such as have cattle." Jubal invented 
music ; Tubal Cain the arts of forging iron, and of casting brass , 
and a woman callod Naamah the arts of spinning and weavmg, 



JEWISH HISTORY. 

Their religious rites were few and simple. They worshipped God 
by prayer, and sacrifices of certain animals. 



SECTION VI. 
FIRST AGES AFTER THE DELUGE. 

1. TiTE remembrance of the three sons of Noah, the first foun- 
ders of the nations of the earth after the deluge, has been preserved 
among the several nations descended from them. Japhet peopled 
the greater part of the west, and continued long famous under the 
name of Japetus. Ham was reverenced as a deity by the Egyptians, 
under the title of Jupiter Hammon. The memory of Shem has 
always been venerated by his descendants, the Hebrews, who de- 
rived their name from his son Heber. 

2. Except the building of the tower of Babel no event of impor- 
tance occurs in the history of Moses during the space of nearly 
1,100 years from the deluge to the call of Abraham. About 100 
years after the deluge the descendants of Noah were become nu- 
merous at the foot of Mount Arafat, and in the plain of Shinaar, ex- 
tending along the banks of the Euphrates and the Tigris. They 
found that the country was not extensive enough to contain them 
much longer, and therefore that they must separate. They agreed 
to build a very high tower, which might be a signal of union, if they 
should ever desire to return to their native country. When tney had 
raised the tower to a certain height, the workmen suddenly perceiv 
ed that tliev did not understand the words of one another, and that 
sdl spoke different languages. Consequently it was impossible to 
continue the work, and the people dispersed in different directions. 
Hence ho origin of different languages, and the dispersion of the 
human race over the habitable globe. 

3. Soon after this memorat)ie event, Nimrod, a vkteai sud impe- 
rious man, built the city of Babel, or Babylon, and laid the founda 
tion of the first great empire, called the Babylonian, which was 
afterwards so famous in the history of the Jews. 



SECTION VII. 
OF THE JEWS. 

I. The Jews derived their origin from Abraham, the son of Terah^ 
Oie tenth in lineal descent from Shem the son of Noah. The de 
scendants of Shem spread from Armenia, where the ark is supposed 
to have rested after the deluge, to Mesopotamia, and thence into 
Chaldea, where Abraham was born. As Aoraham was appointed to 
be the progenitor of a great and distinguished nation, God separated 
him from the other descendants of Shem, by causing Terah to re- 
move from Chaldea into the country of Haram, near the borders of 
Mesopotamia, where he died. Abraham intended to settle in Haram. 
but in obedience to the will of Qod, he removed into the land ot 
Canaan, which was appointed to be the inheritance of his posterity. 
From this period commences a long series of events, whicn are re- 

rded in the book of Genesis, and are represented as immediately 
cted by the Lord. 
After Abraham arrived in Canaan, his first care waste erect an 
X SI 



«4« JEWISH HISl'OKV. 

kWui for the woi-shin of God, who jippearcd to hin», aind confirmed 

lhi» prf)mi<o which fu- hnd holoro m:u\o to him, to give the country 
(«) hj". «:;iil(hvii. \\ hfu ho hini Ijvt'd some lime in C";iu;i:m, a lim- 
ine cortiiX'llLMi him to remove his liimily into ''-g> I't, (l,yitiA. C), 
where h«; n-siiled till lh<* Himine c ;«<e(l, ami then rctnnied. His 
wile Sarah, when sh>.? was advanceil in yeai-s, hroiight him a «on, 
w ho WIS eilii'il Isaac. Winn Isaac ^rew to mane's estate iie niiirrie-J 
lichecca, wlio was alYerward the moilier of .lacob. In process oi 
lime Jacoh had ten sons, wlio were lUo. liithersof ten tribes. 13y the 
:omjn uid of the Lcuil, Jacob took the name of Israel, and hence hi« 
IK)sieril> were called Israelites', or the cldlilren of Israel. 

3. Josc'ph, the ninth son, wjls the lavourile of his lather, which 
excited liie jjalousy ami hatred of his elder brothers, who sold him 
to some merchants, and told Jacob that he had been devoured by 
>\ial beasts. The merciianls carried their slave into Egypt, and 
9«dd liim to Poliphar, an ollicer of king Pharaoirs guaid, 1,7V4 A. 
tC. Joseph serxeil Poti})har with such diligence and fideUty, thai he 
•W)on committed to him ihe care of his domestic afl'airs. 

* The wile of foliphar repeatedly attempted to seduce Joseph ihto 
the gr.Uitication of her amorous propensiiies ; but her immodest ad 

tvances ijcing rejected wiih disdain, she was incensed, and malicious- 
fiiy accused hi.n of an attempt to violate her chastity. On this, false 
' accusation he was immediately thrown into prison, but was soon 
liher.ited by the king. Such is, in all ages and in all countries, the 
^vimlictive disposition of a lascivious woman, whose allurements nave 
•hean neglci.ted or resisletl. The disujijjointtd wanton prosecutes, 
!;with ever!;. sting enmity, the innocent object ol" her carnal desL'ea! 
£*.' 4. Joseph, being skilful in the interpretation of dreams, was intra- 
-duced to Pharaoh king of Egypt, who was perplexed by two dreams 
Ji'hich he could not explain. Joseph interpreted his dreams, which 
predicted abundant products of the earth for seven years, and after 
ward a dreadful famine lor seven years. He was released from pris- 
on, and appointed to conduct the affairs of Egypt under Pharaoh. 

5. In consequence of the famine with wjiich Canaan was afflicted 

(as it had been foretold), Jacob and his family removed into Egypt, 

1,702 A. C. Joseph as>igned them a residence In the land of Goshen, 

a fertile country ht for pasturage, situated between the Nile and the 

Ked Sea. hi lliis happy country the descendants of Jacob increased 

and tlourished, and became so numerous and prosperous that at 

length the enw and feai-s of the Egyptians began to be excited 

against them. To check their prosperity rigorous measures were 

pursued by the rulers of Egypt. Their lives were imbittered by 

lianl service, and all their male children were ordered to be drowned 

at their birdi. 

G. Till the time of their residence in the land of Goshen, the He- 

•■l^rews had led a pastoral life, and had not been subject to any regulai 

^Torni of government. Children were obedient to their parents, and 

I'servauts to their masters. Religion appeared in its most simple and 

* amiable form. One God, the Creator and Governor of the world, 
y'was worshipped without image*, and without an established priest- 

* hood. F'qiial puriiy in faith and worship, in principle arid practice, 
prf\aile<l among ihe people, liul in prop-crtion as wealtij and 

iixury increased, the religion of the Hebrews became more -i^iasual. 
Like all eastern n,»tions they were prone to the worship of the lieav- 
emv bodies. Pries'cr.d'i employed images, and ihe delusive aititices 
' "of superslJlJou to a'tract llic devoUou of the people. 



JEWISH HISTORY. 243 

7. The history of the Hebrews, during the patriorchal ages, is 
related in the first book of Moses, with simplicity, minuteness, and 
apparent fidelity. There we read a description of" ancient customs 
and manners in the lives of the patriarchs, Abniham, Isaac, and 
Jacob. The story of Joseph and his brethren has been always 
admired for the simplicity of the language, and the affecting cir- 
cumstances which it exhibits. As the numerous facts and incidents 
in the early periods of the history of the Hebrews are familiar to 
every reader, and are besides of little importance in the poiitical 
annals of the nation, it seems superfluous to enter into a detail of 
them. We shall therefore next present a compendious view of the 
history of the Hebrews from the period of their departure out of 
Egypt, 1,487 A. C. 

8. After much oppression and suffering, God raised up a deliverei 
of his chosen people, who rescued them from a state of cruel servi- 
tude, and brought them out of the land of bondage. This deliverer 
was Moses, the most distinguished personage of ancient times, bom 
1,567 A. C. In consequence of Pharaoh's inhuman decree, Moses 
was exposed by his mother on the banks of the Nile, and was found 
by the king's daughter, who compassionately adopted him, and thus 
saved his life. Before their departure from Egypt, and in their long 
and tedious journey of forty years through the wilderness, many 
extraordinary and supernatural events are recorded in the Bible, and 
ascribed to the miraculous interposition of the Lord in behalf of his 
people. During their wanderings in the desert, they received from 
their illustrious guide, with many other signal proofs of divine favour, 
a system of religion and laws, under the sanction of God. 

9. The Mosaic code, though the most ancient that has been trans- 
mitted to posterity, contains the best maxims of legislative wisdom. 
it is an admirable summary of our various duties to God and man . 
and it enforces the observance of those duties by the powerful mo- 
tives of gratitude, hope, and fear. It directs our adoration to otk, 
God, the author of all blesgings ; commands us to reverence his holy 
name ; and denounces dreadful vengeance against those who shall 
transfer to idols, or to the creature, that worship which is due only 
to the Creator. To prevent the neglect of those sacred obligations, 
it ordains a Sabbath every week, to be set apart for rest, and for pious 
meditation on the works and the beneticence of God. Four of the 
statutes of the Mosaic code comprehend the principles of universal 
jurisprudence. 1. ITiou sluilt 7Wt kill. 2. Thou shall iwi cmnmii adul- 
tery. 3. Thon shall not steal. 4. T7iou shalt not hear false tvitness. 
They have Ibrmed the basis of criminal law in all civilized nations, 
and are essential to the good order of society. They conclude with 
au dmonition against avarice, the incentive' to the commission of ah' 
offences. 

lU. While Moses lived in Egypt he must have remarked the bane- 
ful effects of the abuse of unlimited power entrusted to priests. He 
therefore wisely separated the sacerdotal jurisdiction from the civil. 
The ministers of reUgion were not allowed to interfere in secular 
affairs. Their duties were confined to the worship of God ; and 
their civil authority extended no larther than to take cognizance o* 
such offences or tresspasses as were immediately connected with re- 
ligious worship. The care and direction of all secular concerns were 
committed to the elders of the people, who administered ju>tice un- 
der the control of a supreme magistrate, emphatically styled a 
judge. In the judge was vested all power civil and military. It ap- 



«44 JEWISH HISTORY. 

pears however that the high priest at length invaded the military 

prerogative of the judge. 

11. Sensible of the ignorance and porverscness of the people 
under his care, Moses omitted no precepts nor instructions which 
he thought might tend to inform their mind*, to regulate their con- 
duct, to correct their vicious propensities, ami to promote their vvel- 
Jare and security. He prescribed rules lor their (liet, for Mie preser- 
vation of their health, and for the treatment and cure ol those 
diseases to which they were most liable. Having conducted the 
Isrjielites through many dangers and difiiculties within sight of the 
promised land, and appointed Joshua his successor, Moses died in 
1.447 A. C. 



SECTION VIII. 

THE HISTORY OF THE HEBREWS DURING THE GOVERNMENT 
OF THE JUDGES. 

1. This period is extremely turbulent and sanguinary; a period 
of barbarism, ignorance, and anarchy. We know not certainly how 
the judges were chosen, nor what was the extent of their power 
They appear to have been military chiefs, for they commanded 
annies, and some of them' acquired fame by successful expeditions 
against the enemies of their country. 

2 The chiefs or rulers of the Syrian kingdoms, principalities, or 
to'vnships, had chosen no common leader, or generalissimo, nor 
digested any regular plan of defence against the Hebrews, who had 
been long hovering on the frontiers of Syria, and betrayed hostile 
intentions ; consequently many of these petty states on both sides 
of the river Jordan were subdued, and the inhabitants massacred, 
before any league was formed for their mutual defence. At le gth 
they became apprehensive of utter destruction from their fierce 
and cruel invaders, and a general alliance was concerted among the 
remaining kings and chiefe of the country between the Jordan and 
the Mediterranean sea. Joshua twice attacked the combined army 
unexpectedly, and defeated it with great slaugliter. Most of the in- 
habitants, except those who resided m imnregiuible cities on the sea 
coast, were put to the sword, or compelled to Uee from the ven- 
geance of their enemy. Their pos.^essions were divided among 
the tribes of Israel ; and thus the victorious Hebrews conquered 
and occupied the southern parts of Syria, called J udea or Canaan, 
and still known by the name of i'alcstine. Joshua having on many 
occasions received miraculous assistance in the periloife conquest ot' 
Canaan, and in tlve execution of the arduous and important oltices of 
a government of incessant activity and energy, died in 1,439 A. C. 
leaving the Israelites in the quiet enjoyment'of the country which 
the Lord had formerly promised to Abraham and his posterity. 

3. After the conquest of Canaan the Hebrews did not continue 
long to observe and obey the institutions of Moses. They fell into 
aposiacy and confusion. They were alternately harassed by intestine 
commotions, and reduced to temporary bondage by the nations which 
they had belore conquered. When relieved from the miseries of a 
foreign yoke, they commonly became subject to the more grievoua 
upitressions of domestl^ tyranny. But in the various cbanf es of their 



JEWISH HISTORY. 246 

maDoers and forttinea, it is remarkable that some of their gross- 
est idolatries, and severest afflictions, happened when the civil power 
and the authority of the priesthood were exercised by the same 
person. 

4. After the death of Joshua the Israelites were governed by elders 
about 20 years. Then followed an anarchy of about 18 years, during 
which they were engaged in many successful and unsuccessful wars, 
and were often reduced to servitude. 

After the government of the Hebrews had continued with little 
interruption, about 295 years, under twelve successive judges, in the 
form prescribed by Moses, Eli, the high-priest united in his person 
those powers' and functions which, before his accession to the 
supreme magistracy, had been kept distinct. Eli appears to have 
been equally incapable of discharging the civil, the military, and the 
rel'gious duties of his high offices. The people fell into idolatry, 
and were subjugated by an ancient nation called the Philistines. In 
a great battle with the Philistines the army of the Hebrews was 
routed with dreadful slaughter, and the two profligate sons of Eli 
were killed. The news of this disaster put an end to the life of Eli* 
after he had governed the Israelites forty years. 

6. The next and last judge of the Hebrews was Samuel the 

Srophet, 1,1 12 A. C. He brought back the people to a sense of then 
uty, and soon restored the departed glory of Israel by a great vic- 
tory over the Philistines. They now recovered their liberty, and 
the cities which had been taken from them in former wars. Samuel 
was indefaligable in the administration of justice. When age had 
rendered him incapable of executing his laborious duties, he united 
his two sons with him in the administration of the government. 
But their evil conduct offended the people, who complained to Sam- 
uel that his sons were not worthy to succeed him as judges. 1'hey 
demanded a king to govern them. Samuel therefore assembled the 
people, and explained to them the extrenie danger of changing their 
ancient form of government to that of a monarchy ; but in vain. 
They persisted in their resolution, and a man named Saul was ap- 
pointed the first king of the Hebrews, after the government by 
judges had subsisted, with some intermission, about 356 years, from 
Joshua to Saul. 



SECTION IX. 



RETROSPECT OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE HEBREWS. 

1. The advancement of Saul to the regal dignity was the second 
change made in the constitution given by Moses. The common- 
wealth was originally a theocracy; and the people acknowledged 
no other king but God. They puid respect to the priests, as the 
superintendents of his worship ; and they obeyed the judges, as 
the interpreters of his laws, and the delegates of his power. The 
succession to the priesthood was fixed, bein^ made hereditary in 
the family of Aaron. The office of ruler, or judge, being apparent- 
ly left to the appointment of God, and determinable neither by the 
choice of the people, nor by lineal descent, gave access to disturbance, 
violence, and intrigue. Moses prevented any public commotion by 
naming and consecrating a successor U) himself. 
X2 



»46 JEWISH HISTORY. 

2. After the death Oi" Joshua intestine Hivisione, or rather a §phit 

of liventinuvness nmi ripint-, threw the nation into i state of anaixhy 
urn I contusion. As tlii'< disunion ami civil ilisorder exposed them to 
till' invasions ot' the adj.u:etit stales, military talents and success were 
regarded as infallihle proofs (if divine favour, and conferred upon any 
pei-son «o di-iin^uishod, ihe title and authority of judge, (jideon 
obtained many signal \ictories over the l^hilistines, the inveterUe 
eivemies of the ifehrews, and enriched his soldiers with phmder. 
Out of gratitude for his services, the people offered to make him 
and his posterity their rulers. Though lie declined the name oJ 
judge, yet he retained the power, antlappropriated to himself the 
most valuable part of the spoils of his enemies. His natural son 
.Abime lech succeeded to the otlice of judge by force mtd violence. 
Sacred history does not inform us how the next two judges obtained 
their dignity, .\fter them the «upren)e power was committed to oie 
of Gilead's illegitimate issue, on account of his valour and military 
talents. Thus the othoe of judge continued to fluctuate till it was 
annexed to the high priesthood in the person of Kli, as has l)een re- 
lated. The death of his two vicious sons interrupted the succession 
in his line. The olhce was lastly conferred on Samuel, whose un- 
just and rapacious sons were thought unworthy to succeed him. The 
people having received no permanent benetits from the administra- 
tion either of judges or of priests, resolved to appoint a king to goverr 
them. This political innovation was the result of levity and impa 
tience rather than of mature deliberation. It neither gave stability f« 
the new government nor prevented the evils of the old. 



SECTION X. 
REGAL GOVERNMENT OF THE HEBREWS. 

1. The reign of Saul began about 1,091 A. C. He was a shep- 
herd of lofry stature. The beginning of his reign was auspicious, 
and distinguished by a complete victory gained over the Ammonites, 
which made him popular among his subjects. But he incurred the 
displeasure of Samuel, the prophet, and his whole reign of 40 years, 
was a continued scene of foreign or domestic troubles. Being de- 
feated in a battle with the Philistines in 1,051 A. C, he killed him- 
self 

2. Two candidates preferred their claim to the vacant throne, 
ls,h-bosheth, Saul's son, founded his pretensions on the right of im- 
mediate descent, -and was supported by many of the tribes. David, 
a young shepherd, was famous for killing, with a stone thrown from 
a sling, a Philistine named Goliath, a man of gigantic size and 
strength. He had likewise been privately anointed by Samuel 
!)efore the death of Saul; and his title, as of divine appointmeni, 
was therefore acknowledged by the powerful tribe of Judah. A 
civil war ensued, which lasted above seven years, and was terminat- 
ed by the assas-sinatioo of Ish-boshetli. All the tribes now submit 
ted to David, and the kingdom became hereditary in his faouly, 
though the right of succession wvis still unsettled, and was tranffer- 
able from one branch to another at the will of the reigning sover 
eign. This appears from Solomon's succession to the throDU id 
preference to his elder brother. 

3. The reign of David is illustrious and interesting. He enlarged 



JEWISH HiSl'OKY. Ml 

the bounds of Palestine by conquest, took Jerosalem.which hf tna^Ie 
thp r«}»"al of hi« «jominiun«, a:ul ♦T.rirhrd hinr«t II ;•!>»! tii* !<o«j»ris 
with lilt' j'iMils of hj!5 eiioniios. We ie\ive«l arr.ong the p*'0)>le a:« 
atliichmrnl lo nMijjion by the institnti<;n of soltiriu c<'lc•r^^.^l)^'^ ; mA 
he iulrotiuccul a iasie lor the ails, by in\i'.ii!g into the couiiiiT aiile 
oiechiuiics and artists for the completion ol' the grand cdifjce!5 uldcb 
he erected. 

4. The hitter part of David's reign was unfortunate. The king, 
dom was ravaged by pestilence, famine, and disastrous wars, iiis 
flnmd was harassed bv domestic misfortunes. Some of his sons weie 
disobedient and wicked. His favouiite son Absalom raised a rebel- 
lion with a design to dethrone bis lather; but was defeated and slain 
D.ivid caused bis son Solomon to be crowned in 1,U1 1 A. C, and died 
in 1,U1U A. C, having reigned seven years and a half over Judah, 
and 3:^ years over all Israel. 

5. The reign of Solomon presents a splendid view of the k'ngdr m 
of Israel in tne height of its prosperity, felicity, and glory, enjojing 
all the blessings of tranquillity in such a manner, and Ibr such a 
length of time, as it never experienced in any former or subsequent 
period. It directed the councils of all the petty slates between the 
Euphrates and the IMediterranean ; and held the balance of power 
between the two great monarchies of Egypt and Assyria. Com- 
mence flourished in a degree which, at that early period of the world, 
must appear extraordinary. The fleets oi" Israel, under tlie <lircc- 
tion of Tyrian mariners, traded to the land of Ophir, which fvme 
suppose to be a district in Ethiopia, on the eastern coast o( Afrix.;u 
To this country they probably went by the Red Sea. By their lu- 
crative voyages they augmented the wealth of the nation, which 
David had already enriched by the spoils of war. But this agreea- 
ble and prosperous condition did not continue long. Solomon, elated 
by unilbrm prosperity, set no bounds to his magniflcence and luxury; 
and laid heavy taxes on the jpeople to enable him to support nis pro- 
fuse expenditure. These burdensome imposts created disalTection 
in the minds of his subjects, and toward the end of his reign gave 
rise to a powerful faction, at the head of which was a haughty and 
impetuous young man called Jeroboam. 

6. The most remarkable event in the reifi;n of Solomon is the 
building of a magniticent temple at Jerusalem, which was completed 
tn about seven years. The plan had been formed by David, and 
materials, workmen, and money, provided for its execution. This 
was probably the most superb and costly fabric that has been erected 
in ancient times. 

The wisdom of Solomon is proverbial. The books of Proverbs 
and Ecciesiastes are ascribed to him, either as the author or col- 
lector; and abound with precepts and maxims that are applicable to 
every condition of life. But notwithstanding the superior knowU 
edge for which Solomon was so jusHy celebrated, he appears to have 
been immersed in sensual pleasures. He had 700 wives of diflerent 
countries and religions, beside 300 concubines I The allurements of 
those voluptuous women led him Into effeminacy, and the exc«ss 
ive indulgence of the animal p,«ssions, and into the neglect of his 
important duties to God and bis people ; and their influeiK e and sii- 
perslitions at length drew him into idolatry. This ilhisirious and 
renowned monarch reigned 40 years, and died in 971 A. C, withoul 
leaving any memorial of his power. 

7 With Solomon expired the £;randeur and the tranquillitj of the 



248 JEWISH HISTORY. 

Hebrews. Upon the accession of his son Rehoboam to the throne 

the faction of Jeroboam broke out into open rebellion, and tenninat- 
ecl ill the revolt of the ten tribes from their allegiance to the home 
of David. Tbe tribes of Judafi and Benjamin continued loyal to 
their lawtul sovereign. The revolted tribes elected Jeroboam for 
their king, and the monarchy was split into the two separate king- 
doms of Israel and Judah, 971 A. C. 

8. The policy of Jeroboam produced a religious as well as a po- 
litical separation. While the kings of Judah held tht» temple where 
the sacritices were offered, and whither all the i>eople were obliged 
to resort at stated times, they would always have an ascendancy 
over the kingdom of Israel. Jeroboam therefore thought it neces- 
sar^p^ to adopt some measures to prevent the frequent visits of his 
subjects to Jerusalem, the metropolis of the kingdom of Judah. 
The priests, the Levites, and all who were concerned in the ministry 
of religion, were firmly attached to the house of David; and Jero- 
boam supposed that they would naturally exert the inlhience which 
religion gave them over the minds of the people, to alienate their 
affection from his governments and to bring them back to their alle- 
giance to their lawful sovereign. To prevent the obvious conse- 
quences of the continuance of his subjects in religious communion 
with the house of David and kingdom of Judah, Jeroboam sacrificed 
the interest of religion to his poUtical motives. He built a new 
temple, and instituted a new priesthood ; and thus produced a new 
schism among the followers of the Mosaical l-aws, which was never 
extinguished. Soon after this separation, the religion of the ten 
tribes under Jeroboam, deviating more and more from the original 
faistitutions of Moses, became a mixture of J udaism and Pagan idol- 
atry. 

9. After this memorable epoch in the history of the Israelites we 
find little more in their annals than such transactions and events as 
constitute the ordinary subjects of political records. The king<lom 
of Judah adhered with inflexible attachment to princes of the house 
of David ; but usurpations in the kingdom of Israel were common. 
The history of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah during a period of 
almost 400 years, till the burning of Jerusalem by IN ebuchadnez- 
zar, niay, with the exception of a few intervals, be called the an- 
nals of disunion, vice, wars, massacres, servitude, famine, and pesti- 
lence. In this long period of general wickedness and misery, one 
of the most remarkable events is a ^reat battle fought between 
Jeroboam and Abijam the successor ot Rehoboam. T. he armv of 
the former consisted of eight hundred thousand men, that of the 
latter of four hundred thousand. Jeroboam was defeated, and five 
hundred thousand of his men were killed in the battle.'*' 

10. At Uist the kingdom of the ten tribes was extinguished. The 
people were transported into Assyria, and dispersed into different 
parts of the country, whence they never returned. The common 
people who were left in Cana.an were intermixed with i^trangers ; 
and from that mixture of difl'erent nations sprunj^ the motley race, 
which were afterward known by the name of Samaritans. Tfie 
«ad catastrophe of the kingdom of Israel is described by the proplv 
ets in very pathetic terms. The infant^ and pregnant women were 
murdered with horrid barbarity. The men, who had not been slain 
in battle, nor had not escaped by flight, were dragged into bondage, 

♦ The limits of this work do not admit a particular history of the gene- 
rally uninteresting; reig^ns from this period to the Babylonish captivity. 



JEWISH HISTORY. 249 

and their country was divided among the colonies of the conquerors. 
This event happened about 720 A. C., after the kingdom had sub- 
sisted about 2o4 years. 

11. The tottering Itingdom of Judah still continued to enjoy a 
precarious existence ; invaded at diflferent times by the Babylonians, 
rendered tributary, and finally subjugated ; its metropolis and temple 
razed to their foundations by that mighty conqueror Nebuchadnez- 
zar, 584 A. C. ; and all the principal persons, and the must skilful 
artists of every kind, removed to babylon. Thus ends the kingdom 
of Judea, after it had subsisted 468 years from the beginning of the 
reign of David, and 388 years from the separation ot Judah and the 
■jen tribes. 



SECTION XI. 

RESTORATION OF THE JEWS TO THEIR LIBERTY AND 
COUNTRY. 

1. The privation of liberty, and the miseries of bondage seem to 
have brought the people of Israel and J udah to a sense of their past 
transgressions. Unable to resist the power of man, they novir placed 
their sole confidence in the goodness and mercy of God. Neither 
promises nor threats could induce them to abandon their duty, and 
worship the idols of the heathens. 

2. After they had been in captivity 70 years, Cyrus, king of Persia, 
having conquered Babylon, set them at liberty, and issued a decree, 
by which they were permitted to return to their own country, and 
to rebuild Jerusalem and the temple, 543 A. C. He restored to 
them all the sacred utensils which Nebuchadnezzar had taken away 
from the temple. He laid down a plan of the new temple, and 
ordered that the expense of erecting it should be paid out of the 
royal treasury. All who desired it were allowed to remain in their 
present places of residence, and to contribute as much as they pleas- 
ed to the holy edifice. 

It may be proper to observe in this place, that the Israelites who 
returned from the captivity of Babylon were then and ever after- 
ward called J«s'5, because the tribe of J udah was the most power- 
ful of all the tribes of Israel, and indeed almost the only one which 
was considerable after their restoration to their liberty and country 

3. Many of the Israelites chose to remain at Babylon. Those 
who returned to Palestine began the work of the temple with alac- 
rity and vigour. Its progress suffered a temporary obstruction 
through the intrigues of their enemies, and the caprice of Cyrus's 
immediate successoi*s. But in the beginning of the reign of Darius, 
the decree of Cyrus in favour of the Jews was ratified, and many 
new clauses were added for their effectual assistance and security, 
A particular charge was given to the governors of Syria and Sama-* 
ria, not only to prevent any further obstruction of the work, but also 
to furnish supplies out of the tribute of those provinces for carrying 
it on with greater expedition ; and it was decbred that all persons 
who should act contrary to these mstructions would be punished with 
death. 

4. Darius continued to manifest his favour for the Jews, during 
the remainder of his long reign. Their privileges were confirmed 
to them by his son Xerxes. Their interest was still greater with 

3« 



«60 JEWISH HISTORY. 

Artaxerxes, the Ahasuerus of scripture, throiigh the inflnence of his 
queen Esther, a Jewess, ami also through the services of her uncle 
iMordecai, who had discovered and friLslr.ited a conspiracy asainst the 
king^s life. Fix>in Artaxerxes, Ezra obtained very liberal donations, 
to he applied to the sei*\ice of the temple ; and lull powers to gov- 
ern the Jews as the divine will should direct. The like commission 
was also granted to Nehemiah, who rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem, 
and reformed many abuses both civil and religious. 

After these two we tind no more governors of Judea, which prob- 
acy l)ecame subject to the governor of Syria, from whom the nigh- 
priests might immediately derive iheir authority. In this prosperous 
stute were the Jews about 420 years before the christian era. 

5. From this time we may ascribe most of the misfortunes which 
befel the Jewish nation to men who aspired at the sacerdotal dignity 
through ambition and avarice more than zeal for religion. For 
whole centuries the office of higli-priest was the chief object of men's 
ambition. The candirlates purch:ised the office from the Syrian gov- 
ernors, and retained it by means of money. Hence they oppressed 
the people with taxes that they might fulril their pecuniary engage- 
ments. There was no energy among this degraded people, no dig- 
nity among the great, no foresight, no thought of pursuing proper 
measures against foreign invasion. 

6. About 328 A. C. Alexander the great besieged Tyre, and wjis 
incensed against the Jews, because they had refused to su^^ply his 
army with provisions during the siege. After the capture olTyre 
he marchea to Jerusalem with the intention of punishing the Jews 
for their disobedience of his orti»jrs. Jaddua the high-priest was 
ordered in a dream to meet the threatening conqueror in his pontifi- 
cal robes, at the head of all the priests in their pi-oper habits, and 
attended by the rest of the people dressed in white garments. 
Alexander was struck with this religious pomp, and approaching 
the hi^h-priest with awful respect, embraced him with a religious 
kind of veneration. He told his attendants, who expressed surpri'^c at 
his submissive behaviour, that he did not pay this profound respect to 
the high-priest, but to the God whose minister he was. Alexander 
then went to Jerusalem, and offered sacrifice in the temple lo the 
God of the Jews. Upon his departure he granted to the Jews the 
freedom of their country, laws, and religion, and exempted them 
from paying tribute every seventh year. During his whole reign 
they enjoyed great tranquillity ; but with him expired the prosperous 
state of their country. Judea was successively invaded and subdued 
by the Syrians and Egyptians, and the people were reduced to bon- 
dage. 

7. The Jews kept their sabbath so rigidly that they would not 
fight on that day, nor even defend themselves although attacked by 
ait enemy. Ptolemy king of Egypt, having invaded Jude.i, took act- 
vantage of this religious impediment. He entered Jerusalem on the 
sabbath-day witliout resistance, and carried away to Egypt a hundred 
thousand captives, 316 A. C. 

After this time the Jews became the victims of foreign and domes- 
tic wars, and of horrid massacres. 

8. About 198 A. C. Antiochus the great, king of Syria, took 
Jerusalem, plundered the temple, sold 40,000 Jews to the neich- 
bouring nations, and established paganism tliroughout Judea. iVi 
sacrifices ceased, and there scarcely existed any external ngnt of 
religion. 



JEWISH HISTORY. f6l 

This persecution romed the resentment and provoked the resist- 
ance of a priest named Mattathias, and las five sons surnamed Mac- 
cabeus. They all retired into tlie wilderness, and were soon joined 
by a ftreat number of Jews who wished to avoid idolatry and religious 
persbidiion. An aiTny was raised, of wjiich the command was given 
to the eldest son of Mattatliias, named Judas jVlactabeus. 

The deliverance of the Jews from the tyranny and oppression of 
the Greeks, by the uncommon talents, bravery, and patriotismxjf 
Judas Maccabeus, is an achievement as glorious perhiips as anv per* 
formed by the most illustrious heroes of Greece and Home. Having 
gained many signal victories, and delivered his country from bondage 
and idolatry, he was at last slain in battle, 157 A. C. 

9. The brothers of Judas, pursuing their advantages with perse- 
verance and exertion, established the independence oi' their country, 
and changed its republican government to a vigorous and nourishing 
mon;irchy. 

10. John Hyrcanus, son of Simon Maccabeus, uniting in his perso?» 
the otlices of high-priest and generalissimo of the army, and possess- 
ing all the tiUents requisite for the pontirical, the military, <md the 
regal othces, vanquished the enemies of his country, and tirmly esljib- 
lishcd his government. His sons assumed the title as well as the 
power of kings ; and the high-priesthood remained in his faniilj) 
though not in the person of the monarch. The descendants of Hyr- 
canus are distinguished, in the history of the Jewish nation, by the 
appellation of the Asinonean dynasty, which continued about 1^ 
years. 

11. The unlucky dissensions of this family terminated ultimately 
in the conquest of Judea .ind the captuie of Jerusalem by Pompey 
the great, and the subjection of the Jewish nation to the Romans, 
69 AC. 

1 2. After this event the Jewish monarchy was re-established by 
the favour and under the protection of the Remans, who placed 
Herod the great, the son of Antipater, on the throne of David 
This prince demolished the old temple of Jerusalem, and rebuilt 
it ill a very magniticent manner. He reigned with great splendour, 
but with singular despotism and tyranny. He possessed great abili- 
ties, but was cruel and unjust both in his pubUc and private transac- 
tions. His public life exhibits a continued scene oi battles, massa- 
cres, and violence. He died in the tirst year of the birth of Christ, 
or tl^e fourth of the vulgar era. 

The reign of Herod was distinguished by a memorable event, 
vehich has proved more important in its consequences than anv tkat 
has occurred since the creation of the world, the birti of Jesus Chri&f^ 
the author of ike christian religion. 

13. Soon afler the death of Herod, Judea was » reality reduced 
to a Roman province, and the governors were appointed by the 
emperors of Rome. In this condition it re'main'^d till the final ex- 
tinction of the Jewish nation in the year of Christ 75, or of the vul- 
gjir era 72. 

The rapinp and cruelty ot Florus, governor of J udea^ caused a 
rebellion of the Jews, in which 150,000 pei'sons are said to have 
perished, t>9 of Christ, or A. D. 6G. 

The violent and sanguinary faitions among the Jews destroyed in- 
credible numbers of neople of aU ranks. 

14. At length the Jewish nation was extinguished by the Romans, 
and its metropolis reduced to ashes by Titus the Roman general 



tW JEWISH Hlb'l'OKy. ^ 

The last siege of Jerusalem was attended witn scenes of camaee, 
famine, disease, and desperation, far more horrible than any to oe 
found in the annals of human wickedness and misery. During the 
calamitous progress of the siege, I'itus uisplayed manj instinces of 
numaiiity toward the suflerings of the besieged, and of his solicitude 
for the preseryation of tlie city and temple ; but in vain. Their 
doom was predestinated by the irrerocable degree of the Almighty. 
The magniticent temple of the Jews perished in the general wreck 
of the nation, and not one stone was left upon ano'Jier, '75 of Christ, 
wA. D. 72. 

According to a moderate calculation the number of persons who 
perished by violent deaths during the last war in Judea amounted to 
more than one million four hundred thousand, besides many who died 
of grief and famine. 

Since that time the descendants of those who survived the dissolu 
tion of the Jewish nation have been wandering about the world, 
the objects of hatred and contempt rather than of kindness and com 
mberation. In all countries where they have been permitted to 
reside, they have been excluded from the participation of certain 
political privileges which the people of those countries enjoy. 



SECTION XII. 

THE STATE OF LEARNING AND COMMERCE AMONG THE 

JEWS. 

1. Of all the interesting prospects which history opens to our 
view, the progressive advancement of the human mina, in the im- 
provement of its faculties, is the most agreeable, and the most 
worthy of our attention and regard. The brilliant and destructive 
exploits of conquerors may dazzle for a wiiile; but the silent labours 
of the student and the artist, of the architect and the husbandman, 
which embellish the earth and convert it into a paradise, confer per- 
manent benefits on mankind, and promote their prosperity and hap- 
piness. The arts and sciences distinguish the civilized man from the 
savage ; and the investigation of their origin and progress would 
constitute the noblest attribute of history. How unfortunate it is, 
that the ancient historians have almost neglected so interesting and 
pleasing a subject All the knowledge which we can obtain concem- 
mg the origin and progress of learning must be gleaned from uncon- 
nected fragment* and scattered notices, laboriously collected from 
a multifarious and confused mass of trivial particulai-s. 

2. The period of the scriptural history includes the whole space 
of time from the creation of the world" to the subversion of the 
Babylonian monarchy, or about 3,457 years. During this long suc- 
cession of ages a great variety of political, civil, and religious in- 
stitutions had been invented ; the human mind had been much im- 
proved in some countries ; agriculture had been skilfully practised ; 
the surface of the earth had been adorned with large cities and 
stately edifices. Of these interesting subjects, few particulars have 
been faithfully transmitted to posterity, except such as relate to Jew- 
ish laws and institutions, some scattered hints respecting ancient 
commerce, and some excellent specimens of writing in the Prophets 
and Fsalms. In those venerable monuments of antiquity, the sacred 
writings, we trace the Israelites from the patriarchal ages, through 
the turbulent timei of barbaric ignorance, to a cooeiderable degree 



^ JEWISH HISTORY. 263 

of cirilization ancj^ refinement. Of their civil and religious institu- 
tions we iiave a clear and explicit account ; of their kiioivledge of 
the arts and sciences we possess little information. The Jews do not 
geA to have been a scientific or philosophical nation in any period 
of their history. They appear to have been sufficiently skilful in 
the arts of necessity and conveniency ; but not to have made much 
proficiency in those of luxury and ornament. Some admirable speci- 
mens of literature are presented in the scriptures, especially in the 
writings of the Prophets, and in the Psalms. In the historical books 
we observe plainness of style and conciseness of narrative, and un- 
common perspicuity in the didactical pieces. The writings of the 
orophets are chiefly poetical, very different, and all originals. Most 
f them display sublime sentiments, expressed with energy of diction, 
and decorated with oriental imagery. 

3. In the patriarchal ages commerce was so far known and exer- 
cised that gold and silver were used as the medium by which it was 
regulated. In the tumultuous times which succeeded the patriarchal 
we obtain very little information concerning the state oi commerce. 
We have no reason to think that commerce was ever in a flourishing 
state among the Jews. In times of remote antiquity the mechanic 
arts and various kinds of manufactures had made considerable prog- 
ress in some countries. This is manifest from the curious and rich 
materials of the tabernacle and of the high-priest's garments. The 
Israelites, no doubt, brought from Egypt much of their knowledge 
of arts, sciences, and literature ; for the Egyptians had, from time 
immemorial, been gradually advancing in learning ai.d civilization; 
and, during the greater part of the period now under contemplation, 
were famous for the excellence of their civil policy- the extent ana 
population of their cities, the magnificence of tneir public edi- 
faces, and the flourishing state of agriculture. In all these respects 
the Egyptians were distinguished above all the contemporary aativDf 
of antiquity. 

CONCLUSION. 

1. In taking a retrospective view of the various nations whicn 
have successively appeared and flourished upon the grand theatre 
of this world, and have at length vanished and sunk into oblivion, 
their rise, progress, and decline, arrest our attention, and excite our 
curiosity and compassion. The ignorance, avauce, wickedness, and 
ambition of mankind may be assigned as the general causes of the 
dissolution of nations. Many of those kingdoms and states once so 
great and flourishing have not only disappeared, but even their names 
and all remembrance of them must have perished, if they had not 
been preserved and perpetuated in the historical records of scrip- 
ture. In them, however, we behold the transitory and fading splen- 
dour of all human glory, and a diminutive picture of every thing 
which the World calls great ; as eminence of genius and learning, 
military honour and fame, extent of power and dominion, political 
%yisdom, the faculty of eloquence. Finally, we draw this sad conclu- 
sion, that history is little more than a dismal record of the crimes 
and the calamities of the human race !* 

• For a very copious and useful chronological table of the history ol 
Uic Bible see Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible, vol. II. This table is an 
epitome of the history t>f the Jews, and will be particularly useful to 
theological itudenta. f^ 

Y 



T 



"m 



^<ii 



ELEMENTS 



GENERAL HISTORY, 



ANCIENT AND MODERN; 



BEING A CONTINUATION* 



TBlUfflNATIKO AT TSB 



DEMISE OF HIS AlAJESTY KING GEORGE IlL, l^M. 



BT THE REV. EDWARD NARE8, D. D. 
Regiue ProfeBflor of Modem History in the UniTersity of Oxford* 



CONCORD, N. H. 

PUBLISHED BY JOHN F. BROWN. 

1849. 



ADVERTISEMENT. 



As the learned author of the Elements of General History, pro- 
fessor Ty tier, (by courtesy lord Woodhouselee,) hved until the year 
1,813, it is much to be regretted that he did not bring his hiitory 
down to a laior period. 

In the present volume nothing further has been attempted than to 
continue the history from the point at which the professor Ici't it, in 
the same coGcise style, and with as much attention to the original 
method and design, as could be rendered consistent with the extraor- 
dinary nature of ihe facts and incidents to be recorded. 

To this end it has been found necessary to carry on the history of 
Gr lat Britain and Ireland from the period of the death of queen 
Anne ; 

That of the Southern Continental States of Europe, from the end 
of the reign of Louis XIV ; 

And that of the Northern States from the death of Charles XII. 
of Sweden, and Peter the First of Kuasia 



PART THIRD. 
MODERN HISTORY. 



SECTION ! 



rKANCE FROM THE DEATH OF LEWIS XIV. 1,715, TO THE 
PEACE OF VIENNA, 1,738. 

1. The last years of the very long and splendid reign of Lewis 
XIV. were clouded by many severe domestic misfortunes, and a 
great change in the sentiments and manners of the sovereign and his 
court. A mystical leligion became the vogue, accompanied with » 

fjravity of demeanour approaching to prudery. The amiable Fene- 
on iell into these errors, which were countenanced by madame de 
Maintenon, who had been privately married to the king, and seems 
to have possessed his confidence in a high degree. 

2. On the king's demise (see Sect. LXIV.) the crown descended 
to his grandson, Lewis XV., an infant, only five years old. In a 
very short space of time^ losses had occurred in the royal family, so 
strange and unexpected, as to afibrd ground for suspicion, greatly 
to the prejudice of the duke of Orleans, nephew of Lewis XI V. 
Three heirs to the crown, the Dauphin, his son the duke of Bur- 
gundy, and his grandson the duke of Bretagne, had all died within 
the short space of eleven months, during the years 1,711, 1,712, 
leaving, to intercept tlie claims and pretensions' of the duke of Or- 
leans, only the duke of Berry and one infant, apparently of a feeble 
and delicate constitution, and whose own life had also been in dan- 
ger. The king of Spain had been previously compelled, according 
to the spirit of the celebrated treaty of the Pyrenees, formally to 
renounce his claims to the succession, notwithstanding his near rela- 
tionship to the crown of France. Lastly, the duke of Berry died. 
May 1,714, at the early age of 18. 

3. Fortunately for the reputation of the duke of Orleans, (who, 
though of loose morals, seems to have possessed too generous a 
heart for such base deeds), the infant dauphin not only lived to be 
come king, but to survive the duke himself, many years. Nov were 
the suspicions which had been raised by the sudden deaths of so 
many heirs to the crown, strong enough to prevent the nation repos- 
ing the highest confidence in the duke, by suffering the kingly power 
to pass hito his hands, as sole regent, during the minority ; though 
contrary to the express appointment of the late king, who is sitid 
to have wisely observed, when for fornrs sake he executed his will 
that it would have but little weight with the people, or the parlia 
meiit, as soon as his eyes were closed. The nation willing v accedeo 

Y2 S2 



«58 MODERN HISTORY. 

to the disposition of the parliament, in setting aside the claims of the 

il!egitirn;ilc princes, whom the \\\\\ of Lewis MV. ravouriMJ ; am] 



the (hike oj Orleaiis was careliii lo (ix ll/.il body in his irjterrsl, by 

t)romising lo restore to it its full power of remonstrance, which haa 
>een j;really restr.iined during the precedintj reign. 

4. Lewis XI\'. had left his kintjdtirn so inciimheicd with debt, and 
FO suiTonn<letl by morlihe«l, jealous, and exasperated neijjhhonrs, 
eager to recover what iiad been taken Irom them <iuring the trium- 
j)hant wars of that monarrh, that it herame an object ol the higliest 
miporlance to the regent, lor the nation's sake, as well as his own, lo 
nudntain peace as far as he could with ibreign states. To this end, 
tiiough contrary to any former course of things, he prudently endea- 
voured to form alliances with the courts of Si. Jauieis and Vienna. 
In the forme'' case the advantages were similar and mutual. By the 
treaty of Utrecht, Lngland stood engaged to secure the French 
crown to the regent, in case Lewis X v. should die without Iss-je , 
and to keep her steady to this engagement, it was easy for the duke 
.o comply with the wishes of the whig government of England, in 
withholding all encouragement Irom the pretendei'. 

5. However pacific the views of the regent might be, Spain 
seemed to present an obstacle to the repose and tranc^uillity of Eu 
rope. 'I'here a minister of a very different disposition had ofitained 
the chief management of affairs, who appeared bent upon disturbing 
both Ihe French and English governments, in order to recover what 
had been taken from Spain by the treaty of Utrecht, especially in 
Italy ; to deprive the duke ol Orleans ol the regency, in favour of 
the king his master, and to seal the pretender on the throne ol Great 
Britain, with the aid of Russia and Sweden. Such were the plans ol 
the celebrated Mberoni ; originally the son of a gardener; afterwards 
in the lowest stations in the church of Placenlia, but who had raised 
himself, by an extraordinary display of genius and talent, to the high- 
est degree of credit and intluence at the court of Philip V., with the 
exalted rank of cardinal. 

6. These movements indeed on the part of Spain, were not io 
themselves altogether unfavourable to the views of the regent ; in 
better securing to him the. good will of England and Austria, always 
prepared lo be jealous of loo close an intimacy between the courts 
of Paris and Madrid. Some historians have even gone so far as to 
suppose it to have been a settled contrivance to impose on the former 
two courts, but certainly without sufficient grounds. 

^ 7. It seems lo have been a great oversight in the negotiations at 
Utrecht, not to have endeavoured more effectually to reconcile the 
coiirLs of Austria and Spain. The former, affer the treaty, remained 
'ealous of the occupation of the Spanish throne by Philip; while 
the latter could not fail lo be aggrieved and offended at being made 
to contribute t / the indemnilication of Charles VI., by a very consid- 
erable dismemberment of its dominions, without any suitable or 
adequate remunenition. 

8. To counle-act the projects o( Alberoni, the regent entered into 
an alliance with Englancl and the United Slides; entirely Siicrificing 
to the former the interests of Ihe pretender, who was to be sent out 
of France. But the Sr>.inish minister was not lo be deterred by this 
triple :dliance an! conlederary against him. Having watched his op. 

Kortunity of a war between ihe emperor of Germany and the Poile. 
e suddenly commenced hostilities ; and, with no small degree of 
treachery, m the oourw o< the years 1,717 and 1,718, succeeded in 



MODERN HISTORY. t89 

wresting from Austria the island of Sardinia, and from the duke of 
Savoy th'»t of Sicily, thus violating, in the most direct and glaring 
manner, the solemn treaty of kasladl, so lately concluded. In con- 
sequence of these proceedings, and in order to remedy, a- it would 
seem, the defects and omissions ot the original convention, Austria 
was admitted a party to the alliance between Prance, England, and 
Hollaiul, with a view to bring about a reconciliation between the 
emperor and Spain, upon the basis of tbe following arrangement : 
that the former should renounce all claims to the Spanish throne in 
favour of Philip, while the bitter should surrender to the emperor the 
Netherlands, the duchv of Milan, and the kingdom of Naples, as- 
signed to him by the treaty of Utrecht and the' quadruple alliance. 
Tijat the duke of Savoy should yield Sicily to Austria, receiving in 
exchange the island ot Sardinia from Spain; and that the eldest son 
of Philip by his second marriage, don Carlos, should be secured in 
the reversion of the duchies ot Paraia and Placentia, and the grand 
duchy of Florence, to be holden as male tiels under the emperor, 
and on no occasion whatever to be united to the crown of Spain. 

9. There never was a period perhaps in which it would have 
been more difficult to unravel the policy of these several courts. It 
was certainly a strtlnge thing for the emperor to agree, in any man- 
ner, to admit the Spaniards into Italy, of which he had so much reason 
to be distrustful ; mucl\more to assist in doing so. VVhi.e those very 
terms, which were undoubtedly introduced to gratify the Spanish 
minister, in this particular »espect, so far from securing the ready 
consent of the court of Madrid, only induced it to make fresh e fib rts. 
The predominance of France and England, however, soon became 
so conspicuous, as to compel Philip to subscribe to the articles of the 
a'-liance, and even to dismiss his favourite minister, the cause of all 
the grievances of which the allied powers had to complain. In 
1,720 Austria took possession of Sicily, and V'ictor Amadeus II. traos- 
lerred the seat of his government to the island of Sardhiia. 

10. In the month of December, 1,723, in the 50th year of his age, 
the regent duke of Orleans died very suddenly in a ht of apoplexy. 
He was a prince of shining talents, and of great taste and spirit; but 
dissolute in his habits of life to a most disgraceful pitch of extrava- 
gance. He did not indeed suffer his pleasures and licentious connexr 
ions to interfere greatly with the discharge of his public duties, but 
they tarnished his fame, and in all likeUhood shortened his life. He 
had the misfortune in his youth to be put into the hands of a most 
unprincipled tutor, the Abbe Dubois, who continued with hitn to 
the last year of his life, dying oi.Iy four months belore him, a cardi- 
nal of Rome, and prime minister of France ! The elevation of this 
profligate man to such high stations in the church and state, did 
more mischief to the cause of religion and morality, than the person- 
al vices of the regent, who, amidst a thousand foibles, had some great 
and brilliant qualities. 

Neither Austria nor Spain were satisfied with what had been done 
tor them, i;ad strong remonstrances were prepared on the part of tne 
dukes of Parma and Placentia, the grand duke of Tuscany, and th€ 
pope, against the grants in reversion to the Infant of Spain. At' 
tempts were made to rexoncile the two courts more effectually by a 
congress, summoned to meet at Cambpay, in the year 1,724, under 
the j'lint mediation of France and England, but ineffectually : in 
1,729 another, but more private attempt, had better success ; it was 
undertaken by a very singular and eccentric character, the baron, or 



^m MODEItN HlSTORy. 

duke, de Kipperda, Dutch minister at the court of Madrid, who luo* 
ceeded so far, through his own intrigues, and the venality of the im 

E2rial court, as to give umbrage to the governments of France and 
nghind ; the latter soon saw the neces.<iity of guarding, by a coun- 
ter-treaty, framed at Hanover, against tlie eflfecta of Kipperda^s ia 
terposition. 

11. Secret articles were said to be signed and executed, to recov- 
er lor Spain the fortress of Gibraltar and the island of Minorca, to 
seat the pretender on the throne of Great Britain, to forward the 
emperor's views with regard to the Ostend East India Company, 
and to cement the alliance by marriages v;hich would have kiid a 
foundation for the reunion of the Austrian and Spanish dominions 
under one sovereign. Kipperda himself is said to have communicat- 
ed these secret articles to the English government : he was made to 
pay dear for his treachery. 

As the empress of Russia had acceded to the treaty of Vieima^ 
concluded by Kipperda, and France and England had taken steps to 
secure Holland and Prussia on their side, Europe seemed to be 
threatened with another general war, but the timely death of the 
empress, in 1,727, and the defection of Prussia, gave a turn to afiairs- 
and left room lor the renewal of the congress of Citmbray, transferrea 
in the year 1,728, to Soissons, where fresh endeavours were made 
to establish a solid and permanent peace. As.the emperor, however, 
msisted on the accession of all the contracting powers, to the Prag- 
matic Sanction, which was to secure to his heirs general the undi- 
vided succession to all his territories and dominions, the other courts 
withdrew; and in November, 1,729, concluded at Seville in Spain a 
separate treaty, in which it was agreed, between France, England, 
and Spain, to support the pretensions of the Infant to the duchies ot 
Parma, Piacentia, and Tuscany. To this treaty Holland was sood 
after brought to accede, on the condition that her rights should be 
protected against the new East India Company, established by the 
empei'or at Ostend, which was considered as contrary to the treaty 
of Westphalia, and manifestly injurious both to England and the 
United States. Tiie treaty of Seville was settled so totally without 
the concurrence of the emperor, that his name was not even men- 
*ioned in it; which, as might be reasonably expected, gave great 
oflfence. In the year 1,731, however, England, and in 1,732 Holland, 
acceded to the wishes of the emperor, in regard to the Pragmatic 
Sanction, on condition that the archduchess, who should succeed to 
the empire, should not marry any Bourbon, or other prince or po- 
tentate, capable of disturbing the peace of Europe. The Ostend 
Company was given up; the Infant don Carlos took possession of the 
duchies of Parma and Piacentia on the death of the last of the Far- 
nese tamily, and the grantl duke of Tuscany acknowledged him as 
his heir. A treaty between England, Holland, and the empire, chill- 
ed the second tioaty of Vienna, was signed and executed at the la».tei 
place, which may be said to have terminated all the differences aris- 
ing out ot the Spanish succession, by which the greater part of Eu- 
rope nad been kept in a state ol agitiition for the space of thiity 
years. 

While these things were in agitation, Victor Amadeus, embarrass- 
ed, as ii is said, with the counter engagements he had entered intc 
with Austria and Spain, thouglit fit to resign his crown to his son, 
Charles Emmanuel, but soon repenting of what he had done, pre- 
pared to reaiicend his abdicated throne ; this rash and ii\}udicious steo 



MODERN HISTORY. 861 

virat the cause of his imprisonment, and probably of his death, which 
nappened in November, 1,732. 

12. in 1,733, France became involved again in a war, both the 
origin and end of which had something remarkable in them. The 
throne of the elective kingdom of Poland becoming vacant by the 
demise of Augustas of Saxony, two competitors appeared on the 
stage ; the son of the deceased king, and Stanislaus Lescinsky, who 
had with great credit previously occupied it through the interposi- 
tion of Charles XII. of Sweden, (see Sect. LXVl.) and whose daugh- 
ter was married to Lewis XV. The emperor of Germany, tlie 
Czarina, and the king of Prussia, espoused the cause of the former 
France supported the latter, and commenced hostilities against the 
emperor, by detaching the king of Sardinia from his interests, and 
occupying Lorrain, whose duke Was engaged to marry the emperoi''s 
daughter. But the principal seat of war was in Italy, where the 
French, Spanish, and Sardinian combined troops obtained many ad- 
vantages, and ultimately succeeded in seating don Carlos, duke oi 
Parma, &c., on the throne of the Two Sicilies, to which he had been 

Particularly invited by the Neapolitans. The Austrian court had 
een very supine, in not guarding better against the manifest de- 
signs of the queen of Spain, mother of don Carlos. He was crown- 
ed king by the title ot Charles the third, July 3, 1,735. Naples 
was subdued in 1,734, and Sicily in the year following. During this 
contest, the celebrated prince Eugene, though then past seventy 
years of age, had the command of the imperial army on the Rhine ; 
out he had great cause to be offended with the situation in which he 
was placed ; the French being strongei ; England not to be roused 
to assist him, through the pacific views of the minister Walpole ; and 
having, both at court and in the army, many rivals and secret ene- 
mies. His only consolation was, the extreme and enthusiastic at- 
tachment of the soldiers, the very remembrance of which, as he 
feelingly acknowledges in his own memoirs, often afterwards drew 
tears from his eyes. 

13. Matters were brought to an accommodation, through the medi- 
ation of the maritime powers, (who, undoubtedly, appear in this 
case to have been guilty of misleading the emperor,) by a conven- 
tion signed at Vienna, in November, 1,738. By this treaty some 
very extraordinary appointments took place. Stanislaus, the depos- 
ed king of Poland, iather-in-law to the king of France, obtained, 
keeping his kingly title, tne duchies of Lorrain and Bar, to revert to 
France after his death, which did not take place till the year 1,766. 
In exchange for what w;is thus bestowed upon Stanislaus, the duke 
of Lorrain obtained the grand duchy of Tuscany, the reversion of 
which had been guaranteed to the Infant don Carlos, but who was, 
by the same treaty, acknowledged king of the Two Sicilies, surrm- 
dering in his turn to the emperor, his two duchies of Parma and Pla- 
centia; Vigevano and Novaro were given to the king of Sardinia; 
and to the emperor, the Milanese, the Mantuan, and Parma. 

On the conclusion of the peace, France acceded to the Pragmatic 
Sanction. The kings of Spain and Sardinia showed some reluctance 
to agree to the terms of the treaty, but were induced to sign it in the 
course of the year 1,729. It is certainly very renwrkable, that, in 
consequence of a dispute about the crown of Poland, not only the 
emperor should have lost almost all his possessions in Italy, but 
France should have been able to recover a province of which she 
had been deprived for the space of nearly a thousand years, and 80 



28f MODEllN HISTORY. 

situated as to render U one of the most splendid and gratifjiiig acqui 
sitiuns she could [)ossil)ly have contemphited. 



SECTION II. 

ENGLAND FROM THE ACCESSION OF THE HOUSE OF HAN- 
OVER, 1,714, TO THE END OF THE REIGN OF GEORGE THE 
FIRST, 1,727. 

1. Queen Anne was no sooner dead, [Part 11. Sect. LXIV. ^ 20.] 
than steps were taken for the immediate acknowledgment of her suc- 
cessor, George Lewis, elector of Brunswick Luneburg, pursuant to 
the several acts of parliament, for securing the protestant s^ticcession, 
in exclusion of the pretender, tite house of Savoy, and, in lact, every 
catholic branch of the royal family of Kngland ; many of whom 
were more directly in the line of inheritance than the protesiant 
descendants of James the tirst, in whom the crown was now vested ; 
not, however, without due regard to that hereditary line which may 
be said to have occupied the throne from the time of Egbert. The 
late union with Scotland, 1,7UG, [see as above] was calculated to sup- 
press any general desire, on the part of the people there, to place 
themselves again under a distinct sovereign. 

2. The accession of George I., to judge from the addresses of the 
two houses of parliament, and the general tranquillity manifested in 
all parts of the three kingdoms, at the time of his proclamation, 
would seem to have been acceptable to the nation at large Nor 
was the French king long before he openly acknowlcnlged his right 
and title to the crown of Great Britain, though the sincerity of his 
declarations in favour of a protestant succession, and the exclusion 
of the 'louse of Stuart, was not too confidently relied upon. The 
states of Holland were, probably, entirely cordial, both in their ex- 
pressions of congratulation, and promises of support, according to 
existing engagements to that effect, as guarantees of the Hanoverian 
succession. From the king of Prussia, and various other princes and 
states of Germany, his majesty also received the strongest assuran- 
ces of support; yet so little are these courtesies to be trusted, that 
it is more than probable, from circumstances since come to light, 
fhat at this very moment, with regard to the continental states in 
general, he had more enemies than triends. 

3. His entrance into his new dominions, however, September, 
1,714. was hailed in a manner that could not fail to be extremely 
gratifying to the king, though it t-oon became manilest, and could not 
well have been otherwise, that there were many secret heart-buiTi- 
ings and disappointed hopes, to prevent that perfect unanimity which 
was most desirable on an occasion so importani. The tories, some 
of whom had evnlently been tampering with the pretender, during 
the last years of the queen"'s reign, were greatly discomfited, and 
in a very marked manner discountenanced by the king himself The 
whigs enjoyed a triumph. The pretender's friends in general stood 
confounded, not only by the low estate of his cause, but by the per- 
plexity of their own feelings, with regard to his more direct heredi- 
tary claims to the crown. In this dilemma, it is not to be wortlei'ed 
that several should refuse to lake the oaths of allegiance ynd abju- 
ratioo. Scotlaod also, iu part at least, bewailed its lost iadeitcadQacy 



MODERN HlSl'OKT. 263 

by the act of nnioD, which some were forward to have dissolved 
agnin; and the papists, heing very namerous in Ireland, rendered 
thr! peace of »liat kingdom constantly precarious. 

4. The persoi., Tiannei's, and deportment of the new sovereign, 
wrre not such as immediately to conciliate his British subjects ; but 
ht. was by no means destitute of kingly virtues and accom'plishments 
ol a more solid and im{3ortant description. Having delivered the 
ministerial government of the realm into the hands of the whigs, it wus 
not long belore serious proceedings were entered into, by the new 
administration, against the authors and advisers of the late peace and 
treaty of Utrecht ; and articles of impeachment for high treason ex- 
hibited against the earl of Oxford, viscount Bolingbroke, the duke ot 
Ormond, earl of Strafford, and others. The duke of Ormond, and 
lord Bolingbroke, absconded ; the earl of Oxford, with greater mag- 
nanimity, stood upon his defence, and though imprisoned for a con- 
siderable time, was finally acquitted. IJnder a pretence of the 
church being in danger, \vhich seems to have been adopted as a sort 
of watch-word by the tory party and Jacobites, (for so the adherents 
of the pretender were called,) riots and tumults took place in many 
parts of the kingdom ; in consequence of which, the king was em- 
powered by parliament (1,715.) to raise fresh forces, and the Jmheas 
corpus act was suspended, for the more speedy apprehension and de- 
tention of suspected persons. 

5. In Scotland, however, notwithstanding great precautions to the 
contrary, a rebellion actually broke out in the month of August, 
1,715, headed by the earl of Mar, late secretary of state for that 
kingdom ; and in September, the pretender''s standard was erected 
at a place called Brae Mar, though the pretender himself did not ar- 
rive in Scotland till the December following ; before which time a 
severo action had taken place at Dunblain, between the contending 
armies, commanded on the side of the English by the duke of 
Argyle ; and on the side of the Scotch by the earl of Mar. The 
pretender, on reaching the shores of Scotland, was received with 
regal honours, and addresses were presented to him from many cor- 
porate bodies; even his coronation was tixed to take place on the 
t'dA day of January. But during the course of these transactions, 
the chief ofhcers of his army, as soon after appeared, were but too 
well convinced of their perfect inability to terminate the contest 
successfully, many things having fallen out to the disappointment of 
their hopes; particularly the death of Lewis XIV., who, notwith- 
standing his protestations in favour of the house of Jlanover, had 
secretly favoured their caase. The English army, besides, since the 
battle of Dunblain, had been considerably reinforced, by Dutch as 
well as English troops. This being the case, as we learn Irom an ac- 
count given by the earl of Mar himself, they felt compelled to abandon 
their enterprise for the present; and in order to check the pursuit 
of the enemy, eager to seize the person of the pretender, they per- 
suaded the latter to leave the kingdom again, and return to F lancc ; 
tlie earl of Mar himself accompanying him. They were followed, 
afleiwards, by many leaders of^ the rebels, who, in a most extraordi- 
nary manner, es<:-aped the English vessels stationed to intercept theii 
passage ; but some of those, who had previously fallen into the 
hands of tlie English, as the earl of Derwentwater, and ethers, were 
impeached, and pleading guilty, executed. Many escaped by an act 
of grace. Thus was the rebelUon, in a great measure, subdued; 
congratulatory addresses pourwl in upon the sovereign, aad a day ot 



t^M 



ee4 MODERN nis^roRY. 

public thanksgiving was appointed to be observed throughout the 

kingdom. 

r>. The whigs, however, apprehendiner tiiat their opponents, in a 
new parliament, might regain their ascoiulancy. ap'! oe able to carry 
into execution their projects against the existing government, brought 
in a bill, (since called the septennial bill,) lor enlarging the continu- 
ance ot' parliament, whereby the term was extended from three to 
snen years, unless sooner dissolved by the king, and to begin with 
the parliament then chosen and assembled ; a most important meas- 
ure, and accidentally originating with a party more friendly in repute 
to the rights and liberty of the people than the step itself would 
seem to imply. Abstracted from all temporary or party considera- 
tions, it may justly be regarded as a very delicate and important 
point in politics, to determine either a maximum or minimum^ with 
regard to the duration of such elective assemblies as the English 
house of commons. Frequent elections being essentially necessary 
to preserve the people from any gross neglect of their mterests by 
their representatives, or any unconstitutional encroachment on their 
liberty, jis well as to remedy abuses ; but too frequent elections, hav- 
ing evidently the ill effect of keeping up party divisions, feuds, and 
animosities, interrupting business, and lessening the conlidence of 
foreign states in the measures of government. Too frequent elec- 
tions, besides, by bringing independent candidates so much the 
oftener into a contest with tne treasury, (for government must have, 
and will always endeavour to exert, a powerful intiuence,) may io 
time deter such persons from a conflict so disadvantageous ; unle^ 
in short, government influence in elections should be entirely done 
Qway, the more frequently they recur, the more they will harass 
and weaken private independence. (See Burke's works.^ It was 
•jiidoubtedly a bold step ior any parliament, chosen under the popu 
lar triennial act of king vVilliam, to enlarge its own continuance ; nor 
was it ill urged by a member of the house of peers, as an argument 
against the bill, that, " if the existing house of commons continued 
themselves beyond the time for which they were chosen, they were 
no more the representatives of the people, but a house ot their own 
making." The whigs, however, had this excuse, that the proposed 
measure was calculated to suppress a rebellion, or prevent the re- 
newal of one ; not raised, like other rebellions, under a pretence of 
liberty, but, in their eyes, clearly tending towards slavery, in the 
establishment of a catholic prince, and the destruction of the prot- 
ectant interests, both in church and state. It was well that they as- 
signed any limit to their continuance, since a mere repeal ot' the 
triennial act would have left the tenn undefined. The bill was final- 
ly passed, after much opposition in the lower house, and a strong 
protest on the part of many lords in the upper, by a majority in the 
commons of 264 to 121 ; and it has continued the law of parliament 
ever since. , «• • 

7. In the year 1,717, an unpleasant dispute occurred, affecting the 
church, and'which seems to have terminated the sittings of convo- 
cation. Dr. lloadley, bishop of Bangor, gave ocaision to it, by a 
sermon preached before the king, March ol, on "The Nature of 
the Kingdom of Christ," and by a publication entitled, "a Preserva- 
tive against the Principles and tlie Practices of the Non-jurors." 
The bishop had been a warm friend to the revolution, and many of 
the principles he asserted were undoubtedly directed rather against 
popery than our own establishment ; while, in opposition to the jur* 



MODERN HISTORY. 265 

iivtno pretence of the tories, he declaimed violently against every 
abuse of authority, at the hazard of impairing all churcn discipline, 
^ derogating from the regal supremacy in "causes ecclesiastical, and 
* annulling the force of all civil sanctions whatsoever in matters of 
religion ; on these grounds the convocation took the matter up, but 
without much effect. It was dissolved in the midst of the controver- 
sy, and has never sat to do business since. Those who chiefly at 
tacked the bishop in print, were Dr. Snape of Eton, dean Sherfock, 
Dr. Cannon, (who undertook to vindicate the proceedings of convo- 
cation,) Dr. Potter, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, and Mr. 
William Law. Perhaps no antagonist entered the lists, with more 
decorum of manners, or integrity of disposition, than the latter, who, 
in several letters addressed to the bishop, plainly proved that, how- 
ever innocent his irAenlions might be, his arguments and expressions 
plainly tended to the subversion of all church authority, and the en- 
couragement of a most fatal indifference to every particular form of 
wcrship and belief. Which, considering the tiigh situation he held 
in the church, and the duties attached to that station, could not but 
appear in the hght of an abandonment of those principles, which 
alone could have placed him there. Such, however, was the state 
of parties at the time, that the bishop was advanced to a higher post 
in the church, and some of the most forward of his opponents dis- 
missed from their employments about the court. 

{]. In 1,718 George the first became a party to the celebrated 
quadruple alliance, formed to counteract the plans and projects of the 
^Spanish minister Alberoni, (Sect. I. § 8,) who, while his views were 
chiefly directed towards his native country, Italy, managed to involve 
almost the whole of Europe in contests and jealousies, exceedingly 
perplexing, and inimical to the peace and tranquillity ojf many states. 
Distant as Sweden was, geographically, from the seat and object of 
his manoeuvres, yet, in order to prevent any interruption from Eng- 
land, he had nearly instigated the celebrated Charles XII. to invade 
the latter country, for the purpose of restoring the pretender to the 
til rone of his ancestors. His agents and accomplices, however, 
were fortunately detected in time to prev^ent the rupture between 
file two courts. George 1. was no favourite, either with the Swedish 
n»onarch, or his celebrated competitor, the czar of Muscovy. 

9. The chief object of the quadruple alliance, as has been before 
hinted, was to reconcile and adjust the rival claims and pretensions 
of the courts of Vienna and Madrid. Alberoni had endeavoured, 
during the war between the emperor and the Turks, to get posses- 
sion of Sardinia, Sicily, and other places, for the sons of the queen 
of Spain, a princess of Parma, his native country. He had proposed, 
in short, to recover for Spain all that had been conceded and surren- 
dered by the treaty of Utrecht. (Part II. Sect. LXIV.) The inter- 
ference of England, in sending a fleet to the Mediterranean, to sup- 
port the rights of the emperor, according to treaty, at the very mo 
ment when the Spanish forces were prepared to invade Sicily and 
the kingdom of Naples, exceedingly exasperated the cardinal min- 
ister, and induced him to heap reproaches on the British govern- 
ment for their precipitate proceedings, pretending that the Spaniards 
had in every instance manifested a favourable disposition towards 
England ; though nothing was more notorious than that her mer- 
chiuits had been scandalously ill-treated by them, and her minister 
at Madrid overwhelmed with complaints to that effect. The latter, 
indeed, stated aftenvards in the house of commons, that he had pr^ 
Z 34 



266 MODERN HISTORY. 

pcnted, at the least, tive-and-twenty memorials to the court of Spain 
upon the suhject, without redress; and notwithstanding all tlitse in- 
dignities, and to evince the desire of his government not too piecipi-^ 
tately to commence hostililie.*, had corninnnicated to the Spanish nun-' 
ister the numbers and force of the Knglish tleet before it saileil, in 
order to convince him of its superiority, and deter him troni iIjc 
measures lie had in view. The deleat ot the Spanish lleeL, oft' Sicily, 
by admiral Byng, August 1,718, ruiried all the proiects of Alberoui; 
he soon after fell into disgnice, and \v;»s precipitated from the exalted 
station he had attained to by the strength of his genius; which, whal- 
•ver his enemies might allege, certainly bespoke a keen and vigi- 
lant statesman, and an able minister, as far as regarded the interests ^ 
of the country he served, both foreign and domestic. 

10. Though so severe an action had taken place in the Mediter- 
ranean, between the English and Spanish Ueets in the month ol 
Auguet, war was not formally declared at London tiil the close of 
the year 1,718, (Dec. 29.) between which period and the final dis- 
grace and retirement ot the Spanish minister, he had attempted 
two measures of deep revenge, one on the power and person ot the 
duke of Orleans, regent of France, and the other on the govern- 
ment of George I. of England, by an invasion of his dominions in 
favour of the pretender, and under the direction of the expatriated 
duke of Ormond. It is remarkable that these projects were severally 
detected by the French regent and British monarch, in lime to adi.iit 
of their warning each other of the danger in which they were re- 
spectively placed, and of offering the assisl'ince which tlie CJises re- 

11. The war so suddenly and unexpectedly excited between 
Great Britain and Spain, was in no long course of time brought to 
an issue very honourable and glorious to the former ; admiral Byng 
with his fleet in the Mediterranean, having so managed matters as 
fully to accomplish all the purposes of his mission, putting ,l"e ^l^- 
peror into possession of Sicily, :md the duke ot Savoy ot Sardinia, 
under circumstances of peculiar dillicullv atul embarrassment, owing 
to the obstinacy, backed by the bravery of the Spaniards, the hin- 
dnmces arising from a succession of governors at xX.iples, and the 
loss of time in the necessary communications with his own cour 
and thai of Vienna. xVo man, perhaps, ever discharged so delicate 
and arduous a commi^^ion, witii more applause on llie part ol hi« 
own country and her allies, or with fewer complaints and less obloquy 
on the pari of his opponents. The latter indeed, in this case, rallier 
joined in the commendations so liberally bestowed on him by his em- 
ployers, at the termination of the short but vigoious content. U hen 
he waited on the king at Hanover, his majesty is said, very jtisiiy, to 
have observed to him, that he had lound out the secret (U obliging 
his enemies as well as his friends; alluding to the very honourable 
terms in which the Spaniards had expressed themselves concemmc 
him, both as an olficer and negotiator. He was most deservedly ad- 
vanced to the peerage, by the title of viscount 1 orrington, and had 
other appropriate honoui-s bestowed upon him. lowards the close 
of the year 1,719, the king of Spain acceded to the terms ol the 
quadruple alliance; his minister, on the urgent and joint demanus 
of the king of Englan-'. tne cmpt- ror. ana ngeni oi I- ranee, having 
been previously cismisseu. an.i banished me Kingdom ol Spain. 

12. In the course of the year i,719, a oiU was orought mto par- 
'jament by the ministry, (or limiting the number of the peers. *i 



MODERN HIS1X)RY. 267 

originated with Lord Sunderland, who is said to have had in view to 
restrain the power of the prince ol Wales, whom he had offended, 
when he should succeed to the throne. After much debate, and it is 
supposed almost entirely through the indnence of Sir Robert Wal- 
pole, it was rejected by a large maj'^rity, 269 to 177. 

13. In 1,720 the king was much occupied in afiording protection 
and support to the protestant interests abroad, and in endeavouring 
to restore peace and tranquillity amongst the northern states. Swe- 
den, Denmark, Prussia, and Poland, reaped the fruits of his media- 
tion ; but the czar resisted his proposals, and, for some time, contin- 
ued to act against Sweden, in defiance of the combined operations ot 
that country and England. He at last, however, consented to accept 
the mediation of France, and peace was established between Russia 
and Sweden, by the treaty of Nystadt, 1,721. 

14. Nothing occurred in this reign more disastrous in its conse- 
quences, or more sh^ange and extravagant in its origin and progress, 
than the celebrated South Sea scheme, whereby, though immense for- 
tunes were rapidly utdde by some, many individuals were ruined, 
and public credit alarmmgly shaken. The details of this curious 
speculation and bubble (as it has been but too justly denominated,) 
it would be exceedingly uninteresting to enter into, in a work Uke 
the present, and they are easily to be found elsewhere ; but such an 
instance of public infatuation, illusion, and credulity, was only to be 
matched by the Mississippi scheme, projected by Law, during the 
regency in France, which had a similar effect, and which was most 
probably the model from which Sir John Blunt, the projector of the 
South Sea scheme, took the hint. The French system has been sup- 
pc^ed to have had sometliing more substantial in it, wuth respect to 
the exclusive trade to Louisiana. But the South Sea scheme had 
certainly commercial advantages attached to it. The two schemes, 
it must be admitted, supply the most useful lesson to all wise slates, 
not to tamper with the public credit, or countenance such suspicious 
projects; tor though both these adventures set out with very plau- 
sible pretences of public benefit, and a certainty of reUeving, rather 
than distressing, the credit of the nation, their course and progress 
soon became such as to excite the most lively apprehensions in all 
considerate minds, of the consequences which actually ensued; es- 
pecially in England. 

15. The politics of Europe were in a very perplexed state, to- 
wards the close of the reign of George I., owing to two treaties, 
of which some account has been given in another place, but which 
were very important to the English nation. These were the trea- 
ties of Vienna and Hanover, the former of which took place in 

*April, and the latter in September, 1,725. By the former, the em- 
peror and Spain were supposed secretly to have bound themselves 
to procure the restitution of Gibraltar and Port 31ahon, to the latter - 
power; to aid the pretender, and to iurther the interests of the Os- '^ 
tend East India Company, which had given umbrage to England, 
Holland, and France. By the latter treaty, England was able to 
secure on her side, against the projects of Austria and Spain, the 
kings of Prussia and Sweden, and the states of Holland ; but as this 
aid was veiy slowly and reluctantly promised', and, in one instance, 
soon abandoned, the state of affairs would have been very alarming, 
but for the encouragement given by parliament, which was so effec- 
tual, that though considerable preparations for war took place on the 
part of almost all the nations concerned, articles of peace, through 



2G& MODERN HISTOHY. 

the mediation of France, were agreed upon in May, 1.127, and ac- 
cepted by the imperial court and Spiiin ; by these the cnarter of the 
Oj«lend company was suspentled lor a certain period, and the siege 
of Gibraltar, which had actually commenced, and been carried on 
for four months, raised anti abandoned. 

It). George 1. died at Osnaburgb, on his way to his electoral do 
minions, J ime 1 1, 1,727, with the reputation of an honest and generous 
prince. He was brave in the field, and wise in council ; having had 
many arduous negotiations on his hands, which he commonly con- 
ducted to a favourable issue ; not often, however, without large sub- 
sidies. His own measures were generally defensive and preventa- 
tive. He was fortunate in the state of things, at the period of Queen 
Anne's death, and in the removal of Lewis XIV., and Charles XU. of 
Sweden, both of whom were personally unfriendly to him, and cer- 
tainly had projects on foot for the restoration of the Stuart family. 
King George constantly manifested a disposition to govern according 
to the laws and constitution of the kingdom. And it has been obseiv- 
etl to his credit, tbat the nation not only improved in wealth and 
credit during his reign, but enjoyed a greater degree of tranquillity 
at home, and a longer duration of peace abroad, than during anv 
period since the time of Queen Elizabeth. At the time of his death 
he was in the sixty-eighth year of his age. 



SECTION III. 

AUSTRIA (AND GERMANY) FROM THE PEACE OF RASTABT 
1,714, TO THE PEACE OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, 1,748. 

1. The affairs of Austria, as incidentally connected with those of 
France, Spain, England, Italy, and Prussia, from the year 1,713 to 
1,738, have been ali'eady treated of in the preceding sections. It 
may be necessary, however, to take a brief view of matter's, from the 
commencement of the reign of Charles VI., to the death of that mon- 
arch ; which event, as we shall have to show, greatly disturbed the 
whole of Europe, and occasioned the war which was terminated by 
the peace of Aix-la-Cbapclle, in 1,748. 

2. Charles VI., who had borne a conspicuous part in the succession 
war, as a competitor for the Spanish tlwone, (Part II. Sect. LXIV.) 
became emperor in the year 1,711, on the demise of his elder 
brother, Joseph 1. 'I'hough lie had declined ijecoming a paVly to 
the treaty of Utrecht, m 1.713, it was not long before he perceived 
his error, being left alone to support an expensive war. In the fol- 
lowing year, therefore, he receiveci the proposals made to him by 
the court of Versailles, consented to the opening of conferences, in 
the month of November, 1,713, and, in the IMarch following, 1,714, 
signed the treaty of Kastadt, by which he obtained possession of the 
Spanish Netherlands, (except the barrier towns ceded to Holland,; 
Naples, Sardin^l, Milan, Frieburg, and Kehl. 

3. But he was very soon disturbed in a part of these acquisitions, 
by the restleshuess arid jealousy of Spain, already noticed. Great de- 
signs were formed against his Italian territories ; Sardinia actually 
tiiken from him, in 1,717 ; Sicily, in 1,718, and further encroachmerKa 
projected, but for the timely ' interposition of tlie English, under 
admiral Bjng, in the Mediterranean, (Sect U. ^ 9, 11.) wdo suoo 



MODERN HISTORY. 2ft 

brooght matters to a favourable issue for Austria, with inhoite credit 
to himself, both as an officer and a negotiator. 

4. Spain had eagerly caught at the opportunity which presented 
itself of making these attacks upon Austria, while the latter power 
was engaged in war with Turkey, in aid of the Venetians. The 
Turks, (instigated, it has been said, by the Spanish minister, to 
engage the attention of Austria,) in violation of the treaty of Car- 
lowitz, had taken the Morea from the Venetians, before Austria 
came to their aid, in the year 1,716; nor, though from that lime 
so powerfully assisted, were they able to recover that peninsula. 
Charles VI., however, was not long at variance with the Porte upon 
tliis occasion. As early as the year 1,718, through the extraordinary 
skill and valour of prince Eugene, the Austrian commander, things 
were brought to an issue, and a peace concluded, through the me- 
diation of England and Holland, at Passarowitz, by which the Turks 
vyere allowed to retain the Morea, en ceding to the Venetians some 
frontier towns in Albania and Dalmatia, while Austria obtained Bel- 
grade, the Bannat of Temeswar ana Wall.ichia, as far as the Aluta; 
she was also able to establish a free commerce in all the harbours of 
the Black Sea, and of the Danube, as well as with the Persians. The 
early termination of this war, together with the successes of the 
English on the shores of Sicily, checked the operations of the Span- 
iards, and disposed them to agree to the terms of the quadruple al- 
liance. Spain and Austria, however, were not effectually reconciled 
till the year 1,725, at which period the emperor was induced to re- 
nounce his pretensions upon Spain and the Indies. 

6. Charles VI. was tor a long ^Sme deeply occupied in endeavour 
iug to preserve his own dominions from such difficulties as Spain had 
been involved in, at the beginning of this century, owing to the dis- 
puted succession to the Spanish throne, on the demise of Charles II., 
and in which he had himself been so greatly concerned. He propos- 
ed, for this end, by a " Pragmatic Sanction," to make it a law, that 
if he should, at the time ot his death, have either sons or daugh- 
ters, the hereditary dominions and crowns belonging to the house of 
Austria, should remain united. In failure of such issue, male or fe- 
male, the daughters of his deceased brother, Joseph, were to succeed; 
and if tkey died without heirs, the inheritance was to pass to his sis- 
ters, and their descendants. When this act was proposed, at the 
diet of liatisbon, it was violently resisted by the doctors of Saxony 
and Bavaria, as well as the elector Palatine, but by the treaty of Vien- 
na, 1,731, as well as by previous negotiations at the different courts ot 
Europe, almost every power, except France, was brought to consent 
to the proposed regulations ; England and Holland, in particular, 
having been gained over by the emperor's agreement to suppress the 
ew East India Company which ne had endeavoured to establish 
«t Ostend. The guarantee of France was not obtained till six years 
after, in recompense of the transler of the duchies of Lori.iine and 
Bar to the latter power, on the demise of Stanislaus, king of Poland, 
who obtained the government of those countries by the treaty of 
1,738. 

6. Charles VI. had scarcely succeeded in his great object of the 

Pragmatic sanction, before he was engaged in a fresh vvar with the 
'urks, in virtue of a treaty concluded with Russia, who had com- 
menced hostilities against the Porte, in 1,73G. The war on the 
part of Austria, however, was of very short duration. She had 
lost th« support of her famous general, prince Eugene; and hei 
Z2 



£70 MODERN HISTORY. 

armies, on the present occasion, appear to have been ill concTucteH." 

Jealousies ami tiisagreements amongst the superior officers, and a 
grt'ut want of resource*, balHed all their operations. In 1,739, the 
emperor was compelled to submit to the terms of the treaty of 
Belgrade, which was highly advantageous to Turkey. Austria 
surrendered Servia, with the fortresses of Belgrade and Szabatch; 
and Au!«lrian VVallachia, with the fortress of Orsova. By the treaty 
of Belgrade, the I:*orte also obtained advantages over Russia ; but it 
is now known, that this convention was very artfully condjcted by 
an agent of ibe French court, who was instructed not only to prevent 
the dismemberment of Turkey, by the combined forces of Austria 
and Russia, but to resist the aggrandizement of the former, and 
separate her, if possible, from her northern ally. 

7. h) the year immediately following that in which the treaty of 
Belgrade had rcstorfHl harmony between the two courts of Vienna 
and Constantinople, so much to the advantage of tbe latter, Charles 
V^l. died, the last heir-male of the Austrian line of princes. Notwith- 
standing all the care he had taken to secure to his daughter the 
entire hereditary dominions of his family ; and though almost the 
« hole of Europe had guaranteed the indivisibility of his dominions, 
according to his wishes, he was no sooner dead than numerous 
claims weie set up, and a war kindled, which may be said to have, 
in its progress, involved every European state. The archduchess, 
Maria Theresa, consort of Erancis, duke of Tuscany, according to 
the tei-ms of the Pragmatic Sanction, (which, however, had been ill 
drawn up,) succeeded, on the death of her father, to the following 
kingdoms, states, and territories : Hungary and Bohemia, Silesia 
and Austrian Suabia, Upper and Lower Austria. Styria, Carinthia, 
Carniola. Burgau, Brisgau, the Low-Countries, Friuli, Tyrol, the 
Manluan. and the Duchies of Milan, Parma, and Placentia. 

8. Unlbrtunately for the archduchess, Charles VI. had lef\ his 
army in a bad condition, hi-* finances embarrassed, aud, at the time 
of his death, a scarcity almost approaching to famine, prevailed in 
many 'parts of his dominions. All t*iese circumstances combined, 
were calculated to rais'^ up competiiore for different portions of his 
estates. Nor were they at all tardy in advancing their claims. The 
elector of Bavaria pretended to be the proper heir to the kingdom 
of Bohemia. Augustus II., elector of Saxony and king of Poland^ 
having married the eldest daughter of Joseph I., elder brother ot 
Charles VI., claimed the whole Austrian' succession. The king of 
Spain did the same, though upon a more remote title, and entirely 
through females. The king of Sardinia made preten.^ions to the 
duchy of Milan, and Frederic II., of Prussia, to the province of Sile- 
sia. 

9. Many of these several claimants had formally agreed to the 
terms of the pnigmatio sanction, and even at first professed the most 
favourable dispositions towards the archduchess, who had taken quiet 
possession of all that had descended to her ; but the times, and the 
peculiar circumstances of the empire, encouraged them to break 
through their engagements; not, however, altogether without some 
pretence of honour and justice ; as was the case with France. The 
king of Fnince had, as well as the kings of Poland and Spain, pre- 
tended to have derived a right from two princesses, married to Lew 
J8 XIU. and XIV., to the whole succession ; but choosing, rather tlian 
to depend upon these titles, to take the part of the elector of Bava- 
ria, he insisted that, in his guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction, by the 



MODERN HISTORY. 9P\ 

«,MUse " sine pnEJudicio tertii^'' he was fairly left at liberty to espouse 
anj claims that should appear to him more just than those of the 
archiluchess, queen of Hungary. This clause had, indeed, been io- 
troduced into some of the acts of guarantee, tiiough not into all. 

10 The most forward and active of the queen^ opponents was a 
prince little known till then, Frederic king of Prussia, at that time 
about twenty-eight years of age. He had succeeded, through the 
prudence of his father, to an army and a treasury of no inconsider- 
able importance ; both of which he had himself also tbund time to 
improve. His movements were sudden, and quite unexpected by 
ihe court of Vienna ; and he soon made known what his demamfs 
were, proposing that if they should be granted, he would support 
Austria against other enemies, and assist the queen in placing her 
husband on the imperial throne. He pretended, indeed, at tirst. to 
be only desirous of occupying Silesia, as a friend to the queen ; but 
the mask was soon laid aside, and his fixed determination to become 
master of Lower Silesia rendered visible to all the world. 

11. The queen would consent to the surrender of no part of hei 
inheritance, though possibly her refusal in this instance, occasioned 
the alliance soon afterwards formed between the court of Versailles 
and Frederic, from which she suffered so much. England, it is said, 
counselled submission in the point of Silesia, foreseeing the conse- 
quences ; but woi"se consequences, perhaps, were to be apprehend- 
ed, had she complied. It would, in all likelihood, have disposed 
others to urge their claims with greater importunity. 

12. Aided by France and Saxony, the elector of Bavaria, towards 
the middle of the year 1,741, acquired possession of the kingdom oi 
13ohemia, and was proclaimed liing, and inaugurated with great 
solemnity; and, on the 12th of February, 1,742, he had the imperial 
dignity conferred on him by the diet of Frankfort, under the title of 
Charles Vll., having been chosen, however, when some of the elec- 
tors were disqualified from voting. 

13 Never was there a greater prospect of a total dismemberment 
of the Austrian dominions than at this time. Different parts were 
regularly assigned to the several claimants, and nothing left for the 
daughter of Charles VI. but the kingdom of Hungary, tne province 
of Lower Austria, the Belgian states, and the duchies of Carinthia. 
Slyria, and Carniola. Precautions had even been taken to prevent 
her deriving any aid from Russia, by exciting Sweden to declare was 
against the latter power. J3ut the spirit of this surprising woman 
was not to be broken by the powerful combination against her. She 
had, at the very commencement of her reign, in a singular and ex- 
traordinary manner, and with consummate wisdom, particularly by 
taking the ancient oath of king Andrew 11., attached to her interests 
the brave Hungarians. Repairing to them with her infant son, she 
threw herself entirely upon their protection, and, in the most public 
manner, addressing them in the Latin language, at a special assembly 
of the states, presented her child to them in terms the most pathetic. 
Supported by their valour, and with the help of English and Dutch 
money, she baffled all her enemies, and finally dissipated the storip 
that so rudely threatened her. It was not, indeed, until VValpole wa* 
removed from the English ministry that the queen received any ac- 
tive assistance from the king of England ; but afterwards, both in 
Flanders and Italy, he was a powerful ally. She also derived some 
succours from the king of Sardinia, not, however, very creditably 
purchased with regard to Genoa. 



2U MODERN HISTORY. 

14. Had the numerous powers first armed against Maria Theresa, 
or intimidated into a slate of neutrality, agreeiJ amongst themselvesi, 
it would have [)oen impossible for the queen to have withstood their 
attacks; but, fortunately for her, many stood i-o directly in a state of 
livalship towards each other, and France was such an object of sus- 

Sicion and alarm to almost all the other confederates, that their very 
rst movements 'produced jealousies and divisions amongst them ; 
and, what is very remarkable, the earliest who showed a dlspositioa 
to treat with the queen was the king of Prussia, in consequence of 
the successes of the elector of Bavaria in Bohemia. 

15. The interference of England, in behalf of the queen, did at 
first, indeed, only exasperate I rance, and the other allies of Charles 
Vil., and excite them to a more vigorous opposition. But the death 
of the emperor, in the year 1,745, who had derived no happiness, 
but, indeed, a great deal of misery, from his short exaltation, and his 
son's prudent and wise abandonment of such high dignities, in order 
to secure his quiet possession of his paternal dominions, left the 
aueen at liberty to procure foi her husband, Francis, grand duke of 
Tuscimy, the imperial crown ; his election to which took place in 
the month of September of the same yeai^ the queen agreeing to 
admit the young elector of Bavaria to the full possession of his he- 
reditary dominions, and to acknowledge his father, Charles \ 11., to 
have been duly invested with the imperial dignity. After sonpe 
signal successes, the queen's great adversary, the "king of Prussia, 
also came into her terms, having agreed, in a treaty concluded at 
Dresden, to acknowledge the validity of Francis's election, on being 
put in possession of Silesia and the county of Glatz, the chief objecta 
for which he had been contending. The elector Palatine was like- 
wise included in this treaty. 

16. The French continued the war in the Netherlands, as well 
as in Italy, and with considerable success ; but the queen being a 
good deal disembarrassed by the peace she had been able to con- 
clude with Prussia, had it soon in her power to recover all that 
the French and Spaniards had acquired in Italy, while the French 
conquests in Flanders and Holland led to the re-establishment oi 
Uie stadtholdership, and thereby baflied all their hopes of future 
advantages in those parts. The interference of the empress o4 
Russia, subsidized by England, and, above all, the peculiar situation 
of the king of France, whose finances were almost exhausted, and 
who had suffered severe losses by sea, tended to bring matters to an 
issue. A congress was opened at Aix-la-Chapelle, whicb, though 
rather slow in its operations, at last terminated in a peace, concluded 
October 7, 1,748, exactly a hundred years after the famous treaty 
of Weetphalia, which served for a basis of the negotiations entered into 
upon this occasion. By this convention, as in most other instances of 
the same nature, there was so general a restitution of conquests, a4 
plainly to mark the folly and injustice of having continued the war 
so long. During this contest, in the year 1,743, died the cardinal de 
Fleury, first minister of Fr.uice, at the very advanced age ol ninety. 
He did not assume the reins of government til! he was eeventy- 
three. He had many virtues, but was much more admired by his 
countrymen for his integrity and disinterestedness, than lor energy 
of chai-icter, or public spirit. 

n. The treaty of Aix-la-Cbapelle bringing us, as nearly as c^nbc% 
to the middle of the eighteenth century, it may be well to tak« m 



MODERN HISTORY. 873 

view of Europe at this particular period, and as connected with 
this celebratea treaty ; but this must be reserved for a future section. 



SECTION IV. 

ENGLAND FROM THE ACCESSION OF GEORGE II. TO THE 
THRONE, 1,727, TO HIS DEATH, 1,760. 

1. The accession of George II., who came to the throne 1,727, in 
the 44th year of his age, and in a time of profound peace, was not at- 
tended with such changes as many had expected. Even the minis- 
ter himself, sir Robert Walpole, is Si^id to have been surprised at the 
reception ne met with from his majesty, on the demise of the late 
king, and at the continuance of the power in his hands. But this is 
now known to have been owing to the wise and prudent care ot 
queen Caroline, who, at this moment, was found to possess an inllu- 
ence over her royal consort, which had been by many little suspect- 
ed, but which her extreme good sense, and discreet conduct, seemed 
fully to justify. The whigs might justly be considered as the truest 
friends of the house of Hanover and the protestant church ; and 
their continuance in power at the commencement of a new reign, 
though very grating to the adverse party, seemed to be extremely 
favo'.Table to the quiet of the nation. 

2. The good-will which had sprung up, and been encouraged dur- 
ing the regency, between the rival courts of Versailles and London, 
was not materially disturbed during the whole administration of 
Walpole, and his pacitic contemporary, cardinal Fleury ; the queen 
being also friendly to peace. But as it is not easy for any peaCtable 
government long to escape the encroachments ofother states, Spain, 
apparently presuming on the forbearance or apathy of the British 
ministry, committed great depredations, for a series of years, upon 
the trade of England with America and the West-Indies, committing 
many acts of most atrocious cruelty, in addition to their other deeds 
of insult and plunder. Some steps were at length taken to remedy 
these evils, but the conduct of Spain was so generally resented by 
the nation, as to render even the convention, by which the disputes 
were referred'to arbitration, extremely unpopular. It being thought. 
by many of all descriptions, not only that the grievances complained 
of had been too long submitted to and endured, and the measures 
hitherto taken to redress them been too tame ind submissive, but 
that nothing less than *a war could restore 'he lost consequence of 
the state, or bring such offenders to reas m. 

3. The Spaniards, indeed, had defended their conduct in many 
memorials, pretending that the English were the aggressors, in car- 
rying on a contraband and unlawful trade with their colonies ; but 
had this been capable of proof to the extent the Spaniards pretend 
ed, which was certainly not the case, there is no doubt but that they 
suffered themselves to be hurried into most unjustifiable excesses in 
their measures of reprisal, and exceedingly ill-treated both the mer- 
chants and sailore of England. They insisted upon a general right 
of search, on the open seas, and condemned the ships and cargoes, 
upon such frivolous pretences as could not fail to be extremely in- 
jurious and oppressive, and quite contrary to existing treaties. In 
one instance, a whole fleet of English merchantrships, at the island of 



274 MODERN HISTORY. 

Tortugas, was attacked by Spaniards, as it the two nations had been 
at open war 

4. It would be scarcely possible, perhaps, to juftify entirely the 
extraordinary forbearance of Ihe British government, for nenrly 
twenty years, during which not only these indignities had been con- 
tinually repeated, but express engagements, and promises to redress 
and abstain from such aggressions in future, notoriously violated. 
This had been remarkably the case with respect to the stipulations 
of the treaty of Seville, concluded in the year 1,729. There were 
very warm debates in parliament on the subject, and the ministry 
weie hard pressed to defend themselves from the charge of supine- 
ness, gross indifference to the sufferings of the merchants, and the 
honour of the crown, and, in some instances, even of criniinal conniv- 
ance. And, indeed, their opponents obtained, at length, this triumph 
over them, that the very convention which was to be the prelimina- 
ry of a perfect adjustment of differences, and a surety for the indem- 
nitication of the merchants for all their losses, was, like every pre- 
ceding treaty and compact, disregarded by Spain, and war obliged 
to be declared before the year was out, to compel her to more 
just and equitable measures. The war, however, was not so success- 
ful as to render it clear that the pacitic and wary proceedings of the 
British minister were otherwise than most prudent and wise, consid- 
ering the general circumstances of Europe. " Omnia prius expe- 
riri verbis quam armis sapientem decet," is a maxim which has 
been applied to the conduct of sir Robert Walpole, by an author, 
not backward to admit that, on some points, in regard to continental 
politics, the paciuc system was carried too tar. The period during 
which it prevailed will, certainly, for ever be a remarkable erA in 
"^^nglish history, especially as the reigning sovereign was notorious 
y a soldier, and by no means personally disposed to adopt so inactive 
a line of conduct. 

5. Though the people had been clamorous for the war with 
Spain, they were soon dissatisfied with the conduct of it, and that to 
so great a degree, as to compel the minii-tcr, sir Robert Walpole, 
though with considerable reluctance, to resign his appointments ; 
which took place in February, 1,742; the approbation of his sove- 
reign being manifested in his elevation to the peerage, by the title of 
earl of Oxford. He was succeeded by lord Carteret. Sir Robert 
Walpole had been an able, intelligent, and prudent minister ; a con- 
stant lover of peace, in the way of defence and prevention ; and 
upon this he prided himself : he was of the whig party, which ex- 
posed him much to the rancour, not only of those whose political 
opinions were different, but of many disappointed persons who 
tiiought with him. By these he was stigmatized as having reduced 
corruption to a system ; but by others, this charge was as confidently 
repelled ; nor would it be dithcult to prove that, though he often spoke 
a* if he knew every man's price, he governed, not by corruption, 
but by party attachments, as his friends and admirers have alleged. 
Up^n two great occasions his pians were thwarted by some who 
lived to see and correct their errors, as was the case, particularly, 
Tfith Mr. Pitt, in regard to the excise bill, first proposed to the house 
oi' commons in the j-ear 1,7:>2. There was never, periiaps, a case 
ii which party, faction, and ignorance prevailed more over truth, 
and justice, and prudence. The bill was calculated to check and 
control tlie most gross and pernicious frauds upon the revenues ; to 
favour and encourage, in every possible manner, the fair dealer. 



MODERN HISTORY. 275 

(and through him the pubHc in general,) and by the savings pro- 
duced in the treasury, materially to hghten the public burthens: yet 
such a clamour was raised against the measure, from its first sugges- 
tion, as to obUge the minister to abandon it. 

6. The other measure, which brought great odium on this able 
minister of finance, was his trespass on the sinking fund, first estab- 
lished in 1,727, and which he made no scruple to alienate for public 
purposes, as occasion seemed to require. The very name of this 
fund is not equally applicable to all times. At first it arose entirely 
from savings, and its perpetual or uninterrupted operation under such 
circumstances, would appear to have been an indispensable part of 
its character.' It had been calculated as proceeding upon the basis 
of compouno interest; while new loans and debts, contracted for 
pressing emergencies, were held to burthen the public in the way 
of simple interest onlv. But in these days, the whole state of the 
question is changed, The modern sinking fund i.« not a sinking fund 
of surpluses or savings, but in itself a borrmsoed fund ; of great power 
and great utility, occasionally, but plainly at the command of the 
public, whenever the current expenses cannot be provided for at a 
less cost ; and, indeed, often beneficially to be applied to such pur- 

Eoses, in greater or less proportions, to the avoidance of many 
eavy charges of management, high oremiums, and new taxes. The 
alienation of the original sinking luna, by sir Robert Walpole, how 
ever, has been very ably defended since, though opposed and resist- 
ed, at the time, with a virulence and animosity exceedingly distress- 
ing to that minister. 

7. The new administration, which came into power on the resig 
nation of Walpole, so little answered the expectations of their 
friends, deviated so soon from the principles they had avowed, while 
in opposition, and seemed so much more disposed to espouse the 
cause of Hanover, at the expense, and to the loss, of England, in 
useless subsidies and foreign wars, than to attend to the domestic 
dithculties under which she was supposed to be labouring, that they 
became, in a very short time, quite as unpopular as their predeces- 
sors, and in 1,745, the very year in which Walpole died, the rebel- 
lion broke out in Scotland^ 

8. This attempt against the house of Hano'-er^ undertaken by the 
heir of the Stuart hirnily, in person, was, undoubtedly, an ill-con- 
ducted, as it was ultimately an unsuccessful, enterprise ; though to 
call it altog^ether a weak one, would be contrary to historical truth. 
Its commencement, indeed, had all the appearance of the most ro- 
mantic infatuation, but in its progress it became so formidable, as 
even to threaten the capital of England, and the protestant succes- 
tion ; nor was it subdued without great efibrts and exertions on the 
part of the king's forces, so unavailing and disheartening at first, as 
to render the issue of the contest extremely problematical. It was, 
in fact, at the beginning, despised and neglected, by the lords of the 
regency, in the absence of the king, who was then at Hanover, so 
that time was given for such an accession of friends and adherents t-o 
the cause of the pretender, while the English army was left without 
any adequate reinforcements, that the rebels not only got possession 
of Edinburgh, after a very severe b'it most successful action with 
the English, at Preston Pans, but were able to march, unmolested, 
far int ) England, and even to retreat., iiy. the face of a powerful army, 
under circumstances neculiarly creditable tc the prowess, humanity' 
and military skill of the Scottish commander. 



t76 MODERN HISTORY. 

^^ 9. Had the young prince met with the encouragement he expect* 
ed on his march to the south, he might have possessed himself of the 
English, as he had done of the Scotch, capital ; but his hopes of aid 
nere, considering all things, strangely and cruelly dit^appointed. 
Not a soul joined liim, of an^ imnortance, though he had advanced 
nearlv to the very centre of the kingdom ; while the French failed 
to lufcl their engagement of invading the southern parts of the 
inland, in order to divide and occupy tlie English army, so that his 
retreat became a point of prudence perfectly inevitable, howevei 
mortifying and grating to the gallant spirit of Charlf^s, who un- 
doubtedly manifested a strong disposition to proceed against all obsta- 
cles. 

10. The conflict between the two nations, on this occasion, was 
greatly affected by the religious tenets and principles of the oppoiJ- 
ing parties. Had Scotland been entirely catholic, the hopes of the 
Stuart family would have been extremely reasonable ; but it was. 
at this period, divided between the presbyterians and the catholics; 
the Lowlanders being of the former sect, and the Highlanders, gen- 
erally speaking, of the latter. The presbyterians, wlio had gained 
great advantages, in the way of toleration, by the revolution, having 
become whigs in principle, naturally adhered to the house of Han- 
over, while the catholic Highlanders were quite as fully and as nat- 
urally inclined to support tneir native prince. Nothing could be 
wiser, perhaps, under these circumstances, than the sending a prince 
of the blood to command the British forces, and, as it happened, no 
officer of the British army could be more popular than the duke of 
Cumberland, at this very period. His royal highness joined the 
aiiry at Edinburgh, not long after the battle of Falkirk, in which 
the English, under general Hawley, had recently sustained a check. 
The duke, indeed, had been expressly recalled from Flanders, to 
suppress the rebellion, which was, in no small degree, detrimental 
and injurious to the cause of the allies. 

11. The conduct of the son ot the pretender was certainly that 
of a brave but inconsiderate young man. Sanguine in his expecta- 
tions beyond what any circumstances of the case would completely 
justify, he, in more instances than one, committed him?clf too far, and 
at the very last exposed himself to a defeat, which niight, at least, 
have been suspended or mitigated, if not totally avoided. He made 
a stand against the king's forces at Culloden, while his troops were 
in a bad condition for lighting, and when it would cbviously have 
been better policy to have acted on the defensive ; to have retired 
before his adversary, till he had led him Aito the more impractica 
ble parts of the highlands, where all his military means would 
have been crippled, and a retreat, perhaps, at least, have been 
rendered indispensably necessary ; but by risking the battle of Cullo- 
den. (April 16, 1,746) he lost every thing. Trie duke of Cumber- 
land gained a must decisive victory ; and so completely subdued the 
hopes and spirits of his young opponent, that he never afterwards 
joined his friends, though solicited, and indeed engaged, so to do ; but 
wandering about the country for a considerable time, with a price of 
j^30,00() set on his head, after enduring incredible hardships and 
difficulties, embarked for France ; and thus terminated for ever the 
otruggles of that exiled and deposed family to recover its ancient 
dominions. The very remarkable instances of attachment, fidelity, 
and pure hospitality, by which, after the battle of Culloden, the 
unfortunate fugitive was preserved from the hands of his puisuers. 



MODERN HISTORY. 277 

any thing of the kind recorded in history, and reflect indelible 
iretiit on the high and disinterested feelings and principles of those 
who assisted him in his escape. 

12. The most melancholy circumstance attending this rash un- 
dertaking, was the necessity that arose for makin|; examples of those 
who had abetted it, in order more securely to hx on the throne ol 
Great Britain the reigning family ; who, having acquired that right 
in the most constitutional manner, could not be dispossessed of it, But 
by an unpardonable violation of the law. Of the excesses committed 
by the EngUsh troops after the battle of CuUoden, it is to be hoped, 
as indeed it has been asserted, that the accouiits are exaggerated: 
but in the common course of justice, many persons, and some of the 
highest rank, underwent the sentence of death for high treason, 
whose crime, through a melancholy infatuation, must in their own 
eyes have appeared the very reverse, and whose loyalty and attach- 
ment, under ditferent circumstances, and with the law and constitution 
on their side, would have deserved the highest praise. Though 
many of the adherents of the pretender suffered, many of them 
made their escape beyond sea, and arrived safely at the different 
poitsof the continent. No attempts have since been made by any of 
the catholic descendants of the royal family of Great Britain to dis- 
turb the protestant succession in the house of Brunswick. 

13. This illustrious house sustained a very unexpected and mel- 
ancholy loss, in the ^ear 1,750, by the death of his royal highness 
the prince of Wales, father of his late majesty ; who, in consequence 
of a cold caught in his gardens at Kew, died of a pleuritic disorder, 
on the twentieth day of March, in the forty-ti.fth year of his age. 
He was a prince endowed with many amiable qualities ; a muniticent 
patron of the arts, a friend to merit,'and sincerely attached to the in- 
terests of Great Britain. 

14 In the course of the year 1,751, a remarkable act was passed 
in parliament, for correcting the calendar, according to the Gregori- 
an computation. It was enacted, that the new year should begin 
on the first of January, and that eleven days between the second and 
tburteenth days of September, 1,752, should for that time be omitted, 
so that the day succeeding the second, should be called the fourteenth 
of that month. This change was on many accounts exceedingly im- 
portant, but to persons wholly unacquainted with astronomy, it ap- 
peared a strangely arbitrary interlerence with the currency and set- 
tled distinctions of time. 

15. Though the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1,748, maybe said 
to have restored peace to Europe, the English and French came to 
no good understanding with regard to their remote settlements 
The war in those parts involved the interests of the natives or set 
tiers, 51S well as of the two courts, and scarcely seems to have fallen 
under the consideration of the negociating ministers. In the east and 
m the west many disputes and jealousies were raised, which though 
referred to special commissioners to adjust, in no long course of time 
mvolved both countries in a fresh war, the particulars of which will 
be found elsewhere : a war which extended to all parts of the globe, 
and continued beyond the reign of George II., who died suddenly 
at Kensington, in 1,760, in the 77th year of his age, and 34th of hia 
reign. 

15. George II. was a prince of high integrity, honour, and veni- 
city, but of a warm and irritable temper, of a warlike disposition, 
and though for a long time restrained by his pacific minister, sir 
Aa 



279 MODERN HIS'1X)RY. 

Robert Walpole, from taking any active part in the disputes of the 
continent, yet constantly inclined to do so, from an attachment, very 
naturdi, though unpopular amongst his British subjects, to his Ger- 
man dominions. He was greatly under the influence of his queen, 
while she lived, 'Svhose mild, prudent, and conciliating manners," 
to use the words of a verr impartial and judicious biographer. 
" were more congenial to the character of the English nation.'' 
Queen Caroline had indeed many great and splendid virtues ; though 
of most amiable and domestic naoits, she was well versed in tne 
politics of Europe, ar|d had considerable literary attainments, which 
disposed her to be a triend to learned persons, particularly to many 
members of the church, of which several striking and remarkable 
instances have been recorded. It is suthcient to mention the names 
of Herring, Clarke, Hoadley, Butler Sherlock, Hare, Seeker, and 
Pearce. She was the daughter of John Frederick, margrave ot 
Brandenburgh Anspach, and was bom in the year 1,6C3. She was 
married to nis majesty in 1,705, and had issue two sons and tive 
daughters. Her death, which occassioned great ^rief to her royal 
ronsort and family, took place on the 20th of INovember, 1,733, 
when she was in the 55th year of her age. 



SECTION V. 

STATE OF EUROPE AT THE CONCLUSION OF THE PEACE 
OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, 1,748. 

1. By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle the house of Hanover was 
tffectually established on the throne of Great Britain, to the entire 
exclusion of the Stuart family. Though the peace was not popular 
in England, and she was supposed bj' many to have made too great, 
and in some instances ignominious concessions, yet it was certainly 
forttmate for her that the continental powers confined their views to a 
balance which did not extend to the sea ; and thereby left in her 
hands a force, beyond calculation superior to that of the other 
countries of Europe, and amounting almost to a monopoly of com- 
merce, credit, and wealth, so as to render her, as it were, the chief 
agent or principal, in all political movements, for the time to come. 
Her prosperity, indeed, had been on the increase, in no common de 
gree, from the accession of the Brunswick family. 

2. Austria lost, by the treaty of 1,748, Silesia and Glatz, the 
duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla, and some places in 
the Milanese : but she succeeded, and chiefly at the expense of her 
allies, in the article of the succession. Ail former treaties were 
formally recognised, which involved indeed other losses to the em- 
liire, il compared with the time of Charles V ; but the dominions 
nf the latter were certainly too extensive, and too detached, to form 
.1 great and stable empire. This, indeed, may be said to have been 
the case with regard even to the reduced domains of Charles VI. ; 
^ut his high-spirited daughter, Maria Theresa, was to the last indig- 
nant at the losses she had sustained. She corrected the error into 
which she had fallen with regard to Genoa, ami which occasioned 
great commoUons there, by consenting to let the niaiqulsate of Final 
revert to that republic, wti:h had been very arbitrarily given, in 
the course of the war, as a bribe to the kin^ of Sardinia, and made 
a free port, to the evident disadvantage of the Genoese, who hud 



MODERN HISTOKY. 279 

originally purchased it for a valuable consideration, under the guar- 
antee of Gre.it Britain. 

3. Prussia gained, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelie, Silesia, and 
the county ot Glatz, which were guaranteed to her by all the con- 
tracting powers ; and by this accession of territory she was raised 
into the condition of a power capable of entering into the field ol 
action, as a rival of Austria ; which might have been foseseen, when 
Leopold erected it into a kingdom, for the express purpose of coun- 
terbalancing the power of France. As it %vas, the unity of the em- 
pire seemed to be dissolved, and a door set open to future revolutions 
in the Germanic body. The character and subsequent achievements 
of Frederick II. contributed greatly to the aggrandizement of his do- 
minions. He was active, bold, fond of glory, and indefatigable. He 
was brave in the tield, and wise in the cabinet. Desirous of shining 
in all that he undertook, he was indefatigable in keeping h»<5 army 
constantly ready for all emergencies, and in repainng the damages to 
which his dominions had been subjected by his ambition. He <lrew 
to him many eminent persons of all countries, of whose society he 
pretended to be fond ; but he oftentimes showed himself to be a 
most merciless tyrant, a blunderer in political economy, and, if not 
quite an atheist, very lax in his principles of religion. 

4. Holland lost much by the peace, and gained nothing. Some, 
indeed, doubted whether she did not greatly endanger her indepen 
dence, by consenting to make the stadtholdership hereditary in the 
house of Orange, and that in favour of the female as well as male 
heirs of the family: but others conceived that this approach to me- 
narchical government greatly strengthened the republic ; and it would 
indeed seem that it had declined much in power and consequence, 
from the very period when that office was abolished, in the preced- 
ing century. One precaution was adopted with regard to the female 
heirs to the Stadtholdership : they were precluded from marrying any 
king, or elector of the eninire ; a precaution which there were, in 
the history of Europe, sumcient reasons to justify. 

5. Spain obtained, for two branches of her royal family, the king 
dom ot Naples, and the duchies of Parma, Placentia, ancl Guastalla: 
the latter to revert to Austria, that is, Parma and Guastalla, and Pla- 
centia to Sardinia, should the new duke, don Philip, die without issue, 
or succeed to either of the kingdoms of Spain or Naples. But the 
power of Spain was not much increased, either by land or sea. On 
the latter, indeed, the English had an overwhelming superiority ; 
and, on land, though her armies were brave, they were generally ill 
conducted, and her government too bad to render her respectable 
in the eyes of Europe. Ferdinand VI., indeed, the successor of 
Philip, who came to the throne just before the conclusion of the 
treaty, applied himself, with no small degree of credit, to retrieve 
the character of the nation. 

6. Austria, by seeking an alliance with Rv.ss2a^ had introduced the 
latter power into the southern states of Europe, and given her consid 
erable weight and consequence, as a counterbalance to her grea' 
rival, France. Scarcely known at the commencement of the century, 
the movement impressed upon this mighty empire by the extraor- 
dinary genius and vigour of Peter the first, had carried her forwai-d, 
with a rapid progression ; so that, by the middle of the century, she 
might justly be regarded as amongst the most considerable powers ol 
Europe. Her armies were, perhaps, more than semi-barb§u'ous; but 
they were brave-, indefatigable^ hardy, and supported by the reli- 



^ 



2a> MODERN HISTORY. 

Eious principle of predestination; the foundation of a d^perate 
kind of hardihood, JK^Idom to be resisted. Her inlcnial resource? 
were not at all considerable, but they were daily improving. When 
Peter the lirst c;ime to the crown, her revenues amounted t'^ six 
millions of roubles; in 1,748 they were nearly quadrupled. 7'hu9 
rapidly advancing, with one arm reaching to the. Baltic, and Mie 
olner to the Black sea, it was ver> obvious to discern that when, Hr 
good management, her gigantic body should be duly in\igorate. , 
she had every chance ot becoming a most formidable power- 
Already had she shown herself such, to a great degree, in the inllu 
ence slie had acquired in Sweden. Denmark, and Poland ; in he 
commercial treaties with England, ner alliance with Austria, and hei 
wars with the Turks. Her resources and means of improvement 
were great ; rivers not only navigable during the summer, but during 
the winter also, affording, by means of sledges, every oppoilunity 
of a quick and easy transport of all sorts of commercial goods ; the 
greater part of her southern provinces fertile, and requiring little 
culture ; mines of gold, iron; and copper; great quantities of timber, 
pitch, tar, and hemp. She had not yet learned to manulacture her 
owo productions, or to export them in her own ships, and conse- 
quently to make the most of them : but she was in tne way to learn 
such arts, and when once attained, she had the iiiirest prospects of 
acquiring a decided superiority, not only in the Baltic, and White 
sea, but on the Black sea and Caspian. 

7. Turkey, at the middle of the eighteenth century, was compar- 
atively a gainer by the wars in which she had been engaged. She 
nad taken the Morea from the Venetians, recovered iVom Austria 
Belgrade, Servia, and some provincesof Transylvania and VVallachia, 
and had hitherto baflled the attempts of Russia, to get absolute pos- 
session of the Crimea, and of the mouths of the Danube. 

8. France obtained little in point of extent by the treaty of Aix- 
la-Chapelle, but that little was of extreme importance. The posses- 
sion of Lorraine, in addition to Alsace, and several strong forts on the 
Rhine, strengthened and completed, in the most periiect manner, her 
eastern frontier, and placed her in a most commanding attitude with 
regard to the (ierman states. During the administration of cardinal 
Fleury, which lasted till the year 1,743, her marine had been de- 
plorably neglected, while the Lnglish had been able to enrich them- 
selves at the expense of the French, particularly by inteixepling 
many valuable convoys, and capturing many ships of her reduced navy. 

9. An author of repuUUion has proposed to throw the different 
European states, at the conclusion of the peace of 1,748, into the 
four lollowing classes : — 

1. Those that having armies, fleets, money, and territorial resour 
8c«, could make war without foreign alliances. Such were England 
and FVance. 

2. I'hosc that with consic'erable and powerful armies, were de- 
pendent on foreign resources. Austria, Prussia, and Russia. 

3 Those that could not engage in war, but in league with othei 
states, subsidized by them, and always regarded in the light of see* 
ondary powers by the large ones' Portugal, Sardinia, Swedea, 
Denmark. 

4. Such as were interested in maintaining themselves in the sam^ 
condition, and free from the encroachment of oUiers. Switzeriaod, 
Genoa, Venice, and the German states. 

Holland, Spain, and Naples, being omitted in the above account, 



MODERN HISTORY. 281 

might reasonably be thrown into a fifth class, as countries generally 
BO connected with England, France, and Austria, as to be constantly 
involved in every war affecting either of those countries. 



SECTION VI. 
OF THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR, 1,775—1,762. 

1. Though for some short time after the conclusion of the peace 
of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1,748, England and France seemed to enjoy, 
in no common degree, the blessings of peace, and to be upon a foot- 
ing of perfect amity with each other, yet it would appear th^t the 
seeds of a future war were sown in the very circumstances of that 
convention. England was left in possession of such a preponderating 
force at sea, while the French marine, through the parsimony or in- 
attention of cardinal Fleury, had fallen into so low a state of depres- 
sion, that it is not to be wondered that all who were interested aboqit 
the Liter, should have their minds filled with jealousy and resentment. 
This was soon manifested, not only by the vigorous attempts made at 
this time to restore the marine of France, but in the projects formed 
for dispossessing the English of their principal settlements in the East 
Indies and America ; a blow which might have been far more fatal to 
the English nation, than any leagues or confederacies in favour of the 

Sretender. To secure the co-operation and support of Spain in these 
esigns, France had endeavoured, in the year 1,753, to draw the lat- 
ter into a family compact^ which, though afterwards brought about, 
was at this time successfully frustrated, by the extraordinary care 
and vigilance of the British minister at Madrid. 

2. The peace established in Europe in 1,748, can scarcely be said 
to have ever been effectually extended to Asia and America. The 
conquests on each side indeed had been relinquished and surrendered 
by that treaty, but in a most negligent manner with respect to limits 
and boundaries ; and in each of those distant settlements, France at 
that time happened to have able and enterprising servants, who 
thought they saw, in their respective governments, such means of 
aggrandizing themselves and their country, and of thwarting the 
British interest, as vver« not to be overlooked or neglected. In the 
East Indies very extraordinary attempts were made to reduce the 
whole peninsula of India Proper, in short, the whole iMogul empire, 
under the dominion of France, by an artful interference in the ap- 
pointment of the governors of kingdoms and provinces, the Souhalir 
dars, J\abobs^ and Rajalis. The puvver of the mogul had been irrevoca- 
bly shaken by Kouli-Khan, in 1,738, from which time the viceroys 
and other subordinate governors had slighted his authority, and, in 
a greater or less degree, become independent. The interterence of 
the French was calculated to throw things into confusion, by dispos- 
sessing those who were adverse to them of their governments and 
territories, and thus compelling them, as it were, to seek succour trom 
the English ; which ultimately brought the two rival nations of Eu- 
rope into a state of hostility, not as avowed principals, but as the 
auxiliaries of the different native princes or nabobs. In no long 
course of time, things took a turn entirely in favour of the English 
and their allies; the Trench were baffled in all their projects, every 
place they possessed taken from them, a suspension of arms agreed 
upon, in 1 ,754, and the French governor, Dupleix, the ambitious and 

A a 2 H6 



28S MODERN HISTORY. 

ctDterprbing author and fomenter of all the troubles, but who had 
Keen ill-supported by his government at home, recalled from India. 

3. it was ai this period that the celebrated Mr. Clive, a.'terwnrds 
lord Clive, first distinguished himself, who liad not only di>eprnme t 
enough to see through and detect all the artilices and designs of 
Dupleix, but, though not brought up to the military profession, poon 
displayed such skill and courage in conducting the operations oi llie 
army, as speedily established his fame, and laid the foundation for his 
futiue elevation and glory. 

4. In America, the boundaries of the ceded provinces not having 
been justly dehned in the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the F'rench had 
formed a design ol connecting, by a chain of lorts, their two distant 
colonies of Canada and Louisiana, and to confine the EnglL^h entirely 
within that tract of country wjiich lies between the Alleghany and 
Apalachian mountains and the sea. No part of this design could be 
carried on without manifest encroachment on territories previously, 
either by agreement, settlement, or implication, appropriated to 
others! Where the boundaries were not precisely defined, all that was 
not English or French, belonged to the native tribes, and the only 
policy that the European colonists had to observe, was to conciliate 
the friendship, or resist the attacks of these lerocious neighbours. But 
the scheme the Trench liad in agitation threatened to be extremely 
injurious to *he Engli'«;h colonists; giving them, in case of war, a fron- 
tier of lifteen hundred miles to defend, not merely against a race of 
savages, as heretolore, but against savages supported oy disciphned 
troops, and ci'»nducted by French otlicers. 

5. It was not possible for England long to contemplate these ag 
gressions and projects without interfering ; but her means of resisting 
them were n^t equal to those by which the French were enabled to 
carry them into execution. The English colonies were notoriously 
divided by distinct views and interests ; had many disagreements and 
dilTereiices among themselves, which seemed, for some time at least, 
totally to prevent their acting in concert, however necessary to 
their best interests. The French depended on no such precarious 
support, but were united both in their object and operations. Hos- 
tilities, however, did not actually commence till the year 1,755, from 
which period the contest in North America was carried on with 
various success, between the French and English, severally assisted 
by difterent tribes of Indians; in the course ofwhich, it is more than 
probable, that sad acts of cruelty may have been perpetrated, and 
uoth nations have be(Mi to blame in some particulars ; but it is cer- 
tainly remarkable, that each party stands charged exclusively with 
such atrocities by the historians of die adverse side ; and while the 
English writers attribute the whole war to the intrigues and en- 
croachments ol" the French, the latter as conlidently ascribe it to the 
cupidity and aggressions of the English. It is very certain, however, 
that, before the war actually commenced, the French court made 
such strouF but insinccie prolessions of amity, and a desire of ueace, 
as to deceive its own minister at the court of St, James's, M. de 
Mirepoix, who felt himself so ill-treated in being made the tool of 
such duplicity and dissimulation, as to cause him to lejmir to Paris, 
to rejionslrate with the administration who had so cajoled him. It 
is r.ecessitry to mention these things, where historical truth is the 
great obiect in view. 

6. At the commencement of this contest between France and 
Entrland, the former seems to have been most successful on land. 



MODERN HISTORY. 283 

but the latter, and to a much greater degree, at sea. Before the 
end of the first year of the war, no less than three hundred French 
merchant vessels, some of them extremely rich, with eight thousand 
sailors, being brought into the English ports ; and while the rate of 
insurance in the latter country continued as usual, in France it 
quickly rose to 30 per cent., a pretty strong indication of the com- 
parative interiority of the latter, as far as regarded her marine, and 
the safety of her navigation. 

7. But it was soon found expedient by one, if not by both parties, 
to divert the attention from colonial to continental objects ; a meas- 
ure which, as in a former instance, the French writers ascribe 
entirely to England, and the English writers as contidently to France ; 
but it is sufficiently clear that the latter first entertained views upon 
the electorate of Hanover, which gave that turn to the war in gen- 
eral. Considering what had passed in the preceding struggle upon 
the continent, nothing could be more strange than the conduct of the 
different states of Europe on this particular occasion. Instead of 
receiving assistance from the empress queen, whose cause England 
had so long and so magnanimously supported, and who was bound 
by treaty to contribute her aid in case of attack, Maria Theresa 
evaded the applications made to her by the court of St. James's, 
(perhaps in rather too high and peremptory a tone,) on the pretence 
that the war between France and England had begun in America ; 
and she applied herself with peculiar assiduity to recover, through 
the aid of Russia, the provinces of Silesia and Dlatz, which had been 
ceded to the Prussian monarch. 

8. It has been coniectured that her imperial majesty had been 
greatly offended at the preliminaries of peace, in 1,748, having 
been signed by England without her approbation, and that she was 
capable of carrying her resentment so far as voluntaiily to throw 
herself into the arms of France, without further con^ 'deration ; 
while the French king, whose strange course of life had buen too 
openly ridiculed by the king of Prussia, foolishly suffered himse.'f to 
be cajoled into an alliance with Austria, after three hundred years </ 
warlarC; against his former active and powerful ally ; thereby break.- 
ing through the wise system of Richelieu, and helping to raise the 
very power, of whose greatness France had the most reason to be 
jealous ; but Maria Theresa, and her minister, prince Kaunitz, to 
produce this great change in the policy of France, had stoo|)ed to 
tlatter and conciliate the king's mistress, the marchioness ot Pom- 
padour. 

9. Fortunately for England, however, the conduct of these two 
courts quickly determined the king of Prussia to form an alliance 
with the elector of Hanover ; to stilie and forget all former differ- 
ences and animosities, and peremptorily to resist the entrance of for- 
eign troops into Germany ; a measure which, though first directed 
against Russia, subsidized by England, equally applied to France. 
An alliance between the kings of Great Britain and Prussia had long 
been contemplated by some of the ablest statesmen of the former 
courtry, as the most natural and wisest connexion that could be 
formed to counteract the projects and power of France. Hitherto 
strong personal jealousies ajid ill-will on the part of the two sove- 
reigns had prevented any such union, and now it was brought about 
by accident ; much more, however, to the advantage of Prussia than 
of Great Britain. It had been proposed in England, to subsidize 
Russia, but the negotiations of the former with the king of Prussia, 



W4 MODERN HISTORY. 

ivhom the czarina personally disliked, produced a close but unex 
peeled union of Russia, Austria, and I'rance ; not so much ngainet 
Kngland, perhaps, as against I'rus.sia, nor yet so much against the 
kingdom of Prussia as against the king himself. 

lU. Such wiis the comniencement of whit has been termed the 
seven year's' war. It seemed soon to be forgotten that it was origin- 
ally a maritime or colonial war. The whole vengeance of France 
and Austria, in 1,757, was directed against the king of Prussia, and 
electorate of Hanover. The Prussian monarch, relying on his well- 
organized army and abundant tre;isury, despised the powerful com- 
bination against him, and commenced the war in a most imposing, 
though precipitate manner, by dispossessing, at the very outset^ the 
king of Poland, elector of Saxony, in alliance with Austria, ot his 
capital, ot hi;i whole army, and of his electoral dominions, in a way 
little creditaUe to his character, notwithstanding the strong political 
motives alleged in his subsequent manife-toes. The situation ol 
Ki-ance, by this sudden manoeuvre, was certaiidy rendered most ex- 
Ir.iordinary. At the commencement of the former war, she had 
done her utmost to dethrone Augustus, king of Poland, in favour of 
Stanislaus, whose (hiughter had married the French king ; and she 
had now just as strong and urgent a reason to assist in restonng Au- 
gustus to lus hereditary dominions, the daughter of the latter being 
married to the dauphin, and the life of the dauphiness having been 
endangered by the intelligence received of the rigorous treatment of 
her royal parents. 

11. It was during the seven years"' war, that Frederic of Prussia 
acquired that glory in the Held which has rendered his reign so 
conspicuous and remarkable. The Intended victim, as he had great 
reason to suppose, of an overwhelming confederacy of cruwned 
heads, he lost no time in defending himself against their attacks, by 
occupying the territories of those who threatened him, so suddenly 
and arbitrarily indeed, with regard to Saxony, as to give oHence to 
the greater part of Europe; but generally contending with surprising 
success against superior armies, though incessantly summoned from one 
tield of battle to another, by the numtrous and divided attacks of his 
opponents : nor was there one of ail the powers that menaced bin*, 
whom he did not find means to humble, and in some instances punish 
most severely, at fii-st, with an impetuosity bordering upon rashness; 
afterwards, by more wary and circumspect proceedings. In Silesia, 
Saxony, Brandenbourg, Hanover, and Uestphalia, he had to contend 
with the armies of the empire, Austria, Russia, Sweden, France, and 
Saxony : 2UU,U00 men are supposed to have fallen annually in these 
campaigns. Though often woi-sted, (as must be the case, where no 
consideration of superior numbers is allowed to operate as a check,) his 
great genius was never more manifeste(',than in the quick reparation 
of siicn reverses. Olten did his situation appear perfectly desperate, 
both to fiiends and erj<'niies, yet as otten did he suddenly succeed in 
some new etibrt. and in extricating himself from disastei"s which 
threatened entirely to overwhelm him; being all the while under 
the ban of tne empire, in virtue of a decree of the aulic council, 
which bound every (Jerman circle, in obedience to the imperial 
orders, to assist in' depriving him of his possessions, dignities, and 
prerogatives. The rapidity of his motions was beyond all example ; 
neither danger nor misfortune coidd dishearten him ; and had his 
moderation been but equal to his courage, had he, in all Ciises, been 
as humane as he wm braTe, his military character would have 



MODERN HISTORY. Wli 

itood higher, perhaps, than that of any other commander, ancient or 
modem. 

12. The army, it must be acknowledged, for some time afforded 
but little assistance to, if it did not actually embarrass, the openitions 
of Frederic. A formidable force of 38,000 Hanoverian, Hessian, 
and other troops, under the command of the duke of Cumberland, 
had, in a most extraordinary manner, been reduced, though neilhf^r 
beaten nor actually disarmed, to a state of inactivity, and the king's 
fierman dominions abandoned to ihe enemy, by a convention the 
most singular upon the records of history ; and if actually necessary, 
only rendered so by the impolitic movements of the commander-in- 
chief, who, instead of endeavouring to join the Prussians, after a 
sharp contest, in which the French had the advaii'-ige, retreated in a 
totally different direction, merely to keep up, as i' las been supposed^ 
a communication with the place to which the .rchives and most 
valuable eflects of Hanover had been removed. 

13. This convention, indeed, signed at Closter seven, September 
8, 1,757, was said to have been concluded against ihe wishes oi' the 
royal commander himself, and entirely at the insta..ce and requisition 
of the regency of Hanover. Be this, however, as it may, it was un- 
doubtedly almost fatal to the king of Prussia, and exceedingly 
humiliating to England, though ultimately attended ^vith this good 
effect, that it seems to have roused and stimOlated both the people 
and government to greater exertions. Unfortunately much of this 
good spirit and renewed activity was wasted in fruitless attempts on 
the coast of France, which cost the nation much money, and, as it 
turned out contributed little or nothing to her glory and advantage ; 
the demolition of t\\^ works at Cherburg, and capture of Belle Isle, 
1,761, which was of use afterwards, as an exchange for Minorca, 
being all she had to boast of To her great and indefatigable ally, 
the king of Prussia, these expeditions to the French coast could be 
of no use, except in diverting a part at least of the French forces, 
which might otnerwise have been opposed to him ; but they had 
scarcely this effect, and though that great minister, Blr. Pitt, after- 
wards lord Chatham, appears to have been the chief promoter of 
these measures, in opposition to many members of the British 
cabinet, the policy of them, even had they been more successful, has 
been preity generally questioned. Her soldiers, many thought, were 
principally wanting in Germany, the grand theatre of military opera- 
tions, to strengthen and give eflectto the judicious and bold measures 
of prince Ferdinand, who, being, by the advice, it is said, of the 
Prussian monarch, on the retirement of the duke of Cumberland, 
after the convention spoken of, placed at the head of the allied 
army, had succeeded in conmelling the French to evacuate Hanover, 
Brunswick, and Bremen. England indeed had been liberal in her 
subsidies, even to a degree that some thought unwise and extrava- 
gant, and she had been successful in America, Asia, Africa, and gen- 
erally on the ocean. The French navy indeed, was almost annihilat 
ed ; and her colonies, both in the east and west, had fallen a prey to 
the English armies ; even Canada, the source and focus, as it were, ot 
the transatlantic disputes between England and France, was complete- 
ly subdued by the armies under the command of Wolfe, Townshend, 
rilonckton, Murray, and Amherst, who displayed such zeal, valour^ 
and abilities, in the capture of the towns of Quebec and Montreal, as 
have never been exceeded. 

14. Though prince Ferdinand had driven the French back, it was 



206 MODERN HISTORY. 

doubted whether tlie forces under his command would be sufficient 
to maintain these advantages; apprehen^ioit-, indeed, were entertain 
ed, that he mi^ht be reduced tolorm another convention na humihat- 
ing as that ot Closter-seven. But the genius and valour of this 
great prince surmounted the ditVicuUies in which he seemed to \>' 

fhiced, by most judiciously, and with no small art, compelling tli 
rench to come to an engagemtnt, under circumstances peculiarly 
favounible to the allied army ; and the battle of Minden, which took 
place August 1, 1,751), though the subject afterwards of much jealousy 
amongst the allies, etfectuafiy relieved the electorate of Hanover, and 
the greater part of Westphalia, from the presence of the French. 

16. It was at this period, August 10, 1,759, that Ferdinand VI., 
ot] Spain, died, and was succeeded by his brothei-, don Carlos, king 
of the two Sicilies, under the title of Charle* III., in consequence 
of which succession, and according to the terms of the treaty of 
Aix-la-Chapelle, don Philip should have surrendered the duchies of 
Parftia, Flacentia, and Guastalla to .Austria and Sardinia, and remov- 
ed to Naples, (see Sect. V. § 5;) but as Charles III. had never acced- 
ed to that treaty, he left the crown of the two Sicilies to his third son, 
J'erdinand, and don Philip agreed, and was allowed by Austria, to 
letain the three duchies; the courts of France and Spain having 
managed to quiat the alarms of Sardinia, in regard to tlie reversion 
of Placentia. 

16. The removal of don Carlos to Spain, at a time when so many 
advantages had been gained over the Vrench by the English, at sea 
and in .America, justly alarmed the new monarch for his ' wn colonies 
and settlements in those parts ; and these apprehensions soon became 
a reason for his entering inio a fumily compact \v'i{h France, which 
had been attempted before, but frustrated by the aire and vigilance 
(»f the British minister. It was in tact entirely arnmged and con- 
cluded in the month of .August^ li"61, and extended to all the Bour- 
lK>n princes; it was a treaty ot mutual and reciprocal naturalization, 
and equality of rights, to the subjects of tdl the Bourbon states, 
France^ .S)x/tn, the t-iH-o Sicilies^ Furmu^ and PUicentia^ with a general 
guaranteeof each other's dominions, under all possible circumstances 
except o/ie, which was, that Spain should be excused from interfering 
in any quarrels of France, arising out of the treaty of Westphalia, 
unless some maritime power should take part in such disputes, or 
France be invaded. 

17. The above clause in the treaty was judged to be so evidently 
aimed at England, as to justit'y an immecliatc declaration of war 
against Spain on the part of the former, which accordingly took 
place early in the year 1,762 ; nor was Spain backward in ibllowing 
die example against England, in resentment, as it was alleged, of lh»; 
supercilious and arbitrary manner, in which the latter had inteifered 
with regard to the family compact. 

18. 'I he first tVuiis of this extraordinary confederacy were a gross 
attempt upon the independency of Portugal, as an ally of England 
by France and Spain; an attempt the most appalling to Portugal, 
had not her brave and honourable sovereign resolved rather to per- 
ish than to submit to the terms dictated to him by the combined mon- 
archs. England Wiis in every way bound to give aid and support to 
her ancient and faithful ally, on so trying an occasion ; and, Ibrtunalely. 
her help came so opportunely and so promptly, as to enable the 
king of Portugal to repel the Spaniards, who had not only passed tlie 
frontiers, but actually taken several towns. Thus was that monarch 



MODERN mSTOKV. 28-/ 

nnd his dominions saved from the effects of as wicked and arbitrary 
a design as was ever entertained against an independent or neutral 

f)otenlate, and that on the sole ground of his connexion with Eng- 
and at the moment ; to whose resentmeri he would of course have 
been exposed, had he tamely submitted to the tyrannical demands of 
France and Spain. In either case, he seemed to be threatened with 
ruin and destruction, had things taken a difl'erent turn, from what 
actually came to pass. 

19. The hostilities into which Great Britain was driven by this 
unprovoked attack upon Portugal, as well as by the threatening 
aspect and spirit o^ the family compact^ which seemed to undo all 
that had been accompiisned by the succession war, were in every 
instance crowned with success ; so that in both hemispheres, her arms 
may be said to have been victorious; and her triumph complete ; and 
Spain had great cause to rue her short concern in the war, into 
which she had been cajoled by France, and which operated as fully 
to the disappointment of the latter power. In the mean while, the 
king of Prussia, who had been brought to the very verge of ruin, 
according to his own statement and confession, was most unexpect- 
edly relieved by surprising changes in the Russian councils, through 
the demise of Elizabeth, and accession of Peter III., whose reign in- 
deed was too short to enable him to render any real assistance to 
the king of Prussia, in the field, which might have been expected 
from the enthusiastic admiration with which his actions were beheld 
by the Russian monarch. But this weak, though benign prince, in 
consequence of his too extensive plans of reform, and a difference 
with his empress, was soon removed ; and though his successor and 
ronsort, Catherine the second, did not by any means pay the same 
court to Freeleric, yet her opposition to him was very slight, and 
soon terminated by a treaty of peace, in which she was followed by 
Sweden. 

20. All these things evidently tended towards a general peace, if 
England, who had certainly been the most successful of all the pow- 
ers concerned, could be brou^bt to consent to be stopped in her 
career of victory and triumph. A change of ministry had, however, 
laid the founcKtion for such measures. i\lr. Pitt, who was for the 
continuance of the war, on some private information, as it has been 
thought, of the progress and terms of the family compact, had re- 
signed soon after the demise of the king, George II. ; and lord Bwte, 
who owed his place and power as minister, much more to th(; per- 
sonal good-will and attachment of the new king, than to the voice 
and favour of the people, foreseeing that it might be dithcult for 
him to raise either money or men for the prosecution of the war, 
(bounties for recruits, in particular, having risen to an unexampled 
height,) and having against him many important individuals of both 
parties, entered freely into negotiations with France, which were 
brought to an issue by the peace of Paris, (or Fontainebleau,) l,7G3. 

21. This treaty was not popular in England, though, undoubtedly, 
she reaped the benefit of many remarkable concessions, particularly 
m America, where she acquired, not only the whole province of 
Canada, but part of Louisiana ; the junction of which two distant 
French settlements, to the embarrassment, and possibly, total subjec- 
tion of the English colonies, had been the express occasion of the 
war; but by inany persons it was thought, and perhaps with great 
reason, that Kngland had surrendered too much, considering the 
liigh situation in which she stood, and the advantages that might 



288 MODERN HISTORY. 

hare been reaped by a little longer continuance ot the war; and iti 

what she both snrronHcred and retained, an ill and impolitic selec- 
tion, it uas alleged, had been made ot' posts and settlements. The 
treaty of Ihibert^burg, by wbiih the war was terminated between 
Austria and Prussia in the same voar. 1,70:^, restored matters, in re- 
gard to those two powers, exactly to their Ibrmer state, after sevfji 
most destructive and expensive campaigns ! Nothing of territory 
»vas lost and nothing gained by either party. England, undoubtedly, 
was lelt in the highest state of prosperity at the conclusion of these 
Iwo treaties. Her navy unimpared, or rather augmented at the ex- 
pense of the navy of France ; her commerce extending^ from one 
extremity of the globe to the other, with an accession ot important 
•*iltlements ceded to her by France in Asia, Africa, and America. 



SECTION VII. 

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GEORGE III. 1,760, TO THE COM 
MENCEiMENT OF THE DISPUTES WITH AMERICA, 1,764. 

1. Though a new enemy, for a very short time, was added to the 
list of those who were contending with England and her allies, 
when George the second died, by the accession of Spain to the 
Jlcmilv compact^ and continental confederacy, in 1,761, yet the sevei* 
years^ war, through the exhaustion of the allies of Austria, par 
licularly the Saxons, Poles, and French, may be said to have been 
drawing to a conclusion, when George III. ascended the throne of 
Great Britain, on the demise of his grandfather, October 25, l,76tL 
For the termination of that warj see Sect. V'l. 

2. Much notice was taken ot a passage in the king's first speech 
to his parliament, in which he expressed the glory he felt in havi'ig 
been born and educated in Britain ; and though some have pretended 
to see in it, a reflection on his royal predecessors, yet it was surely 
wise in the first sovereign of the house of Hanover, w ho stood clear 
o( foreijjn manners, and foreign partialities, so to bespeak the love 
and attachment of his subjects. It is true, indeed, that England had 
prospered in no common degree from the tirst accession of that 
illustrious tamily, but it cannot be denied, that a distaste of foreign 
manners, as well as a jealousy of foreign partialities, had occasionally 
interrupted the proceedings of government, and were at all events 
calcuLitcd to keep up, in the minds of the disafl'ected, a remembrance 
of the breach that had been made in the succession to the throne. 
Fourteen years having passed since any attemjit had been made to 
restore the Stuart family, and the condition ol that familv having 
become such, as to render any further endeavours to that eti'ect, ex 
tremely improbable, nothing more seemed wanting to remove all 
remaining prejudices against the Brunswick line of princes, than 
that the sovereign should be a native of the land he ruled. 

3. In addition to this tie upon his subjects, every thing seemjfd to 
conspire, as far as regarded the character, manners, and disposition 
of the young king, to secure to him the attachment of his people , 
at»d to give hopes of a quiet and tranquil reign. One of the very 
fii-st acts of which was calculated to impress the idea of his being a 
true friend to the liberty of the subject, by rendering the judges 
huiepeiidcnt of the crown. His majesty was married, soon after his 
accesstoo, to the princess Charlotte oF Mecklenburgh Strelitz, with 



MODERN HISTORY. 386 

whom he was crowned at VVestminster, on the 22d day of Septem- 
ber 1,761. 

4. However promising the appearances both of external and iiv. 
ternal tranquillity might be, at the commencement of the new 
reign, it was not long before the nation became agitated by party 
disputes and diflerences, of no small importance. In 1,762, a ques- 
tion arose, which though it led to very distressing tumults, terminat- 
ed in the relief of the subject from an arbitrary process, exceedingly 
repugnant to the spirit of the constitution, and the great charter of 
British liberty. General warrants, and the seizure of private papers 
without sufficient necessity, the legality of which had been disputed, 
in the case of Mr. Wilkes, member for Ailesbury, during which that 
gentlemen displayed considerable fortitude, though certainly with 
great failure of respect towards the crown, were declared' to be 
ulegal by a solemn decree of parliament, 1,765, nor has any attempt 
been since made to reinvest the government with so dangerous and 
formidable a power. The question of general warrants, however, 
was not the only one in which Mr. Wilkes appeared as the champion 
of the people's liberties. Being elected for Middlesex, after having 
f>een expelled the house, he claimed his seat, in defiance of the res- 
olutions of parliament, but was not allowed to sit. Five years after 
wards, he was permitted again to enter the house of commons ; but 
in this instance the parliament maintained its power of declaring a 
particular individual disqualified, against the decision of a majority 
of electors ; a curious point as affecting the constitution, and the 
elective franchise. 

5. Though the courts of Vienna, France, and Prussia^ had cause to 
be tired of the war, in which they had been engaged smce the year 
1,755, it is certain that England was in a state to continue it, especial- 
ly by sea, when the treaty of Paris, or Fontainebleau, was concluded, 
in 1 ,763. As long as Mr. Pitt continued a member of administration, 
the war had been carried on vigorously, and had become exceeding- 
ly popular, so that on the resignation of that great minister, in 1,761, 
and the appointment of lord Bute, whose distrust of his own abilities 
to continue it, disposed him to listen to the overtures of France, 
great discontents arose. The minister was suspected of harbouring 
in his breast the most despotic principles, and of having inculcated 
the same into the mind of his sovereign, while yet a youth. He 
was supposed to possess too exclusive an influence in that quarter; 
and though, in private life, a most respectable nobleman, of great 
ivorth and probity, learning, and talents, his public measures were 
the continual theme of obloquy and abuse. Had Mr. Pitt continued 
m office, it is more than probable that the allies might have gained 
greater advantages on the continent, and the Spaniards been more 
severely punished for their interference ; so that the pacific meas- 
\jres of the new minister, drew upon him the displeas'ire, if not the 
contempt, as well of his own countrymen, as of the King of Prussia 
also ; who in his writings has inveighed greatly against the prevail- 
ing influence of the noble earl at this period, in the cabinet and coun- 
cils of Great Britain. 

6. The riots and tumults excited by the proceedings against Mr. 
Wilkes, and the extreme unpopularity of lord Bute, contributed to 
render the first years of the reign of George 111. exceedingly unqui- 
et, and to involve his majesty in many unpleasant difticnlties, from 
the addresses, petitions, and remonstrances, which flowed in upon 
him, often couched in such language as it was impossible not to re- 

B b 37 



too MODERN HISTOKV. 

sent, and as often insinuating what, perhaps, wus nut Ibunded on 
trutli : for it Iras never yet lieen clearly asctrtnined that the public 
actually suffc'red from any improper sccrol influence, or that the 
m»»asures of lord Bute, \vill» regard to the peace of V:\rU^ all things 
considered, were impolitic or unwise. 'J he woi-st feature in tiiis 
peace, with regard to England, sci'nis to have been, the failure to 
guard against the elfecls, in future, of the family compact^ wluch 
vvjis left in full force. Mr. Pitt had his eye constantly upon this, and, 
had he continued in powt'r, woidd, no doubt, have continued the 
war with spirit and perseverance : this great minister had retired 
undisgraced ; he received a pension indeed for himself, and a peer- 
age lor his lady. His politics, to the day of his death, contmued 
widely different from those of lord Bute, and were constantly more 
'popular: but the great fault of the latter seems to have been, that 
ne engaged in public bu-^iness, contrary to the bent of his own dispo- 
sition, and w:i3 too seibiible of his unpopularity, to undertake any 
mciisure that required much public support. All he did, theretbre. 
teemed to be managed in the way of private influence, cabal, ana 
infigue. 

7. In addition to the addresses and remonstrances alluded to in the 
foregoing section, the popular fervour and agitation received consid- 
erable encouragement trom the letters ot an anonymous writer, 
never yet discovered, — a writer who displayed such an extraordi- 
nary knowledge of the proceedings of the court and cabinet, and 
had the power of expressing himself in a style so vigorous, striking, 
and keenly satirical, as to demand the attention of all i)arties, and 
confound the m.ijority oi those whonj he personally attacked. But 
the extreme severity of a concealed and unknown accuser, and the 
gross personalities in wliich he often indulged, not sparing majesty 
Itself, threw a cloud over his writings, which can never be done 
away, to the satislaction of any candid or liberal mind. Though the 
mention of these celebrated letters is rather anticipated in this place, 
as they did not publicly appenr till the year 1,7G0, yet, as tije^" par- 
ticularly relate to the foregoing transactions, and state of afi;drs in 
the early years of the roign of George III., and long preceded the 
actual comr.iencement of the war with America, the fn>t authors ol 
which he seemed disjwsed to screen, a better opportunity of intro- 
ducing the subject might scarcely be Ibund. The m;my Iruitless, but 
very curious attempts that have' been made, at various times, to dis- 
cover the real anihor, have contributed, in addition to the extr.iordi* 
uary character of the work itself, and the political quesiions discuss- 
ed in it, to prevent its ever sinldn^ into oblivion. The letters of 
Juniiu, wall all their blemishes, will probably never f lil to find a 
place in the libraries of the British scholar, and British statesman. 

8. in the prosecution of this work, it should also be noticed, that a 
2;reat constif.'ional point came undei di-cu^sion, namely, whether 

II cases of libel, the jury were judges of the /au', as well as of the 
fad. In most other cases, no such ditliculty seemed to orctir. In 
cases of murtler, not only the act of killing, but the murilerous in- 
tetit, was submitli^d to the doci-^ion of the jury ; and in trials lor felony 
of every description, the course was the same. Lord M;instieid. in 
this CJise, insisted that the jury had only to decide on the fact of 
iiutlication, and thai the court was to <leterniine upon the law of 
libeL This has g«:nerally been di-^puted by jurios ; and they have 
Ibund ways of eviiding the dilhcully, by either themselve-s releiring 
I he liiiv to the judge, by a speci;d verdict, or by proaouocing a geu- 



MQDEKN HISTORY. 291 

eral acquittal. Unfortunately, libels are of that description as con 
stantly to excite those jealousies and suspicions, from which every 
court of justice should be free. They affiect, also, two of the high 
est privileges of Englishmen, — the right of private judgment, and 
the liberty of the press. In the case of Junius, the point in dispute 
was by no means so settled as to obviate future differences. 

9. Tfte year 1 ,764 is memorable for the commencement of the 
dispute between Great Britain and her American colonies ; but as 
the history of this contest involres many curious questions of policy; 
as its results, in regard not only to England and America, but to the 
world in general, were very important ; and its termination led to a 
total separation of the colonies from the mother country, thereby 
establishing a distinct state and government of European settlers in 
the western hemisphere, the details of it will be reserved for another 
section. 



SECTION VIII. 

DISPUTES BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN AND HER AMERICAN 
COLONIES. 1,764—1,783. 

1. The seven years' war, terminated by the peace of Paris, or Fon- 
tainebleau, in 1,763, had been begun in Amenca^ as has been shown. 
(Sect VI.) Great Britain, at considerable expense ot men and 
money, had resisted the encroachments of France on the British 
colonies, and thereby afforded to the latter, protection, perhaps be- 
yond what any commercial benefits, under the colonial system, 
CDuld be said fully to compensate. A question therefore arosej 
whether the colonies might not be called upon to contribute, by di- 
rect taxation, to the relief of the general expenses and burthens of 
the mother country. The national debt, it was argued by the British 
government, was the debt of every individual in the whole empire, 
whetber in Asia, America, or nearer home. 

2. The question, however, was no sooner started than decided 
by administration ; chiefly through the influence and on the sugges- 
tion of Mr. George Grenville, then prime-minister, who, in the very 
year succeeding the peace of Paris, procured the stamp-act to be 
passed, by which the Americans were directly subjected to a tax 
imposed by the British parUament, without their own consent, not 
immediately applicable to their own wants or necessities, and contrary 
to every former mode of raising money ibr such purposes. This 
was certainly suflficient to excite alarm, and lead to questions of pol- 
cy and prudence ; of power and right ; of legislation and represen- 
tation ; never yet so thoroughly discussed or investigated. Hitherto, 
without Questioning the power, government had forborne from 
taxing them as a matter of policy imd propriety ; and thus, as it 
was well said at the time, those two very difrxult points, superiority 
in the presiding state, and freedom in the subordinate, had been prac- 
tically reconciled. 

3. The situation of America rendered these questions the more 
important and alarming to the mother country, in case of opposition, 
as having been originally peopled from Europe, in a great measure, 
by refugees^ exiles, and persons adverse to the governments, which 
they had leu, both in church and state, and well inclined, probably, to 



«>9a MODLHi^ HISTORY. 

Hssort n republiciin Independence. Their legislative assemblies were 
alrea<ly or the popular cast, and their feelings and spiritjj accordant 
It niusi aUo be admitted, that upon the very ground of pecuniary or 
other aids, they had much to allege in respect of their benrljcial 
returns to England, in taking her inanufartures, and having assiisted 
her in the conquest of Canada. Most unfortunatcl), the very grants 
which had been niaile by their assemblies, in aid of England, gyring 
the last war, were alleged as an argument (a most irritating one, un- 
doubtedly,) of their aMity to pay any imposts the parliament might 
clio(K«e to lay upon them. 

4. As the ministry had decided hastily upon the general question, 
they seem also to have suffered themselves to be precipitated into 
Kome of the woret meastues they could have adopted to render their 
novel demands palatable. Their very tirst tax, imposed by the 
stamp act of 1,7(34, though simple in its principle, was ill-suited to 
the state of America. The mere distribution of the stamps, through 
sjich a variety of different states, involved in itathousand dilhculties; 
and there were provisions in the act itsell, winch might, if at all 
abused or neglected, have subjected the people to unheard oi vexa- 
tions and oppressions. It is scarcely, therefore, to he w ondered that, 
on its Hrst promidgation in America, the act should have been re- 
ceived with the greatest indignation, and even with defiance. 

5. In the mean time, the cause of the Americans was espoused 
by a strong party at home, a party, so i'ar from being contemptible, 
as to include some of the first persons of the nation, both in rank and 
importance. The debates in both houses vvera violent, but the topics 
discussed, in every point of view, interesting. The friends of the 
Americans, if it may be proper now to call them so, obtained and 
swayed, lor a very short period, the helm of government. In June, 
1,765, the Grenville administration was dismissed, and a new one, at 
the head of which was placed the marquis of Kockingham, came 
into power, through the mediation of the duke of Cumberland. 
They continued in office, however, for little more than one year; 
but in that short space of time, the stami)-act, which had been fco ill 
received in America, was formally repealed. 

G. But the gnind question relating to the right of taxation was 
by no means determined by this measure : a declaratory act was 
particularly passed at the same time, for maintaining the constitu- 
tional authority of Great Britian, in ''all cases whatsoever;'' and 
though there was certainly no design, in those who promoted the 
repeal, to act upon this authority, by establishing any other tax of 
a similar kind, yet the colonists were prepared, as much as ever, 
to dispute the principle, as far as it regarded taxation ; and their 
courage and confidence at this time stood high, in consequence of 
the importance which had been given to them in the last war. and 
their emancipation from all dread of the French and Spaniards, by 
the cession of Canada and the Floridas. In the colony of'* Virginia 
the right of taxation was voted to rest entirely in the king, or his 
representative, and the general assembly of the colony. This was, 
undoubtedly, the usual coui-se of things; and in this way subsidies to 
a considerable amount had been granted to the crown. This prece- 
dent was soon followed by othei*8 of the legislative bodies, aud 
adopted in the general congress of ISew York, 1,705. 

7. It was not pretended that the Americans paid no taxes; but a 
distinction was nc*v set up, which there had been no occasion to 
iwsist upon before. To external taxation, through the operation ot 



MODERN HISTORY. 293 

laws of trade and navigation, enacted in the mother country, they 
were willing to yield submission ; they had constantly done so, nor 
were they now disposed to resist such enactments; but all inter- 
nal duties for raising a revenue, or supporting establishments, were 
held to be very dinerently circumstanced. Taxes of this nature 
were considered as being, in the very language of parliament itself. 
f^ifls, and ffra7its. None, therefore, it was urged, could give the 
money of America but the people of America themselves. If they 
chose to make such grants, they might receive a legislative sanction, as 
in England ; but legislation and taxation were distinct things. Tax- 
ation, according to the spirit of the English constitution, implying 
consent, direct or by representation, could not otherwise be rendered 
either legal or just. Local circumstances would render the repre- 
sentation of America, in the British parliament, impracticable*, 
and a supposed virtual representation was no less than niockery. 
The representatives of England, in taxing others, taxed themselves 
also ; but this could not be the case in regard to American imposts. 

0. Such weie some of the strongest reasons urged against the 
measure in general ; but, as the nght of taxation had not been ex- 
pressly given up by any part in England, but rather insisted upon in the 
declaratory act, no concession short of this seemed likely to do good. 
The stamp-act had caused an irritation, which no qnalijied repeal 
could allay internal taxation was not only resisted as an encroachment 
on established rights and usages, but, in resentment of such wrongs, 
attempts were made to hinder the further operation even of exter- 
nal taxation. Non-importation, and non-consumption agreements 
were soon entered into, and associations formed to methodise and 
consolidate the opposition to government. A resolution had been 
passed when lord North was minister, promising tc desist from all 
taxation, except commercial imposts, whenever any one of the 
colonial assemblies should vote a reasonable sum, as a revenue, to be 
appropriated by parliament ; but this had no good effect. 

9. In so embarrassed a state of things, it is not very surprising 
that the ministry at home should have entertained wrong measures, 
and miscalculated the effects of the plans they were pursuing. 
The truth of history tends to show that, however they might be 
embarrassed by an active opposition in parliament, that opposition 
fairly forewarned them of the consequences of their meditated pro 
ceedings, which came to pass exactly as they had been foretold. 
But after this demand had once provoked the question of right, and 
that question had di'fided the people of both countries into two strong 
parties, things soon fell into that state, in which it became impossible 
to restore affairs to their original condition, either by perseverance 
«r concession. Every effort of coercion was resented as an illegal 
encroachment; every conciliatory proposition received as a proof 
ot alarm and timidity, and as a pledge of victory and success to fu- 
ture opposition. 

10. it has been questioned whether independence was not in the 
view of the Americans fiom the very first stirring of the question, 
or even previously ; but had this been the case, they would have 
been more prepared ; their addresses to the king and parliament, on 
various occasions, after the commencement of the dispute, must have 
6een fallacious to the highest pitch of dissimulation, if they had de- 
termined against all compromise from the very beginning ; but, in- 
deed, the remonstrances and complaints of General Washington, on 
the ill state of his army, and total want of many essential requisites, 

B b 2 



t94 MODEllN HISTORY. 

on first taking the command, seem clearly to prove that they were 
driven to assert their independence by the course of things; a large 
portion of their fcilou-subiects and countrymen on bolli sities of the 
Atlantic, judged them to be oppressed, aiul thus gave a character to 
ihcir opposition which could not very creditably be forfeited. Upon 
the whole it may be considered probable that some of the most 
prominent and active leadei-s of the revolution had very early con- 
ceived the design of establishing the independence of their country ; 
but that the mass of the people in the colonies, had no such inten- 
tion until after their lii-st successes. 

11. Hostilities did not actually commence till the year 1,775, ten 
years from the tirst passing of the stamp-act. in a short time ai*er 
the passing of that act, it was repealed, as has been stated; but in 
1,767 the project of taxing America was revived by Mr. Charl'^s 
Townshend, and from that period to the commencement of the war, 
both countries were in a state of the greatest agitation. Debates 
ran high at home, and in America their gravest proceedings were ac- 
companied with such threats of defiance, and such indignant lesent- 
mcntof all innovations, as almost necessarily to bring them under the 
strong hand of power. But government underrated their means of 
resistance; when brought into a state of union, by the congress, 
their force was no longer to be despised ; all temporizing expedients 
were at an end, a circumstance ill understood by the ministry at 
home, who lost much time in endeavouring to retrieve mattei-s, by 
fruitless attempts, sometimes in the way of conciliation, and at 
others, of inefficient resistance. Thus, when in 1,770 many com- 
mercial duties were taken off, which the mother country nad an un- 
doubted right to impose, the concession was ill received, in conse- 
quence of the single exception of tea^ which was continued in order 
to assert the rights and supremacy of Great Britain ; but this was 
done in a manner too imperious, andl without sufficient force to subdue 
the resentment it was calculated to excite, at such a moment. At 
the very breaking out of the war, ministers "j[jpear to have been by 
far too confident of speedily suppressing so iormidable an insurrec- 
tion ; an insurrection which had had lime allowed it to organize 
itself, and which had drawn upon it the attention of the whole civ- 
ilizeil world. 

12. The war may be said to have actually commenced culy on 
the 14th of April, 1,775, though some English regiments had been 
sent to Boston so early as the year 1,768. in an ailiiir at Lexington, 
Amounting to no more than a skirmisli, the English were completely 
worsted, a circimistance calculated to give spirits to the Americans, 
at a most awlul and momentous period. General Washington, who 
had distinguished himself in the war against the French, and bore a 
most irreproachable character, was appointed to take the command 
of the American army ; a post of the utmost responsibility, and re 
quiring talents, tem|)er, and discretion, of no common description. 

13. The sword being drawn, and no hopes remaining of an arnica 
ble adjustment of difterences between the crown and its transatlantic 
subjects, now in a state of open revolt ; and the success of the firsi 
hostilities having animated the military ardour of the Americans 
they proceeded, by a solemn declaration of the general congress a> 
Philadelphia, July 4, 1,776, to declare the thirteen provinces inde 

fjendent ; by which act America may be said to have been divideA 
rom the mother country, 2U4 years after the discovery of tliat coun 
try by Columbus; 166 from the first settlement of Virginia; and 16( 



MODERN HISlX)Ry. «95 

from the settlement of Pljnmouth in Massachusetts Bay. The Amet- 
ican Congresi ejcercised its important functions witli great energy 
and (}igiiiiy, and the campaign of 1.776 turned out iavourably for the 
Americans, and highly to the credit ol their very able and brave 
commander. 

14. Whether it were owing to the low opinion entertained by the 
government at home, of the resistance likely to be otfered by the 
Americana, or to a dislike of the cause in which they were engaged 
on the part of the British commanders, it is exceedingly certain, that 
the Englisa army did not obtain the advantiiges it was supposed it 
might have done, or proceed as if it were able speedily to crush the 
rebellion that had been raised. The American troops were every 
day improving, and every day deriving encouragement, either from 
unexpected successes, or the inactivity of the armies opposed to 
them. On the other hand, the English were either indulging in 
pleasure, when they should have been in action, or disheartened by 
sudden surprises or repulses, which redounded greatly to the credit 
of their less disciplined, and less organized opponents. In a short 
time, however, the war became more complicated, and opened a 
scene, which not only involved the continent of Europe in the con- 
t^ict of the day, but probably led to changes ;ind convulsions, as ex- 
tiaordinary and as extensive as ever the world experienced. 

15. In the month of November, 1,776, the celebrated Dr. Franklin 
and Silas Deane had been despatched by congress, to solicit, at the 
court of Versailles, the aid and assistance of French troops. Accoi*d- 
ing to the former course of things, nothing could be more strange 
than such an application, at such a court; an application from rebel- 
lious subjects, fr-ora the assertors of republican independence, to a 
court celebrated for the most retined despotism, and ruling a people, 
heretofore the grossest admirers and tlatterers of regal power, an 
application from persons of the simplest habits; frugal, temperate, 
in.lustrious, and little advanced in civilization, to a court immersed in 
pleasure, gay, and dissipated, profligate and corrupt, civilized to the 
highest pitch of courtly retinement, of polished manners, and of 
splendid luxury . l.istly, an application from a people who had car 
ned their dissent from the church of Rome tartner than any protes- 
tants in Europe, to a court still subject to the papal see, a cherished 
branch of the catholic church. 

16. Extraordinary, however, in all respects, as this American mis- 
sion seems to have been, it met with a cordial and favourable recep- 
tion. Even the queen of France was found to espouse the cause of 
the revolted subjects of Great Britain, little foreseeing the handle 
she was giving to many keen observer of her own courtly extrava- 
gance and thoughtless dissipation. The die was soon cast ; a fonniil 
treaty was entered into, acknowledging the independency of Amer- 
ica : succour and support to a large extent promised, and oliicers ap- 
pointed to conduct the French forces, likely, it would seem, above 
all others, to imbibe the spirit of freedom, which animated the 
Americans, and to espouse their cause upon principle. They were 
all noble, indeed ; but in America they were sure to be taught how 
vain were such distinctions, if not supported by public opinion. 

17. The English government was not formerly apprised of this 
unexpected alliance, till the year 1,778, when it received a very 
curious and insulting notification of it from the French ambassador 
It does not appear that the aid thus obtained by the American mis- 
tioD, was altogether grateful to the Americans tnemselves, thou|;h ii 



290 MODERN HISIXJKY. 

had the full effect of raising up new and powerful enemies ugaiDst 
the mother country, ami involving Europe in their cause ; for 
through the French intluence, in the year 1,779, Spain joined the 
contbderacy againj<t England, and, in 1,780, Holland. In the moan 
^vhIle commissioners had been sent Irom England to America, to 
treat for peace, but the Americans, insisting on the previous ac- 
V wledgment of their lodependeDcy, rendered their attempts fruit- 

io. Whatever loss of fame, reputation, and territory Great Britain 
incurred in America, her arms never shone with greater h'Stre than 
on some occasions in which slie was engaged during thi«i \v\r. with 
/the confederate powers of Europe ; in Asia particularly, -ne wjii 
-'acquiring an empire ten times greater in wealth and population, thiin 
«ttll she had to lose in the west : but of all her achievements at lb 
uperiod, none, perhaps, was so conspicuous, none so glorious, as the 
?4elence of Gibraltar under General Elliot, afterwards lord Heath- 
*ificld, against the combined forces of Spain and France. The prepa- 
lufitions made to recover that important fortress for Spain, exceeaed 
♦•everything betbre known, 'ihe ultimate success of the attempt 
"Was calculated upon as so certain, that some of the French princes 
of the blood, repaired to the Spanish camp merely to witness its sur- 
render. But the heroism of tl>e troops in garrison baffled all their 
designs, and the timely arrival of the British fleet completed the 
triumph, in October, 1,782. The siege (^ begun in 1,779) was entire- 
ly abandoned, with the loss of all the Spanish floating batteries, and 
the detieat of the combined fleets of France and Spain, by lord Howe. 
This action took place on the 20lh of October ; in the following 
month provisional articles of peace were signed at Paris, by British 
and American commissioners, and early in the ensuing year a treaty 
concluded at Versailles, between Great Britain, France, and Spain, 
to which, in February, Holland also acceded. 

19. Towards the close of the war, many importrmt discussions in 
parliament took place on the American aflairs, in which it was 
founci, that those who had most espoused her cause, on the question 
of internal taxation, and most objected to the measures o4' administra- 
tion in the conduct of the war, differed, at the last, Irom each other, 
on the question of American independence ; a difference rendcreci 
peculiarly memorable, as being the subject of the last speech and 
appearance in parliament of that illustrious statesman, the earl of 
Chatham. On Apnl 7, 1,778, though labouring under a severe fit of 
illness, he appeared in his place, in the house of lords, and delivered 
a most animated and energetic speech, in which he strongly protect- 
ed against the surrender of the sovereignty of Great Briliiin over 
her colonies; soon atler, rising to reply to the Duke of KiclimDnd, 
he fell back on the seat in a tainting tit, and in a few days expired, 
at his seat in Kent hi lour years from this event. Great Britain was 
compelled, to yield upon this great point, and, by the peace of V'ei- 
Bailles, ratified and concluded September 3, 1,783, the Uiirteen United 
Colonies of Jimerica rvtre adtniUed to ht '^ Fret^ Savrrtign^ and vndepen- 
derU StaUs^^ 



ir 



MODERN HISTOKY. jmmL 297 



SEC HON IX. 



FRANCE, FROM THE PEACE OF PARIS, 1,763, TO THE 
OPENING OF THE ASSEMBLY OF THE STATES GENERAL, 
1,789. 

1. For the affairs of France, from the death of Lewib XIV., to 
the peace of Vienna, 1,738, (see Sect. 1.) In the year of 1,740, 
owing to the death of the emperor, Charles VI., Europe was again 
agitated, and France, in espousing the cause of the elector of Bava- 
ria, against the house of Austria, oecame involved in the war, which 
was terminated by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1,748, (see Sect. 
IIL) From the conclusion of the above treaty, to the commence- 
ment of the seven years' war, she enjoyed a state of external peace 
and tranquillity. But though this short interval of repose from war, 
was applied to the improvement of the kingdom, in no common de- 
gree, both in the capital and provinces, by the establishment ot 
schools and hospitals, the erection of public edifices, the building ol 
bridges, digging canals, and repairing roads ; in the cultivation and 
improvement of many arts, the extension of commerce, and encour- 
agement of manufactures; of silk, of porcelain, and tapestry, in par- 
ticular; yet ami(^t all these improvements she enjoy eel little of inter- 
nal tranquillity. § Religious disputes greatly occupied the attention 
of all ranks of persons, and involved the clergy, the court, the par- 
liaments, and the people, in incessant contests, exceedingly disgrace- 
ful, and considering the temper of the times, the advancement of 
bruman knowledge, and the progress of ideas, extremely injudicious\ 

2. During the reign of Lewis XIV., a fierce contention had ariseir 
between the Jesuits and Jansenists, on certain obscure points in 
theology, which, after much fruitless argument, much raillery and 
abuse on both sides, through the influence of the Jesuits witn the 
king, were referred to the decision of the Roman pontifif. One hun- 
dred and one propositions, out of one hundred and three, which were 
said to favour the Jansenists, in a book written by the Fere C^uesnel, 
were, in the year 1,71b, declared by the holy office to be heretical, 
and consequently condemned in form.* The interposition of his ho- 
liness had little effect, in regard to the restoration of peace and tran- 
quillity. The public instrument, by which the sentence was passed 
on the Jansenist party, (in the language of Rome commonly called 
the bull " Unigenitus^^'' Irom the first word with which it begins,) 
became the signal for fresh animosities, murmurs, and complaints, 
The people, the parliament, many prelates, and others of the clergy 
violently exclaimed against it, as an infringement of the rights of the 
Galilean church, contrary to the laws, and a violation of the freedom 
of opinion in matters of religion. But the king, acting under the 
same influence as had induced him to forward the appeal, ordered it 
to be received, and in a short time afterwards died. The regent 
duke of Orleans found means to keep things tolerably quiet during 

♦ The kino^'» confessor, the P. le Tellier, happened to have told tht 
king that this book contained more ikan a hundred censurable propositions 
To save the credit of the confessor, the pope condemned a hundred and 
one, and stated the above reason for what he had done, in express terms. 
to the French ambassador at Rome. 



t98 MODEICN lllSTOHY. 

bis administration of afTairs. ner did the flame burst out aeain till the 
vear 1.7oU, when, through the bigotry ot' the then archbishop of 
Paris, the clergy were encouraged to refuse extreme unction to all 
who should not produce confessional notes, signed by pe»OQS who 
adhered to the bull. 

3. It is easy to guess the confusion and deep distress, indeed, 
which so singular and intolerant a measure was likely to produce. *> 
The ca-ise of the recusants and people in general, was, upon this 
occasion, strongly supported by tlie parliament of Paris, and other 
parliaments; and as in the preceding struggles the Jansenists had 
been thrown into prison, in this the magistrates made no scruple of 
committing all who refused to administer the sacrament to persons in 
their last moments. The Jesuits had again recourse to the king. 

4. The common course of proceeding, in all disputes and con- 
tentions between the king and his parliaments, had hitherto borne 
the stamp of the most perfect despotism. However boW, or how- 
ever respectful the remonstrances might be on the part of the lat- 
ter, they were not allowed to have the least effect against the de 
termination of the court. If these judicial bodies became too re- 
fractory, banishment ensued of course, and not the slightest regard 
was paid to any arguments they might allege, nor any resistance 
they might offer, in support of the libenies ol their fellow subjects. 

5. Things came to the usual crisis on the present occasion. All 
the chambers of parliament refused to register the letters patent hy 
which they were commanded to suspend the pi^secutions relati\e 
to the refusal of the sacraments. In the yfcai¥l,7o3, they were 
cinished, and much inconvenience arose from the interruption of 
business, and suspension of justice ; while the clergy, attached to 

'the bull, made great boast of the victory the\ had obtained, and 
endeavoured continually to strengthen themseKes more and more 
against their adversaries. The king often wavered, but was as 
often brought back by the interposition of the pope and obstinate 
pereeverance of the Jesuits; in 1,754, however, seizing the opjp'^rtu- 
nity of the birth of a second son to the dauphin, (the duke of rJer- 
ry, afterwards Lewis XVI,,) he recalled the parUament, but with- 
out effecting peace. The membei-s had been received at Paris 
with loud acclamations, and every demonstration of joy ; their 
conduct had rendered tncm popular to an extraordinary degree, to 
that when commanded alVesh to register the king's edict*, they 
again refused. This bold act of disobedience subjected them to 
the last extremity of kingly authority. The sovereign repaired 
himself to the hall of parliament, November, 1,756, and in a. bed of 
justice (the term by which such assemblies were peculiarly desig- 
nated,) tinally ordered them to register the edicts in his n- me, which 
they could no longer, as the constitution then stood, refuse. Many* 
however, resigned their appointments, and much discontent prevailed 
amongst the people. It should be observed, that by this time the 
depositaries of the laws and advocates had begun to depart Irom 
their usual routine of technical Ibrmalilies, and, animated by the ex- 
amples set them, to enter largely into the general questions of law 
and liberty, rights and obligations, duty and privilege ; they began, 
in short, systematically to take the part of the oppressed ; t^oy were 
prepared, not only to remonstrate, but to argue, debate, and openly 
10 protest against the violation of the rights of the people. 

b. The hand of a fanatic, in the year 1,757, appeared to have 
the effect of altering the king's mind once more. As hi.» majesty 



MODERiN HISTOKY. 299 

was stepping into his carriage, he was stabbed by an a^^sassin of 
the name of Dainiem^ his object being, according to his own confes- 
sion, not to kill, but to alarm his majesty, with a view of producing 
4ome change in the king's sentiments, tfiat might dispose him to en 
join the administration of the sacraments to dying persons, without 
the confessional notes insisted upon ; but little reliance is to be placed 
on any declarations of this nature. In this instance they seemed 
not to agree with the conduct of the assassin. That Lewis acted as 
he did soon afterwards, with regard to the points in dispute, in conse- 
q-ience of this attempt on his life, is by no means certain ; but in a 
snort time matters were accommodated with the parliament, and the 
archbishop of Paris, the chief fomenter of the disturbances on the 
part of the clergy, banished. 

7. It may not be unreasonable, perhaps, to date the commence- 
ment of the revolution that broke out nearly thirty years after- 
wards, from this period. Scarcely any thing could have contiibuted 
more to encourage the revoiutionary principles already at work, 
than disputes which indicated such inveterate superstition and big- 
otry ; such determined opposition to all freedom of thought ; suon 
sophistry and intrigue ; such submission to the court of Rome; such 
contempt of the public opinion, as expressed, for want of any better 
constituted organ, in the remonstrances of the French parliament; 
such a disposition on the part of the court and clergy to uphofJ the 
arbitrary powers of the sovereign, and this at a moment when the 
private "life of the monarch himself was in the highest degree profli- 
gate and abandoned, and the whole system of government a system 
of venality, favouritism, and public plunder. 1 hese imprudent and 
unwise proceedings, at such a time, gave a handle *o the philosophers. 
CI literati^ of the day, to take the reform of matters into their own 
hands, and by supplying them with such ample materials for. the 
exercise of their wits, as well as their courage, laid the foundt^^ion 
for a revolution which (so extensive were the abuses of government) 
almost necessarily threw every thing into confusion, and in the end 
lar outstepped the bounds of all sober and discreet retbrm. Bred up 
by the Jesuits themselves, and instructed in all the branches of 
worldly and polite knowledge, they were amply prepared to expose 
the weakness or wickedness of their masters, when -vnce the veil 
that shrouded their deceptions was by any accident removed. They 
stood ready to avail t'lemselves of any circumstances that might 
tend to render manifest the pride and obstinacy, hypocrisy and 
deceit, of an overbearing sect, who b^ their influence with the king, 
might at any time trample upon the liberties of the people. 

8. These philosophers, (for so they have been with too little dis- 
crimination called^) thus raised in the estimation of an oppressed 
people into the rank of champions of public freedom, were unfortu- 
nately, but probably through the artful designs of their instructers, 
little acquainted with the true principles ot religion, however fa- 
miliar^ they might be with its abuses. In directing their attacks, 
therefore, against the Jesuits, they were rather anxious that theii 
shafts should reach all the regular clergy, or monastic orders in 
general; nor were they at all careful how much religion itsell 
might suffer in the overthrow of its ministers. The enemies of the 
Jesuits in China, Portugal, Spain, and America, had been the 
Dominicans and Cordeliers. It was the aim of the philosophers, in 
crushing the Jesuits, to crush their rivals also; they were there- 
fore as severe agiiinst the Dominicans as against the Jesuits: the 



MODliRN HISTORY. 

^rtiament odIt attacked the latter. However uttached Lewia XV. 
might be to me Jesuits, as the defenders of the catholic religion, 
and kingly authority, he appears to have entertained a jealousy 
of them, as censors ot his immoral course of life, and as nriore at- 
tached to his son the dauphin than to himself. He therefore be- 
came indifferent to the attacks making upon them ; while his mis- 
tress, the marchioness of Pompjidour, and his minister, the duke de 
Choiseul, in order to keep the king wholly in their own powerj were 
ready to take part against the dauphin, the queen, the royal family, 
and the Jesuits themselves, of whom they were, for the reasons 
above stated, justly suspicious. The duke de Choiseul himself, in- 
deed, is said to have given the following account of his enmjty to the 
order ; that being on an embassy at Rome, the general of the order 
frankly told him, that he knew, before he came, every tiling that 
he had said about the society at Paris, and so convinced him that 
what he said was true, that he could not doubt but that, through 
some moans or other, they were able to learn all that passed, not 
only in the cabinets of princes, but the interior of private houses, 
an<l that so dangerous a society ought not to subsist, it is proper to 
state this, in order to exonerate the duke from any suspicion of 
having sacrified them to the philosophers, whose irreligious princi- 
ples he is known latterly not to have approved. 

9. In the year 1,759 the Jesuits had been expelled froin Portugal, 
on a charge of countenancing an attack on the king's life. Under 
these circumstances, it is not surprising that the enemies of the order 
at Paris should attempt to fix on them the charge of t^ie late attack 
on Lewis XV., and to attribute to them regicide principles. Datnien 
himself seemed to have taken pains to leave the matter in extreme 
tloubt They already were suthciently branded in the eyes of the 
public, as the friends and assertors of arbitrary power, and enemies 
tojiberty. To relieve the sovereigns of Europe from the thraldom 
of^a sect so powerful, so artful and dangerous, became a principle of 
action, which the public wepe well enough disposed to countenance, 
and an opportunity only was wanting to accomplish their ruin. 

10. Ihis opportunity the Jesuits themselves provided lor their 
enemies. Havmg endeavoured to escape from a demand made on 
them in consequence of some merc;uitile proceedings, in which one 
of their society was deeply involved, the tribunals to which the 
case was referred, having a handle given them by the pleadings 
of the Jesuits, very properly required to see the articles of their 
institution, hitherto, that is, for more than two centuries, kept se- 
cret from all the world. The times were well titted for such a 
discovery. All men of wit and understanding, however unprinci- 
pled themselves, were well prepared to detect and expose the vul- 
nerable parts of their great charter or iNSTmnr, (for so it was 
called) and to lay open to the world at large the peculiar arts and 
contrivances, by which they were systematically instructed to ac- 
quire an absolute dominion over the minds and consciences of men. 
The mysterious volume was Ibund to contain sullicient to convict 
Uiemof such bad principles, with regard both to civil government 
and moraljty, that, though the king hesitated at tirst to pass sen- 
tence on them, being almost as much alniid of their rivals and op- 
ponents, the JansenisLs, the parliament, and the philosophers, as of 
themselves; yet, at length, August 6, 1,762, he was prevailed upon 
lo issue a decree, by which they were secularized, and their posses- 
tious ordered to be sold, which was speedily, and with very few 



MODERN HISTORY. 301 

exceptions, carried into execution in all parts of the kingdom. 
Efforts indeed were made to save them, as being essentially necessa- 
ry to combat the attacks oi the new philosophy, and to check the 
progress of deism and atheism ; as heretofore they had interposed to 
conjound schismatics and heretics ; both the altar and the throne, it 
was alleged, needed their services now more than ever; but all 
these movements in their favour were in vain. The duke de 
Choiseul and the marchioness of Pompadour had the influence to 
procure an edict from the king for the actual abolition of the order 
>n France, which was issued in November, 1,764, and other courts 
3l Europe judged it wise to take the same steps. Spain and Portu- 
gal having at this time ministers, whose principles and politics much 
resembled those of the duke de Choiseul ; the count d'Aranda, and 
the marquis de Pombal ; the Jesuits were expelled from Spain, 
Naples, and Sicily, from Mexico, Peru, and Paraguay, in the course 
of one and the same year, 1 ,767. 

11. The fate of the Jesuits was no sooner decided, than the par- 
liaments, elated by the downfal of their great opponents, began to at- 
tack the arbitrary power of the kin^. The profligate life of the 
latter had withdrawn him too much Irom the cares of government, 
and opened the door to abuses in almost every department of admin- 
istration ; but while the parliaments were thus engaged, some very 
extraordinary processes at law, particularly the case of the Calas 
family at Thoulouse, of Labarre at Abbeville, and of the celebrated 
Lally^ commander in India, in which shocking instances of fanaticism 
and oppression occurred, turned the eyes of the philosophers, with 
f^oltaire at their head, to the defects of the Yvenc\\ jurisprudtnce. ana 
excited a strong feeling against both the laws of France, and the 
administrators ot them. 

1 2. The nation had sustained a considerable loss in the death ot 
the dauphin, who, though a favourer of the Jesuits to a certain ex- 
tent, exhibited a character so different from that of his father in 
many most essential points, as to render him very justly popular : his 
highness died at the age of 36, in the year 1,765 : his wife, a prin- 
cess of the house of Saxony, surviving him only fifteen months. In 
1,770, through the agency of the duke de Choiseul, a new connex- 
ion took place between the courts of Vienna and Versailles, by the 
marriage of the young dauphin, afterwards Lewis XVI., with the 
daughter of the empress dowager, the archduchess Marie Antoi 
4ette ; an union attended with such costly and splendid festivities at 
A\e time, as must excite, in every sensible mind, the most awful re- 
fleclions on the dismal events which are now known to have clouded 
4s latter days. 

13. The marriage of the dauphin took place at a time when the 
differences between the king and his parliament had arisen to the 

Greatest height. In the course of the years 1,770 and 1,771, the 
ing held several beds of justice, but without at all subduing the 
spirit which had been raised against his edicts, and which the minis- 
ter, in opposition to the chancellor, is supposed to have encouraged 
a new parliament, and six councils, on the suggestion of the latter, 
were proposed to be constituted, to supply the place of the refracto- 
ry members, who were banished ; but this measure was opposed 
not only by the regular parliaments, but by the princes of the blood, 
and several even of the very persons nominated to form and preside 
in the new assemblies. Several provincial parliaments, as well as 



aot MODERN HISTORY. 

that of Paris, were stippressed, and as many as seven hundred magls* 
(rates exiled or confined. 

14. The year 1,774 terminated the hte and reign of Leww XV. ; 
he died in the 65th year of his agOj having reigned 58. The latter 
part of his hfe was highly disgrjcelul in a private point of view, and 
utterly ieeble in a public one ; nor was his death at all regretted. 
He was succeeded by his grandson Lewis XVI., who had lost an 
elder brother in the year 1,701, his father in l,7t35, and his mother 
in 1,767; strange mortality in one family, and too much resembling 
(he losses in that of Lewis XIV,, (see' Sect. 1.,) then imputed to 
poison ; a charge revived upon this occasion, but probably entirely 
without foundation. 

lo. At the very commencement of liis reign, but not without some 
eacririce of his private feelings and opinions, Lewis XVI. complied 
with the general wish of having the old parliaments restored, and 
the new councils formed by the chancellor Maupeou, dissolved ; a 
measure which seemed to diffuse an almost universal joy throughout 
the capital and provinces. The king had taken into his service two 
ministers of a disposition favourable to the wishes of the people ; 
'he venerable count de Maurepas, and M. Turgot. In conjunction 
with these ministers, Lewis was undoubtedly disposed to reform 
abuses, and promote the happiness of his people ; but unfortunately 
the state of France, if not of the world in general, precluded all 
hope of any gradual and temperate change. 

16. The American contest had commenced; a declaration of right" 
had appeared there, exceedingly well calculated to open the eyes 
of those who had not yet seen, and to encourage the revolutionary 
movements of those who had been able to detect, and were prepared 
10 expose, the great abuses subsisting in the French government ; al- 
ready had the philosophers successlully attacked the Jesuits; aimed 
feome severe blows at the monastic orders in general, as well as at the 
court of Rome, which had supported and abetted them in every at- 
tempt to uphold the papal and royal authority, and to stifle the com- 
plaints of the people. The tyranny thus inveighed against and at- 
tacked, had incited an opposition, much more likely to promote 
licentiousness than assist the cause of real and genuine liberty. The 
errors of Catholicism, upheld bv a bigoted and infatuated clergy, at 
variance with the only assemblies in the nation capable of any con- 
stitutional remonstrance, however ineffectual, naturally hurried the 
wits and freethinkers of that lively nation into extremes which every 
sober minded man could not fail to lament; in a very short course of 
time, from railing at the regular clergy, they proceeded to rail at 
religion, and even atheism was propagated in a way that bespoke a 
dreadful disregard of all principles of religion, common honesty, and 
honour; in works purporting to have been written by very respect- 
able persons, deceased, who had holden, when alive, opinions diamet- 
rically opposite to those that were thus stamped with their names. 
These were among some of the most dreadful forerunners of a rev 
olutioi^ which, had it been properly managed, had it fallen into the 
hands of persons better prepared to act upon the true principles of 
reUgion and ordeily government, considering the progress of Knowl 
edge and the powerful impulse which the human mind had received, 
was not unseasonable in point of lime and circumstances. 

17. It would be absurd, however, to deny the abilities of many of 
the persons who now stood lbrw*»rd to stem the torrent of abuse*, 
«nd vindicate the right? of the people ; several of them had wit. 



MODERN HISTORY. 803 

and learning, and science, at command, to the highest degree ; some 
of them had a lively sense of liberty, bnt they had been ill-taught 
on the subjects of religion and morality ; they had read Locke, with- 
out imbibing Locke's best principles ; they had confounded the 
abuses of Christianity with Christianity itself; they were witty and 
ingenious, but not comparable in wisdom and conduct with their con- 
temporaries in Scotland, or in England ; the latter were the truest 
friends to liberty, the best philosophers, and the best politicians, as 
their writings show. The celebrated Encyclopaedia, which tirst ap- 
peared in 1,751, had supplied an opportunity for all the literati of 
France to express their most private sentiments on government, 
political economy, and the management of the finances. Amongst 
these the economists bore a conspicuous part; their whole system, 
»vhen rightly understood, being one of liberty, whether it regarded 
personal rights, the free application of industry, or the exportation 
of com. The author to the Introduction to the Encyclopaedia, M. 
d'Alembert, was a man of considerable talents, but a deist in principle ; 
his coadjutor, Diderot, an atheist. 

18. The ministry of Turgot, while it lasted, was rather calculated 
to give encouragement to the French reformers ; his own views 
were undoubtedly liberal and patriotic, and he had a master sincere- 
ly disposed, in all likelihood, to further any practicable' plan of 
reform, but the course of the minister was too precipitate; his views 
extended to too many objects, and were such as admitted not of any 
speedy accomplishment; they were too mighty for the grasp of any 
one man ; they only excited the animosity of the privileged orders, 
^nd drove them into measures of defence, more calculated to w«)rK 
their own overthrow than conciliate their enemies. The advocate* 
of ancient abuses ano unreasonable customs, they treated their op 
ponents with an ill-judged contempt, and by resisting all amelioration 
of the present order of things, laid the foundation for a thousand 
impracticable systems and extravagc?nt theories, new constitutions 
and schemes of government, which being severally proposed, tried, 
and rejected, in rapid succession, at last involved every thing in con- 
fusion, anarchy, and ruin. 

19. While the seeds of revolution, if not of republicanism, plen- 
tifully sown, were beginning to germinate in F ranee, in America the 
people were already acting upon the very principle of resistance to 
an alleged tyranny. It required only to bring the two countries, hij 
some means or other, into contact, to spread the contagion, and 
revolutionize both nations as the different circumstances and charac- 
ters of the people should severally determine. At the beginning of 
the year 1,778, a lormal alliance was negotiated between the courl 
of Versailles and the revolutionary government of America; but 
long before that, in the year 1,774, the American declaration of 
lights, on which their opposition to the English government rested, 
was received in France, as a kind of practical application of the 
theoretical schemes of tlie French philosoph€rs, and might reasona- 
bly have alarmed all the courts of Europe ; though the contrary 
was the fact. France and Spain sent help, and Prussia approved the 
American proceedings, not so much out of friendship towards the 
Americans, as of blind hostility to Great Britain. The king of France 
is said to have foreseen the ill consequences of such a war, but to 
have weakly given way to contrary advice. 

20. The speeches ot opposition, in the mean time, in tlie two Eng- 
lish houses of parliament, greatly interested the people on the comi- 



304 MODERN HISTORY. 

npnt ; the crowned heads, indeed, took little notice of the warning, 
whiist the subjects were listening attentively to the lessons of liberty 
promulgated by Chatham^ Fox,, and burke. Unfortunately, the court 
of \ ersjulles, at this very time, with the exception of the king, who 
was inclined to economy, fell into the utmost extravagancies of 
luxury, gayety, and dissipation; drew largely, and without any con- 
sideration, on the public treasury, though the finances were in a 
most depressed state; invented all kinds of novelties, and seemed 
bent upon exchanging the forms and etiquette of a court for trilling 
though expensive amusements, not omitting such as promoted and 
encouraged the spirit of gambling. 

21. While these things were going on at court, and too much 
countenanced, it is to be feared, by the aueen. she received a visit 
from her eccentric brother, the emperor Joseph the second, which 
had, or appeared to have, an extraordinary eflect on the Parisians; 
being so timed as to fall in with the new notioas that had been 
adopted, of manly simplicity, and a republican severity of manners. 
The incognito he preserved, he carried so far as to dismiss, in a very 
striking manner, all the glare and pomp of royalty ; the frankness 
of his manners, unostentatious and frugal mode of lile, led the French 
more particularly to notice, and to condemn more severely, the 
thoughtless luxury and dissipation of their own court and princes. 

22. The king had a hard and cruel task upon his hands ; he found 
it impossible to check a course of extravagance and levity in his 
own family, which he could not, and, in fact, did not approve ; in his 
choice of ministers, he was sure to offend one party or the other ; 
thus, when in 1,77G, on the dismission of M. Turgot, he tirst appoint- 
ed the celebnited M. Necker, of Geneva, to the high office of su- 
preme director of the finances, the privileged orders took the 
alai-m • they thought they saw in the citizen of a republic, and a 
protestant, a decided friend to the liberal ideas that were atioat to 
their prejudice, and the enemy and corrector of all abuses of power 
and place. When, on the removal of M. Necker, the management 
of the finances was delivered into other hands, the people complain 
ed that their friend and favourite had been sacrificed, to Intrigue and 
«:abal, and that he had been checked and supplanted, at a moment 
when he was chalking out a system of reform, highly beneficial to 
the state, and favourable to their best interests.- 

23. In 1,783, M. de Calonne undertook to restore order to the 
linances, and his measures were exactly such as were calculated to 
oring matters to a crisis, and hasten the revolution which had tor a 
long time been impending. Inclined to favour the luxury and prod- 
igality of the court, and at the same time to provide for the deficien- 
cies in the revenue, he boldly attacked the privileged ordei"s, by 
proposing, as the best impost he could devise, a general land tax 
fairly adjusted, and from which there should be no exemption. To 
carry this great point into execution, being no favourite with the 
parliament, he recommended the convocation oi the assembly of the 
NOTABLES ; (a name given to a former meeting of select and distin- 
guished persons, in the year 1,G2G.) To this advice the king asscnt- 
<!(!, doubtless with the best intentions, though many about the court 
pretended, even at that time, to foresee in this measure the downfal 
of the monarchy, and the ruin of the minister who had proposed it 
The king gave bis consent, December 1,786, and in February 1,787 
Uiis extraordinary assembly met. Tlie minister had undoubtedly act- 
«d coiistitutionally in calling it, however rashly in regard to bis own 



MODERN HISTORY. 805 

Interests, and the king has been supposed to have imbibed from his 
father a strong inclination to consult such public and national councils. 
In this instance, however, both the crown a!id the minister were de- 
ceived; the latter, who expected to be allowed to lay his plans 
before them in the way of commands to be obeyed, was soon dis- 
placed, on the remonstrances and demand of the very assembly he 
nad ventured to call together ; and though it did some good in the 
way of regulation and reform, during the short period of its sitting, 
which was only till the 25th of May, 1.787, it was far from answer- 
ing the purposes for which it had been convoked. The members of 
it, however, had acquired information hitherto withheld from ihc 
public, and imbibed principles friendly to liberty. 

24. On the dismiBsion of M. de Calonne, his successor, the 
archbishop of Thoulouse, by an arbitrary and inconsiderate be- 
haviour, involved his sovereign in another unpleasant contest with 
the parliament, who, in a moment of irritation, called lor a meet- 
ing of the states-general. The credit and power of the parliaments 
had hitherto been chiefly owing to the disuse of these national 
councils, so that if it had been proposed with any sincere desire of 
redressing grievances, and resisting oppression, the membei"s with 
whom it originated would have deserved the credit of patriotism ; 
but probably they were swayed by motives less pure. The king, 
however, consented to their convocation in 1,792, but in the mean 
time had many unpleasant altercations with the parliament, and 
on one occasion was treated with so little ceremony, or rather such 
mdignity, as it was thought, by the due d'Orleans, as to occasion his 
banishment. 

25. The minister, m order to break or reduce the pov/er of par- 
liament, thus openly at variance with him, and to get rid of the 
younger members, whose refractory spirit was but too apparent, 
projected the appointment of a cmr plenicre, consisting of persons 
selected by the king from the principal nobility, professions and 
officers of state. The court was Ibrmed, and sat long enough to 
enforce the ministerial decrees, but amidst such murmuring and 
contusion, such violent remonstrances and objections, attended with 
popular commotions in the capital and provinces, that in a short 
time the scheme was abandoned, and the minister announced to the 
public the king's intention of convoking the states-general in the 
year ensuing ; he was then dismissed from his high office, and, to 
the great joy of the parUament and people, M. Necker was recalled. 

2G. The royal word had been pledge for the summoning the 
states-general in 1,789; and it was soon found to be a promise, 
which, though the chief management of the linances had piissed 
into other and more popular hands, could not easily be abandoned. 
They had not been assembled since the year 1,614, and dithculties 
therefore were started as to the best mode of arranging them ; the 
king even condescended to refer the matter to the decision oi" all 
the corporate and learned bodies of the realm ; an extraordinary step 
to take, but favoured by the minister, who had it in view to give con- 
sequence to the third estate, or commonalty, in order to counter- 
calance the too great influence of the privileged orders. 

27. This popular design of the minister, besides alarming the 
clergy and nobility, did not meet with the ready concurrence of 
the parliament ; and it was even proposed, by M. d'Espresmesnil, 
a member who had incurred both banishment and imprisonment in 
the course of his opposition to the court, to adopt at once the plan oi 
Cc2 39 



S06 MODERN HISTORY 

1,614; a proposal to which the narliament acceded; but it had the 
effect ol rendering ihcm immediately as unpopular us the p\;vi- 
ieged orders. Tlie claims of the third estate met with the supf ri 
ol a hirge majority ot the people, as might naturally have bt en 
expected at such a moment; the commons ot 1,788 were very cA- 
ferent Irom those who were tirst summoned to meet in 1,:-KJ2, upon 
apian which had continued to 1,014. It was reasonable lo aJopt 
new tbrnis ; and it was therelbre strongly insisted that they sljould, 
upon this occasion, in order to be upon a par with the other orders, 
liave a double representation, and deliberate together. Had the plan 
ol the states-general of 1,G 14 been adopted, the parliumeni would 
have appeared there witli much greater eclat than in any new ar- 
rangement ; this may account lor the part tlt^y took tipon this occa 
bion. They entirely expected, in demanding the convocation of the 
elates, that they shouKI have the chief place in that assembly, and 
coniinue to enjoy the conlidence of the people. 

£8. Such wa« the state of things at this memoi-able period; an 
inflituation the most surprising seemed to hurrv on the privileged 
«>rders to their ruin and destruction, and with them the monarchy. 
Instead of bending in any manner to the force of popular opinion, 
or acknowledging ttie justice ol" the claims made on them, as a fa- 
voured class, ihey more strongly than ever stood upon their privi- 
leges, and appeared to treat with contempt that rjowerful and now 
enlightened majority that was opposed to them : they insisted more 
than ever upon their feudal rights, after the whole system had beeo 
virtually abolished. Conduct of this kind could not "fail to stimulate 
the other party to deeds of violence and retaliation, in which the 
authority of the established laws and customs came soon to be to- 
tally disregarded, and every thing seemed to tend to ruin and dev- 
astation; when the election of the state^gcneral was appointed to 
take place, both sides exerted themselves with the utmost zeal and 
anxiety, but the result was found to be highly tavourable to the 
democnitic party. 

29. Great changes had already taken place in the character and 
manners of the Parisians. Sin':e the American war, a strong dispo- 
sition had been shown to imitate the English, in dress, manners, 
amusements, and freedom of speech ; the respect which ha<i foi-mer- 
ly prevailed for high birth and rank was every day diminishing ; 
persons of all classes were beginning to be raised to situations of dis- 
tinction and confidence ; and some of the great themselves, instead 
of maintairiing the distance preserved by Aeir ancestors, made ap- 
proaches towards the lower ranks, by intermarriages, and the open 
and general encouragement of literature, trade, commerce, and 
agriculture; even the females began to discuss questions of state, to 
exi)ress a lively and sentimental concern for all oppressed persons or 
nations, and to wish that all the young men who could speak elo- 
qtiently upon these stibjects in their private assemblies, should have, 
as in England, a field opened to them for the more public display of 
their talents and abilities. It is not to be wondered that, under these 
circumstances, every eye should be fixed on the meeting of that 
gn.'at natronal council, whose powers had not been called into action 
tor the long space of nearly two centuries. 



MODERN HISTORY. KTi 



SECTION X. 



AUSTRIA, FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE SEVEN YEARS' 
WAR TO THE DEATH OF MARIA THERESA, 1,763—1,780. 

1. With regard to Austria, the seven years' war terminated with 
the peace of Hubertsbiirg, which was sijjned on the 5th of Febru- 
ary, 1,763, (see Sect. VI.) and on the 27th of May, 1,764. as the 
fruits of that peace, the empress was gratified with the election of 
her son Joseph to the dignity of king of the Romans: a point of 
great imporbince to her, considering the circumstances that had re- 
larded the elevation of her roval consort to the imperial throne. 
The election was most opportune, for the emperor Francis survived 
it but a very short time, being atruck with a tit of apoplexy in the 
month of August of the same year, while attending the nuptials ot 
his.second son at Inspruck, in the Tyrol. Francis had borne his fac- 
ulties meekly, resigning to his imperial consort the cares, as well as 
the state and parade of government, which, indeed, more regularly 
appertained to her than to himself; he obviously withdrew from 
the authority that seemed to have devolved to him ; and if he occu- 
pied himself at all with the affairs of government, it was rather to 
supply its pecuniary demands from his Tuscan treasury, than for any 
other purposes; not so much in the way of gain, as of regular busi- 
ness and prudential management. Of the high estimation in which 
he was held by the empress there can be little doubt ; her aflection 
for him had a romantic cast, and seemed founded on what so seldom 
occui-s, or can be expected to occur in royal marriages, an early, 
fixed, and solid attachment. 

2. Her majesty employed herself, from the conclusion of the 
treaty of Hubertsburg, in ameliorating in every way possible the 
condition of her country ; in founding philosophical academies, re- 
forming the schools, encouraging by premiums the manafactures, 
and in restraining several feudal abuses : she had the opportunity 
afforded her of contributing to the introduction of the variolous inocu- 
lation into her dominions. She interfered, and in a verj' judicious 
manner, in the regulations regarding monasteries and nunneries, abol- 
ished the dangerous privilege of asylum, the horrible excesses of 
the inquisition, and the inhuman judicial process of torture. She 
also suppressed the society of Jesuits. 

3. Considering the extreme repugnance Maria Theresa had 
shown to the dismembennent of her own domains on the oeath of 
her father, it must seem greatly to redound to her discredit that she 
could have become a party to the partition of Poland : but it may 
very fairly be inferred that she was driven into it. Being unaole to 
serve the cause of Saxony she had no other alternative against the 
combination of Russia, Prussia, and the Porte, than to claim a part : 
though it is almost proved that she was drawn in by Prussia to par- 
take ot the plunder, that she might also share the odium excited by 
it. After the partition indeed began to have effect, and was sanction- 
ed by the Polish delegates nominated for that purpose, Maria 
Theresa appears to have had no scruples in extending her encroach- 
ments, and supporting Prussia in the same attempts, to such a degree 
even as to provoke the interposition of Russia. It was not till the 



308 MODERN HISTORY. 

year 1,777 that all the three parties were satisfied, and brought to 
P.Q agreement in regard lo hmits ; the uortion assigned to Austria 
being decidedly the greatest in extent. In the same year the em- 
press queen, by a convention, signed on the 5th day of February, 
obtained possession of the Buccovina, ceded to her by the Porte. 
Her situation was at tliis period particularly flourishing, her army 
numerous and well disciplined, her finances in good order, and her 
alliance with France cemented by many marriages with the Bourbon 
princes; but after the partition of Poland, and the connexion the 
empress queen seemed thus to have formed with Russia and Prussia, 
an anti-Austrian party sprang iip at the court of Versailles, who 
persuaded the king to renew his connexions with Prussia, in order 
to secure some check against the augmentation of the power of 
Austria; this, however, w;is done without violating subsistmg trea- 
ties, or breaking friendship with Maria Theresa. Lewis XVI. was 
much more jealous of the son than of the mother, and not without 
reason ; the views of the former being evidently ambitious and en- 
croaching, and highly anti-gallican. r r> • 

4 In December, 1,777, on the death of the elector ot Bavaria, 
both the emperor and empress queen laid claim to his dominions as 
fiefs or allodlals, properiy descending or reverting to one or other 
of them, having previously taken steps to arrange matters with their 
more immediate competitor, the elector Palatine ; and relying 
strongly on the support of France, as well as on the age and inhrmi- 
ties of the king ot Prussia : but the latter found means to interpose, 
by stimulating the duke of Deux Ponts, presumptive heir to the 
elector Palatine, to appeal to himself and the king of trance against 
the dismemberment ot the Bavarian territories, relerring, in conhr- 
mation of his rights, to the treaty of Pavia, confirmed by the Golden 
Bull, and the treaty of Westphalia; all these authorities were disput- 
ed on the part of the emperor and empress, who msisted on the 
validity and legality of the arrangements made with the elector 
Palatine. The emperor in the mean while oflered to submit his 
own claims to the judgment of the diet, and to mediate between his 
mother and the other claimants : preparations, nevertheless, were 
made for deciding the matter by arms, and both the emperor and 
king of Prussia took the field at the head of their respective forces ; 
but the empress queen, fearing for her son, made manv overtures of 
peace, sought the mediation ot Russia and France, and, though con- 
tinually thwaried by the emperor, who was inclined to war, and un 
willing to sul mit to the dictates of foreign powers, succeeded in re- 
storing tranquillity, by the treaty of Teschen, 1,779. By this treaty 
many arrangements were entered into to satisfy the king ot 1 russuu 
the elector Palatine, the duke of J)oux Ponts, and the elector ot 
Saxony. And Austria acquired territory, though of no great extent, 
very important in point of situation. She obtained trom Bavaria the 
circle ot Burghausen, which opened a passage to the Tyrol, anc 
was not compelled absolutely to renounce any ot her claims though 
she found means to Ibrego'with credit the fui'ther prosecution ot 

France had done enough during these disputes about Bavaria, tf 
give umbrage to the court of Vienna ; she had secretly opposed thi 
dismemberment of the electorate, she had not supplied the succouri 
ghe wiis required to do according to the treaty of \ ei-sailles, and she 
had manifested a distrust of the emperor, bordering upon contempt 
This cc^duct had the effect of throwing the latter into the arms of 



MODERN HISTORY. 300 

England and Russia ; in the contest with America, J oseph espoused 
the cause of England, pronounced it to be the cause of all sovereigns, 
and prohibited all intercourse between the subjects of the empire 
and the revolted colonies. With regard to Russia he took a more 
active part; he visited Catherine on her celebrated journey to the 
Crimea, and at Petersburg ingratiated himself with her to an ex- 
traordinary degree, alienated her from the old king of Prussia, and in 
60 doing procured her assistance in promoting the advancement of 
his brother the archduke Maximilian to the coadjutorship of Cologne 
and MuDster, the last wish of Maria Theresa, who had thus, in an 
extraordinary manner, found the means to provide, before her death, 
for all her numerous family. But her end was approaching: in 
November, 1,780, she was seized with an illness, which terminated 
her existence ; her last days were passed in acts of devotion and atten- 
tions to her son, the emperor, and others of her family, particuJarly 
striking and grand. She displayed at this awful moment a powerful 
mind, a warm heart, and a truly chrisiian fortitude : she died No- 
vember 29, 1,780, in the 64th year of her age, and 41st of hei 
reign. She was not exempt from weaknesses, but her virtues, 
both public and private, greatly preponderated ; the former were of 
the most splendid cast, the latter altogether as amiable. Nine out of 
sixteen children survived her. 

Joseph, who succeeded her; Leopold, great duke of Tuscany; 
Ferdinand, governor of Austrian Lombardy and duke of Modena 
by reversion; Maximilian, coadjutor of Cologne and Munster; Mary 
Anne, abbess of Prague ; Mary Christina, wife of Albert, duke of 
Saxony; Maria Elizabeth, abbess of Inspruck ; Maria Amelia, duches* 
of Parma ; Caroline, queen of Naples ; Maria Antoinetta, queen of 
France. 



SECTION XI. 

REIGNS OF JOSEPH II., LEOPOLD II., &c., FROM 1,765 TO 1,800. 

1 . On the demise of his father, Francis I., Joseph, who had been 
elected king of the Romans in 1,764, ascended the imperial throne, 
at the age of twenty-four, in the year 1,765, his mother being still 
living. It was soon apparent that he projected great changes, and 
the reformation of many abuses, but in pursuing these purposes he 
was undoubtedly too precipitate and too adventurous; his educa- 
tion had not been such as to fit him for such high attempts. It was 
impossible to unite in the waj he proposed such scattered domin- 
ions ; it was impossible to carry into execution all the schemes he 
had invented for the consolidation and improvement of the empire. 
In the Belgic provinces, in particular, he rendered himself extreme- 
ly unpopular by the violence of his proceedings, but this was not 
till after his mothers death ; as long as she lived she sedulously en- 
deavoured to restrain the impetuosity and warlike disposition of her 
son. apprehending that he had many enemies at hand, and that not- 
withstanding the pretended courtesy of the king of Prussia, mani- 
fested in private interviews as well as public negotiations, he could 
not have much chance of success in coping with so able, powerful, 
and experienced' an opponent ; in this, perhaps, she showed some 
sense, though it has been doubted whether she did not too much 
control the ardent spirit of her son. The empress queen dying in 



SIO' MODERN HISTOKY. 

the year 1,780, Joseph was left to the pursuit of his own whims and 

Projects, in many instances most extravagant, in almost all oppressive, 
or though there was an appear.mco of lihenility, and much show of 
good, he evidently seemed to consult nothing hut hi« own arbitrary 
will. 

2. Had his education been such as to enable him to form a right 
judgment of things, had not his genius been cramped, and nis rea- 
son perverted, by a choice of tutors and preceptors peculiaily ill 
qualitied to tit him for the anluous and conspicuous station to which ^ 
he had l)een elevated by the circumstances of his birth and con- , 
nexions, he might certainly have done great good, and actually 
ameliorated the condition of a large and most interesting portion 
of the human race, for his manners were such as k) have led him 
to a just knowledge of their wauls, and a proper sense of their 
claims upon society. He travelled tlirough Lurope, as if he were 
bent on seeing the real condition of his fellow-creatures, in all ranks 
and situations of lilie ; discarding all pomp and parade, he sought the 
society and conversation of persons tVr uelow him, and encouraged 
every one to give him information upon subjects most nearly touch- 
ing their interests. Since Peter I. of Russia, no monaix:h had taken 
such pains to procure information, and survey every thing with his 
own eyes. 

3. The whole extent of his dominions was supposed to contain 
a population of 24,000,000, distinguished however by p. great va- 
riety of laws, customs, religious opinions, and language ; the lower 
orders subject to many restrictions, attaching to the state of vas- 
salage in which they were still held by their feudal lord and su- 
periors. The Roman catholic religion chiefly prevailed ; the cier- 
gy were wealthy, and possessed great intluence. Maria Theresa 
ha^ perceived what was wrong, and had shown an excellent dis- 
position to amend matters, but had partly been compelled by cir- 
cumstances, and swayed by prudence, to proceed moderate I v and 
gradually. Joseph was more impetuous ; he was so eager to break 
down all distinctions, tbat, among other regulations, he insisted 
on having but one language for the whole empire, though no less • 
'-ban ten principal languages were spoken at that lime, and in 
common use. Within the conlines of )iis dominions, ail his oilier 
projects were of the same description, whether goo<l or bad, cx- 
'•.eedingly too hasty ; he broke up old systems before he was well 
prepared to establish new ones, and in the interval, necessarily 
occasioned such confusion, disgust, and trouble, as to hinder every 
good efiect, and thwart his own purposes; in all his regulations he 
Miemed bent upon upliolding his own imperial power, not only by 
omitting to introduce any new checks upon it, but even abolishing 
old ones; he particularly <li>plcased his llmigarian subjects, those 
faithful adherents of his mother, by interfering with their laws and 
customs, and oliiending some of their fondest prejudices. 

4. Though attached to the Roman catholic religion, he showed 
great disregard of the papal authority, by subjecting the monas- 
teries to episcopal jurisdiction, suppressing many, ancT reducing the 
numbers, both of monks hiuI nuns, in all that were permitted to 
continue, with great wan< of feeling : he omitted to make any pro- 
vision for those who were discharged; he broke through many su* 
perstitioas, not rightly judging how deeply they were interwoveo 
with the religious feelings of the people, and how much the latter 
therefore v/ere likely to be affected by soch viclence and haste • 



MODERN HliJTOKY. 811 

he abolished the privileges of primogeniture, declared marnage 
(heretofore regarded as a sacrament) to be only a civil contract, 
and rendered bastards capable of inheriting. Tiie wisest and most 
truly liberal of all his innovations was that which, by a public edict, 
dated October 31, 1,781, established a general toleration for all the 
* AcathoLici^'''' or dissenters from the Romish religion. This and other 
.Tieasures of interference with ecclesiastical matters so disturbed and 
alarmed pope Pius V'l., as to induce him to take a journey to Vienna, 
personally to remonstrate with the emperor. His plan was opposed 
at Rome, and entirely discouraged by the Austrian ministry; but his 
holiness persisted, and, after a visit of much form and ceremony, re- 
turned in about a month, without effecting any change in the senti- 
ments or proceedings of Joseph. 

5. In the same precipitate manner, as in other instances, he sud- 
denly abolished feudal vassalage, without any suitable arrangements 
for the relief of those who must evidently suffer by such an impor- 
tant change of tenure ; and while he prided himself upon putting an 
end to slavery, he subjected the emancipated to such arbitrary im- 
posts of his own invention, as plainly to convince them that they had 
not in reality recovered their freedom. To countervail these errors 
in legislation and government, he certainly showed great merit in 
the encouragement he gave to arts, letters, trade, and manufactures; 
in founding numerous schools and universities, public libraries, labor- 
atories and observatories' in improving the public roads, making 
canals, and establishing free ports. In 1,784, he obtained permission 
from the Forte to navigate the Turkish seas, which seemed to afford 
excellent means to his Hungarian subjects, who were otherwise ill 
situated for trade, to carry on an extensive commerce by way o. 
the Danube ; war, however, soon mterrupted this accommodation ; in 
1,787 it came to an end. 

6. In 1,781, Joseph, having concerted his plans with France, who 
had altered hei measures towards him, probably for the very pur- 
pose, determined to break through the barrier treaty* imposed 
upon Austria when the Netherlands were transferred to Charles VI., 
and which, though undoubtedly afTonling security to Austria itself 
against the French, must be allowed to have constantly carried in 
it something galling to the feelings of the imperial court, as entirely 
dictated by the maritime powers. The fortiiications of the barrici 
towns had now fallen into decay, and the connexion which hud 
for some time subsisted between the courts of Versailles and Vien- 
na, seemed to afford the emperor plausible grounds for dec-lining to 
pay for the miliUiry protection of a frontier no longer likely to be 
.iisturbed. He therefore directed all the tbrtiticaiions in the Nether- 
lands to be done away, except those of Luxemburgh^ Odend, .Aa/n/ir, 
and Antwerp ; while the JJutch, who had been desired to withdraw 
their garrisons, as no longer necessary, or entitled to pay, judged il J 
wise to comply. ' "j 

7. This violation of the barrier treaty, complied with in the last 
instance so easily by the united provinces, was quickly followed 
by fresh demands on the latter power, under pretence of more ac- 
curately adjusting the boundaries of the Dutch and Austrian Neth- 
erlands. The cession of the city of IMaestricht and the contigu- 
ous district of Outer Meuse being among other things insisted 
lapon. At length, however, and about the year 1,784, these claims 

* See Coxe ir. 152, 163, &c ^^^ 



3l« MODERN HISTORY. 

all seemed to merge in one sweeping demand, to have the full and 
fiee ii;\\ igation of the rivor Scheld, lor the purposes of establishing, 
in tavour of his Kl«»mi.sh sulvjects, a direct trade with the llnst In- 
dies, and of restoring the city of Antwerp, once the emporium ol 
Europe, to its proper degree of splendour and importance ; a proj- 
ect, which, if it could have been accon)plished without interfering 
with so many foreign interests, and the manifest violation of suD- 
gisling treaties, may be said to have retlected no disgrace on the 
policy, wisdom, or paternal care of the emperor; but it was impos- 
srble to expect that sucli changes should be allowed to proceed 
without great opposition. It was soon discovered that both France 
and Prussia were prepared to support the Dutch against him, and 
though the empress of Russia had endeavoured to deter the latter 
from aiding the Hollanders, the project was laid aside, and Joseph, 
instead of his views on the Scheld, resumed some of his former de- 
mand;J. In the end, however, every thing was compromised by 
money, through the mediation of the French king, or rather in con- 
formity to the dictates of the French minister. 

8. Another oDJect which the emperor attempted almost at the 
same time, but equally without effect, was the exchange of the 
Netherlands for Bavaria. He had taught his mother to covet the 
latter country, and its acquisition would undoubtedly have render- 
ed his dominions more compact, and given him a continued line of 
territory, fi^om the frontier of Turkey to the Mediterranean sea, 
while it might have relieved him from the charge of a more distant 
portion of his dominions, held bv a very uncertain and troublesome 
tenu^e^ Joseph had calculated upon overcoming all the difficul- 
ties that might arise from foreign powers; had secured the consent 
of Russia, and even negotiated the proposed exchange with the 
elector of Bavaria, (who, if it took place, was to be made king of 
Austrasia or Burgundy.) But Frederic II., at the age of seventy- 
Ibur, again interposed : and, by forming with the several princes and 
states of the empire what was called the Germanic union, for main- 
taining the integrity and indivisibility of the Germanic body in gen- 
eral, effectually prevented the exchange so much desired. The 
principal parties to the union, which was settled and confirmed, July 
1,785, were, besides the king of Prussia, the electors of Hanovefj 
Saxony, and Mentz, the margrave of Anspach, and the duke ot 
Deux Ponts. The whole scheme, indeed, was found to be so im- 
practicable, that the emperor and elector judged it prudent to deny 
that any convention to that effect had taken place between them. 

9. In 1,788, Joseph incurred considerable disgrace, by his attacks 
upon Turkey. He had projected, in conjunction with the empress 
of Russia, whom he had ffattcred by a visit to the Crimea, the total 
dismemberment of that empire ; but blunder upon blunder defeated 
his purposes, and he retire(l from the contest blamed by all parties. 
In 1,789, however, hostilities were renewed, and in the battle of 
Kimnik, which took place in the month of September, the combined 
lorres of Russia and Austria gained an important victory over the 
Turks, under the command of the grand vizier. The capture of 
Belgrade soon after, by the army of Loudon, completed their 
triumphs ; but their success occasioned jealousies, which effectually 
interrupted the career ol victory. England, Holland, and Prussia, 
began to be alarmed at the increasing power of Russia and Austria: 
and. by fomenting the troubles in the Netherlands, drew the atteu- 
tion ol Joseph from his intended encroachments on Turkey. 



iMODEKlN HISTORY. 313 

10. In no part of his dominions were his attempts at reformation 
worse received, or worse miinaged, than in the Netherlands. Di- 
vided into many provinces, and eacii province governed by distinct 
laws, customs, and regidations ; some secured by charter, in the 
enjoyment of important privileges and immunities, nothing could 
possibly have been thought of more vexatious than that of redu- 
cing them all under one system of administration, commencing with 
the sudden and violent abolition of many convents, and the sup- 
pression of many institutions, forms, and ceremonies, by long usage 
become little less than sacred in the eyes of the people. The 
courts of law, the universities and schools, were subjected to sim- 
ilar changes, nor did the imperial decrees spare any order of men^ 
or any public establishment, however respectable in other respects, 
from undergoing this severe ordeal, and revolutionary process. 
Nothing could exceed the consternation and disgust with which these 
new regulations were received by all ranks of persons, from the 
lowest to the highest ; for even tlie governors-general sided with 
the refractory party, and were averse from carrying into execution 
a system so exceedingly repugnant to the feelings of the people in 
general, but especially of the principal persons amongst the cler- 
gy, laity, and magistrates. Riots and disturbances took place, as 
might have been expected, in many parts, and France was applied 
to tor assistance, as guarantee of their liberties: The whole au- 
thority of government seemed to be vested in the minister plenipo- 
tentiary of the emperor, count Belgioso, who had to contend alone 
against the formidable opposition that had sprung up ; tor not only 
the governors-general, as has been before intimated, were on the 
side of the people, but even the imperial minister, prince Kajniiz, 
who greatlj disapproved the violent proceedings of his master. 

1 1. Joseph at first assumed an appearaiKe of rigour and inflexibili- 
ty, in the pursuit of his new measures, little suitable to the actual 
situation of affairs. He had not foreseen so formidable a resistance, 
and when it occurred, he depended too much on his means for sup- 
pressing it ; embarrassed as he was at the time by the war with 
Turkey. After much threatening, therefore, and strong marks of 
displeasure against the Belgic states, he found it advisable to com- 
promise matters, for a time at least: or rather to offer to relinquish 
all the objectionable parts of his new system ; to re-establish the 
ancient constitution, confirm the celebrated charter, called La joy- 
cuse E/j^ree, and submit to have the case referred to delegates on both 
sides. \vi this, however, he was not sincere, and his duplicity and 
arbitrary disposition becoming every day more manifest, it was 
irnpossible to prevent things coming to extremity. The exami)le 
»f France was contagious ; the whole population became divided 

Kito two parties of patriots and royalists, and the former were 
soon found to be the strongest. In November, 1,789, the states de- 
clared their independence, in consequence of a meeting held al 
Ghent ; the soldiery began to take part with the people. On the 
26th of^ December, the states of Brabant assumed the sovereign pow- 
er, in which they were soon followed by the states of the other 
provinces; a federal union was formed, under the title of the United 
Belgic States, and a congress of deputies to administer the new gov- 
ernment, appointed to assemble on the 11th of January, 1,790. 

12. Thus were the low countries s.vcrificed to the injudicious and 
hasty measures of the emperor, who was too late rendered sensible 
of his errors, when he found them perfectly irreparable, either in 

Dd 'JO 



514 MODERiN niSTORV 

the way of conciliation or force. He lived to see his offers of peace 
«nil reconciliation rojocted with scorn :in«I contempt, while lie totally 
l'»il(vl ii) hiS ondcavoun* to procure the aid ct foreigii states t.) reduce 
his revolted suhj.'cts to ohodionce. In other parts of Ijis dominions, 
nartictdarly in HimtjaiT, the fame spirit of opposition to his planfl 
n;iil heen ex« ited, ;ind kept no hy similar n\easiires of irritation and 
detiaticc, till th.e lijne ol hir^ decea«.n drew near. i!e would then 
ivilliimly have retraced his steps, mh' did, indecti, take some meas- 
nies to conciliate the olfended I lun^ariaii!*; hot the termination of his 
life was fast approachinjj, hastened m» donht hy the opposition and 
ill forinne which had attended almo«t tiie whole of his political career. 
He had weakened his constitiiiion in all prohahilily hy llie resllesa 
life he had led, and the hardships and fatii^ues to which he had ex- 
posed hims'^lf in the held; hut he sufTercd severely in his mind from 
the cou«ie things had taken in the Netherlands, ;ui<l though lie exhib- 
*tpd in his last moments the fortitude, resij^uation, and composure 
of a true chrisii;m. yet it is truly melanclioiy to think that his wholr, 
reign was passed in rendering himself and others wretched. He 
expired on the 2t)th of Fehruary, 1,790, in the forty-nintli year of 
his^a^e ; and leaving no Nsu*^, was succeeded in his hereditary do- 
minions hT his hrother Leopold, who u'as also chosen emperor hefore 
the end of the year in which his hrother died. 

13. The reign of the emperor Leopold Ii. was very short, and 
tar from a happy one. His hrother had (eft his dominions in a 
wretched state of discontent and contusion ; diminished, in some 
most important instances, and pretty generally exposed to the attacks 
of tbrmidahle and designing enemies, LeopoM had been able to do 
8onie good amongst his Tusc.in subjects hefore he ascended tl>« 
royal and imperial thrones, hut his genius and talents were judged 

he unequal to the government of a mighty empire. He soon 
gave satisfaction however, to the aching minds of his new subjects, 
by restoring to many their ancieni privileges, and revoking the in- 

("ndicious and irritating innovations of ids deceased brother. Nor did 
le manage his foreign negotiations ill, whicii, had tln.'V tidied, might 
have involved him in inextricable dillicnJties. By tiatfering the Eng- 
lish, and appearing to enter into their views in regard io Turkey 
and the Netherlands, he deterred the king of Pnissia from prosecut- 
ing his designs upon Gallicia, which he wished to procure for Po- 
land, in exchange for Dantzic and Thorn. Alterwards, by fomenting 
ihat monarch''s resentment against Kngland, who appeared to have 
abandoned him, he managed to lorm a union with the very court 
which at the commencement of his reign had mafiit'esffd the great- 
est symptoms of rivalry and opposition. This accommodation with 
the king of Prussia greatly facilitated his accession to the imperiwl 
crown, which was conferred upon him, October 9, 1,790. 

14. Hy very firm, but conciliatory behaviour towards the Hun 
garians, who seem to have imbibed at this time nvany of the demo- 
cratic principles of the French, he not only eflectually ingratiated 
himself with the leading persons of the kingdom, but regained the 
aflections of the people at large, which hail been sadly alienated 
through his brother's nnwi^^e interference with their most favourite 
fiistoms and established rights. 

15. Leopold «Iid not soe:ici|y settle his disputes with the Nether- 
lands I'lie mediation of Kng.amj. Hnii-inil. HfKt Prni«««iM. liad been 
cfferpd. b'l* he rillirr inrlii.c! tc rc!v on hip cm =5trength. and \m 
coancxions with France, which were everv honr becaaiiM> more 



^ 



MODERN HISTORY. 315 

uncertain and precarious. He had recourse therefore to force, and 

succeeiJed indeed in re-eslablishing the imperial authority, hut total- 
ly detached fr jm any cordial retunis of loyalty on the part of the 
Belgians, which became but too apparent, when his subsequent dis- 
putes with the revolutionary government of France exposed those 
parts of the Austrian dominions to fresh troubles and disturbances. 

16. 'I he situation of the emperor Leopold, it must be granted, 
was very embarrassing in the first years of the French revolution. 
The constraint put upon the royal family of France, to which he 
stood so nearly allied, and the threats denounced so openlj agains 
the queen his sister, in particular, must have greatly afiected hi^ 
private feelings, while many of the German states, whose rights 
e'*clesiastical and territorial, guarantied by the peace of West- 
phalia, had been invaded in Alsace, Franche Compte, and Lorr.iine 
by the decree of the national assembly, for abolishing the feudal 

Erivile^es, publicly called upon him to interpose in their behalf, as 
ead ot the empire ; as he stood bound to do indeed by his capitula- 
tion with the diet, on receiving the imperial crown. In regard to 
the royal family of France, liis lirst plans, in conjunction with the 
king ot Prussia, were clearly injudicious, and injurious to the cause 
he took in hand. The French revolutionists were not in a state to 
be intimidated by angry manifestoes or threats of foreign interfe 
rence. The emperor himself, indeed, did often appear cautious of 
embroiling his country in a war with France, but was at length prob 
ably provoked into it, by the violence of the Jacobinical Taction at 
Paris, ralner than persuaded by the representations of the emigrant 
princes, or royal family at Paris, as was so strongly alleged. Beyond 
the alliance with Prussia, however, concluded on the VJih of Febru- 
ary, 1,792, the emperor Leopold can scarcely be said to have had 
any share in the war with France ; tor, on the 27th of that very 
month, he was seized with an illness^ which in three days terminated 
his life, at the early age of tbrly-fbur, leaving his dominions in a 
state of more serious danger than when he began his reign. 

17. The emperor Leopold was succeeded in his hereditary slates 
by his eldest son Francis, born in 1,768, who became tmperor in 
the July following his father's death, and still reigns. This mon- 
arch had to begin those hostilities with France which his predeces- 
sor seems to have contemplated with considerable distrust, and 
he became a party to the too hasty proceedings of his Prussian ally 
and the duke of Brunswick, who increased the irritation and pro- 
voked the resistance of the French, by menaces extremely impo- 
litic, considering the actual state of things. They endeavoured, in- 
deed, to throw the blame on the emigrant princes, who, it was 
alleged, had misled them by false representations of the good dispo- 
sition of the people in the interior of France. They expected to 
find a large majority ready to co-operate with them in tlie overthrow 
of the ruling faction 

18. The emperor soon found himself in a very awkward situa- 
tion. Instead of invading France with any efiect, he had the mor- 
tification to see his own dominions invaded by the French, under 
a general (Dumourier), who had boasted that he would subdue 
the Austrian Netherlands before the end of the year ; an engage- 
ment which he in a great measure fultilled, through the disaffection 
of the Belgians, who were ready enough to throw otf the Austrian 
yoke, heedle.ss that they were in the way of having another inime- 
diateiy imposed npon them still more galling and vexatious. In the 



Mb MOJ)i:iLN in^ro . 

month of November, 1,792. all siil»j( rtion ;o the imperial uuthority 
was openly rononnco«! in tm^ very <iipital ot" the rMollierhind!*, iind 
the Krencli allowed to enter the city ininiimph. While tliese tluTigs 
*vere goint( on in FlandeiN, Ciermany it^^elf was invailed by the French 
gener.d, Custine, IMentz taken, and heavy contributions levied in the 
towns ot' Worms and Fninklort. 

19. Karly in the year 1,793, the Austrlans under general Clair- 
fait and the prince of' Saxe Cohnrg, obtained advantages over the 
French, at Aix-la-Chapelle, which were followed by the capture 
oi' the towns of Valenciennes and Conde. in conjunction with the 
British army under the command of the duke of York. A separa- 
tion of the two armies atterwards took place, which was attended 
with unpleasant circumstances, and seems to have happened very 
contrary to the de^'ire and wishes of the Austrian commandei^s. 
The troops under the duke laid siege to Dunkirk, but were unsuc- 
cesslul in their attempts against the place, being obliged to abandon 
die undertaking with the loss of the greatest part of their artillery 
and stores. 

i?U. In the year 1,794, the allied armies again acted in conjunction 
Rgainst the French under general Pichegru, the emperor himself 
having joined the camp, but the overwhelming power of the French 
balHed all their attemj^ts to defend the JS'elherlands, which 4ell en- 
tirely into the hands ot the enemy. 

21. The share which the emperor Francis II. had in the final 
dismemberment of Poland, 1,796, will be shewn in the history of 
that unhappy co^mlry The king of Prussia having gained great 
advantages by this transaction, declined any longor assisting the allies 
against France, and in open violation of his engagements with Eng- 
land, made a peace with the French government, April 5, 1,795, to 
the great disgust of the confederates. 

22. The coiitests between the armies of Germany and France, 
in the years 1,796, 1,797, were carried on with the greatest vigour, 
skill, and bravery, on the Rhine, in Suabia, in the Tyrol, and in 
Italy. In 1,79G, the archduke Charles, brother of the emperor, 
acquired great glory by checking the progress of the two celebrat 
ed French generals, .lourdan and Moreau : and, though compelled 
to retire belore Buonaparte, in 1,797, and to subscribe to the peace 
of Campo-Formio, as will be related elsewhere, his credit with the 
army remained undiminished, anil his reputation as a general unim- 
paired. On the renewal ot the war in 1,799, ;it the instigation of 
the Neapolitan co\irt, the Auslrians were assisted by the Russians, 
and at the close of the eighteenth century, the tide of alfairs seemed 
to be turning greatly against the French, when a new revolution in 
the tiuctuating government of that disturbed people, suddenly chang- 
ed the face of things, as will be shewn in our continuation of the 
hi*5tory of Fnince. 



SECTION XII. 

FRANC?:, FROM THE OPENING OF THE ASSEMBLY OF THE 
STATES-GENERAL, 1,789, TO THE DEATHS OF THE KING 
AND QUEEN, 1,793. 

!. Tire 8tate?-general met, May 5, 1,789. The king's speech has 
b«en much admired, as the address of an upright, humane, and 



MODERN HISTORY. SH 

patriotic prince, to a respectable assemblage of his subjects, by 
whose poliiical and legislative exertions he hoi>€i{ to improve the 
state of the nation. The nobles and clergy had expressed a willing- 
ness to tbrego their pecuniary privileges, bat there were other 
grounds upon which they seemed likely to be at variance with the 
third estate. The latter were for obliterating all traces of distinc-^ 
tion in their legislative capacity; while the fo4'mer were so inipni 
dent as to take some steps, not only indicative of an invincible attach- 
ment to such distinctions, but bearing an air of arrogance and ilefi- 
ance in them, ill suited to the times. The very costume adopted on 
the occasion was calculated to render the representatives of the 
commonalty almost ridiculous in the eyes of their countrymen. 
The nobles and clergy were distinguished by robes pecuUarly rich 
and brilliant ; but the whole of the third estate \vere directed to 
appear in the common and antiquated black dress of the members of 
the law, though of various callings and proiiss-sions. As soon, how- 
ever, as the commons had veritied their powei"S and were prepared 
to act, without waiting lor the concurrence of the other two orders, 
it was propo^d by a M. Le Grand, aid seconded by the Abbe Sieyes, 
to call their meeting the •* .\ational Asse/nbli/^'' as forming a national 
representation one and vidircisible. This was eagerly adopted by 
a majority of the members, but objected to by the king ; at length, 
however, some of the clergy and nobles having joined the third estate^ 
the king himself condescencled to approve and sanction the union, a 
matter of great triumph to the popular party, and which, in fact, 
made them the arbiters of the destiny of France. 

2. On the_ 11th of July, 1,789, the king thought it necessary to 
dismiss M. ^seeker; many tumults and insurrections were the con- 
sequence of this unpopular proceeding; the Baslile state prison, 
once crowded with the victims of arbitrary power, but at this mo- 
ment, and under the mild reign of Lewis X\ I., almost empty, was 
besieged by the mob, taken, and razed to the ground. Ai^er many 
tumults of this kind, the king judged it expedient to comply with 
the wishes of hi? people, and to recall the discarded minister; he 
was also induced by circumstances, to yield to another demimd of 
more importance, namely, the dismissal of all his troops from the 
environs of Paris and Versailles. In the meanwhile, the marquis de 
la Fayette, who had been engaged in America, and there imbibed a 
spirit of liberty, was taxed upon to take the command of the new 
militia or city guard. Alarmed at the appearance of things at this 
period, many nobles, and even one of the king's brothers, left the 
kingdom. This had undoubtedly a bad effect ; it not only left the 
king more exposed to the violence of taction, but seemed to betoken 
a disregard of the liberties of their country, and a settled purpose of 
invoking tbreign aid. 

3. The national assembly soon divided itself into two parties • 
the arislocrais. or such as not only favoured royalty, but to a cer- 
tain extent, the privileged orders, nobles, and clergy; and the 
df^nocrats^ or advocates of freedom ; the swon enemies of all op- 
pressive and distinct privileges; they were also distinguished into 
royalists and patriots. Among the former we may reckon the //uW- 
erates^ whose speeches in the assembly are justly to be admired, 
for their extreme good sense and rational politics. Of the nol^les, 
it should be observed, that the most obnoxious were those who 
had purchased their nobility, amounting to many thousands. Of 
the ancient, and hereditarv nobility there were, it wai comput- 

Dd2 ' 



818 MODERN HISIXDRY. 

ed, not more than two hnndrod families in the whole kingdom 
\\\wn ine revolution heg;jn, nor ivere tlieir |)nviicge?i and txemfv 
(inns hy any means *o great as was pretended. }l was soon seen 
.vhjch p.irly was the most powerfol ; on the llh of Augtisl, 1,789 
deciees were passed, as il with the lull consent of the wliole as- 
;end)|y, for the ahohlion of the privileges of the nohles and clergy, 
provinces and towns; while nei-sons of every nmk and description 
were pronoimced to be eligible to all civil, military, and ecclesi- 
astical apj)ointments. The royal fimily were exposed to liorrihie 
insults and indignities at Versailles, and at length almost foi-cihly 
conveyed to Paris ; in consequence of which removal, the assem- 
bly also adjourned its sittings to the capital, a fatal step to take, 
as it could not hut expose them to the lynmny of a faction, and 
the fury of the Parisian mob. Among the measures adopted at 
this period, the most important were those which placed nil 
church property at the disposal of the nation, dissolved all monas- 
tic establishments, fetidal privileges and rights, and suppressed the 
provincial parliaments and assemblies, by artfully dividing the king- 
dom into H'J departments, the work of the Abbe' Sieves; by this act 
the very name of province was obliterated from the French vocabu- 
lary, and with it all pecular rights, laws, and jurisilictions , all pro- 
vmcial governors, commandants, sub-delegates, presidents, and tri- 
bunals of election ; mayors, echevms, junils, courts of aid, chambers 
of accounts, <S:c. Every thing was at this time transacted in the way 
oC violence and destruction ; every law voted by acclamation, wifii 
little patieiir^i and less .judgment ; thus, when it was proposed u 
abolish all titles and hereditary distinctions, armorial bearings, live 
ries, &.C. the democrats would scarcely sufl'er the question to be d' 
bated, and it was carried by a large majority, though so many met? 
bers of the assembly must have been deeply affected by it. 

4. The national assembly was slow in preparing a constitutioniii 
code, particularly in deciding upon the three Ibllrwing questions. 
Whetht^r such assemblies should be permanent or perioilical ? com- 

t)osed of one or two chambers? and whether the king's veto should 
►e absolute or suspensive ? While these things were in agitation, the 
king had attempted to rescue himself from tne trammels imposed 
upon him, by a timely escape from Paris ; but he was stopped on his 
journey, and compelled to return. At length the assembly terminat- 
ed its labours ; a constitutional act was prepared and presented to 
the king, oi which, after an interval of ten days, he iJeclared his ac- 
ceptance. Had he been free, it is impossible that he could have 
given his sanction to a measure which subjected the monarch to the 
will of a domineering assembly, and was ill-calrulated to repress the 
efforts and designs of a licentious and restless faction. The assembly, 
however, having thus completed its task, was dissolved by the king 
on the 3l)th day of September, 1,791, being succeeded by another 
convention, denominated '*'the legislative asijcmbly," whose <lelibera- 
tion' were contined to the space only of one year ; none of the 
members of the fornwr assemfily being eligible to the latter. 

5. In the year l,7y2, Austria and Pru-sia, in consequence of a 
declaration and agreement ^according to all accounts imprudent) 
determined upon at Pilnitz, m the preceding year, began to inter- 
fere in behalf of the kH)g and royal fjvmily, but so far from alarm- 
ing the revolutior)ary party in France, their interposition seemed 
only to have the effect of instigating it to acts of greater violence 
and more determined courage. War was without scruple declared 



MODERN HISTORY. 3lf 

against the king of Hungary and Bohemia, in the naonth of April, 
and every preprtralion made to resist all counter revolutionary 
projects. Sweden and Knssia had shewn a strong disposition aiso to 
interfere; but the assassination of the Swechsh monarch, GusUivufc 
III., in 1,792, and the distance of Russia tiom France, prevented 
ooth those countries engaging in actual hostilities. In the mean 
time, Paris became a scene of dreadful confusion: everj day some 
new faction seemed to arise to baffle the attempts ot those who 
liad yet wisdom or temperance enough to prevent things coming to an 
extremity. The legislature was at the mercy of the Parisian clubs, 
and of the moos, too freely admitted into the galleries of the assem 
hly. The king was insulted in the grossest manner for having ven- 
tured to interpose his suspensive negative to the passing of two 
severe decrees; one against those who had emigrated, and the 
other against the clergy who declined taking the civic oath. M. la 
Fayette, who had been appointed to take the command of the army, 
wrote from his camp to admonish the national representatives to res- 
cue the country and the king from the tactions designs of the enrag- 
ed jacobins; but in vain; it served only to exasperate still more th€ 
anti-royalists, and to bring fresh troubles on the royal family. The 
iJcoign of the factious seems to have been, either to intimidate the king 
to a degree of abject submission, or to provoke him to act against the 
constitution in a manner that might render him liable to the ven- 
f,eance of the people. The march of the Prussian army, and a 
threatrning manifesto issued by its commander, the duke of Bruns- 
wick, irritated the violent party into a Irantic determination to abolish 
royalty. The king was supposed, or represented, to be confeder.ite 
with the enemy, and deeply engaged in a plot with his eioigrant 
brothers and relatives, to counteract the revolution. 

6. A dreudtul attack was made on the palace in the month of 
August, the particulars of which are too disgusting to dwell upon; 
but it completed the triumph of the demagogues ; for in compelJina 
the king's guards to act on their defence, tTiey had it in their powti 
to charge the king himself with having made war upon his peopl«. 
Nothing was now heard but the cry of '••liberty and equality." 'I'lic 
" chief of the executive power," as they chose'to denominate his maj- 
esty, was formally suspended from his functions, and, under the pre- 
tence of gmrdianship^ committed with his queen and iamily to the 
temple. 

7. The assembly appeared from this moment to be as much ic 
the power of the faction as the king. The period has been too 
justly distinguished by the appropriate title of "• the reign of terror.'* 
The execrable Robespierre was in reality at the head of affairs, and 
it would be impossible adequately to describe the atrocities of his 
merciless career. It would exceed the limits of this work to enter 
far into particular details. La Fayette abandoned the army, as 
unwilling to serve under such masters ; his conduct has been ar- 
raigned, as reflecting at once upon his loyalty, his patriotism, and 
his courage ; it was thought that with the army so much at his 
disposal as it seemed to be, had his principles been such as he pre- 
tended, he would have marched back to Paris, and saved his coun 
try and his king from the ruin with which they were threatened 
In the meanwhile the coml)inetl troops of Austria arul Prussia were 
approaching the frontiers; differences subsisted in the artny ; rior 
was general Dumourier, who had succeeded to the command on 
(he retirement of La Fayette, generally confided in, either by tiie 



aao MODERN HISTORY. 

army or the faction. To lessen the number of aristocrats, many 
suspected of hehmging to that party were hurried to prison, wl»ere, 
without ^nipie, and uitii sucii l»arb;irity as is not to be p;iralleled 
in the records of idstory, they wore almost all assassinated, to the 
amount, as it has been estimated, of not less than tive thousand. 
This liappening on tiie second of i^eptember, a4l nho were con- 
cerned in it, as principate or abettors, were denomimited Stpleai' 
brizen. 

8. These were but preludes to a catastrophe, if possible, still 
more shocking ; a murder perpetrated with a studied deliberation, 
and with all the mockery of legal forms and ceremoiues. However 
hastened by the hostile approach of the confederate powere, and 
the injudicious threats ihey threw out in case any violenrxj shouh* 
be otiered to the king's person, nothing could possibly excu.<e the 
perversion ot justice, ami gross inhumanity which n>arked the trial* 
of the king and queen; nothing exceed the melancholy circumstan- 
ces of their imprisonment and execution! On the llth of Decern 
ber, 1,792, the king appeared before the convention, to hear the 
charges pret'erred agaitist him. '•'• Vou are accused," Siud the 
president, ^^ by the French nation, of having committed a multitude 
of crimes, for the purpose of re-estaLli->lung your tyranny by the 
destruction of liberty." He then entered into a few particulars. 
The king, with great dignity, replied, "Coexisting laws prohibit- 
ed me from doitjg as I did ; I had no wish to injure my subjects, no 
intention of shedding their blood." Further accusations were 
pressed upon him, from which he detended himself with the Siimc 
hrmness and simplicity of language, the same coolness and intre- 
pidity, of mind. He declared boldly, that his conscience fuhy ac- 
quitted him of the things laid to his charge, and appealed to the 
whole course of his behaviour and carriage towards them as King, 
to exonerate himself from the horrid imputation of liavmg becH 
eager and ready io shed the blood of his people. This charge, in- 
deed, rested solely on the events of the 10th of .August, when the 
rabble broke into the palace of the l\iilleries, and not only men- 
aced the lives of the king and his family, but are allowed to have 
begun the simguimiry part of the cootlict, by the murder of tive of 
his S»viss guards. It was not till after this event that the rest ot 
these faithlul adherents tired upon the aggressors, and drew upon 
themselves the vengeance that terminate^ so fatally, for they were 
all destroyed. i 

9. It having been resolved that the judgment and decision of the 
CTse should i^est with the national representatives, the convention 
met on the loth of January, 1,793, to discuss the question of the 
king^s guilt, upon the charges so loosely and so mahciously brought 
against him, when it appeared that only thirty -seven weie disposed 
to think t"avo\irably ot his conduct, ^^ix hundred and eighty-three 
men:bers, with little or no hesitation, some, indeed, with the mont 
cniel eagerness and exultation, pronounced him guilty. An attempt 
was made to procure a rcf<Teiice of tliis matter to llie people; but 
it was over-ruled by a nrajority of one humlred and thirty-nine. 

10. Having determined the qiieslinn of his guilt, that of his pui>- 
ishment became the next subject of discussion. It was proposed 
to decide between detention, bani«lnnent, and death. After a de- 
bate, in which the amiable nionarch seemed to be regarded by many 
as despotism personified, no less than three bundled and sixty-one, 
or. according to some accounts, three hundred aod sixty-t^ix meatbeni, 



MODERN HISTORY. 321 

voted peremptorily for death ; and on a t^urther question, whether 
the execution of the sentence should be suspended or lake place 
immediately, the votes for the latter amounted to three hundred and 
eighty against three hundred and ten. The king w,\s to be informed 
of the result of their proceedings, and to suffer death in twenty-tour 
hours afterwards. The advocates for the king were allowed to 
address the assembly, and to move an appeal to the people, but with- 
out effecL On the motion of Robespierre, the decree was pro- 
nounced irrevocable, and the king's detendere debarred from any 
further hearing. 

1 1. On the 2lst of January his majesty, having previously takrn 
leave of his family, and performed the services o'' devotion, was 
conveyed to the place of execution; nothing couiu exceed the 
pious resignation with which he submitted to the cruel and unjust 
sentence which doomed him to death, and during his passage to the 
square of the revolution, where the guillotine vvas erected, he be- 
trayed no symptoms of fear or anger. On the scaffold, he manifest- 
ed a strong desire to address the crowd; but the drums were made 
to sound louder, and he was rudely bidden to be silent ; in a moment 
after, his head was severed from his body, and shewn to the people 
as the head of a tyrant and a traitor ! 

12. History, both public and private, has borne ample testimony 
to the falsehood of the charges brought against him ; every nation 
in Europe concurred in condemning the conduct of the French regi- 
cides; and though, in exciting the resentment of fresh enemies, 
England and Spain particularly, it threatened the ruin of the new 
republic ; it appeared by no means to have satisfied the blood-thirsty 
vengeance of the ruling faction. The democratic, or republican 
party, had long been split into two divisions, and their opposition to 
each other seemed at this time to be at the height. Brissot, who 
headed the Girondists^ (so called from the department of Gironde^ 
which some of that side represented,) was still aUve ; Robespierre, 
Danton, and Marat, directed the movements of the opposite taction ; 
for some time previously called the Mountain, from the elevated scab 
they occupied in the hall of the convention. 

13. It seemed now to be a question which of these turbulent par- 
ties should obtain the ascendancy ; and a contest of this nature was 
not likely to be decided without a much larger effusion of blood. 
"The reign of terror' still continued, and many more victims were 
preparing lor the stroke of that fatal instrument, which seemed to 
nave been timely invented for the quick and incessant cour-se of 
decapitation and destruction now adopted. Had any thing been capa- 
ble of producing domestic union, ii might have been expected, from 
the formidable confederacy of foreign powers, armed againet the na- 
tion ; lor, in addition to Austria and Prussia, England, Spain, and 
Portugal, were at open war with France ; while a royalist party had 
arisen within its own confines, of rather a formidable descriptitMi. 
considering the strength of the enemies without, and the distracted 
slate of the government. 

M. Though such was the situation of the country, with regard 
to foreign powers, and royalists at home, the struggle between the 
Girondists and Robespierrean faction was carried on at Paris wiMi 
the utmost violence and precipitation ; but the Mountain prevailed. 
The leaders of the Brissotines were arrested and confined in the 
month of May^ and on the 31st of October following, all executed- 
Brissot himselt saw sixteen of his party guillotined belbre it came to 

41 



9n MODEKJS HISTORY. 

his turn, and four were U-hrH^fd fOfprwarrk Many of them were 
persons of considerable talents, and not (le!»titiite of pn vale viilue;}, 
nad lliev lived in less turlmlent and trying times. 

15. Horrible as this execution must bavt; been, one still more 
appalling had engaged the attention of the pe(i|)le, on the same spot, 
only fifteen days before. Loaded with insults, and deprived of every 
possible condbrt or consolation. " the widow of Lewis Capet," as 
they chose to call their (jueen, (a princess of Austria, and daughter 
of the high-minded Maria Theresa,) had not been sulFered to enjoy 
one moment of repose from the day of the king's execution ; prep- 
arations were soon alter made for her own trial, which, if possible, 
»vas conducted in a manner still more revolting to every leeling 
mind, than that which had been adopted in the case of her unhappy 
consort. Her guilt and her punishment were as soon decided upon; 
but even after thissml act of vengeance and injustice, shocking circum- 
stances of ignominy, degradation, and pei-seculion took place, scarce- 
ly to be credited as the acts of any portion of a people at all advanced 
m riviliziition ; she was cast into a dungeon, and delivered into the 
custody of a gaoler seemingly selected on purpose to insult over 
her misfortunes, and aggravate her suftierings. On the dreadful day 
of her execution, she was conveyed to the scaffold in a common cart, 
with her hands tied behind her. amid the brutal shouts of an infuriat- 
ed populace. Thus died, in tne 38th year of her age, the queen 
ot" one of the greatest kingdoms of the earth ; a princess, w ho, 
though not entirely free from faults, had, till this fatal revolution, 
lived in all the splendour and luxury of a court, the marked object, 
not only of admiration and adulation^ but of homage so profound, and, 
in some ine<-uices so servile and eimiarin^^ as to palliate and account 
for all the errors of her short, but eventlul life. 



SECTION XIII. 

GREAT BRITAIN, FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE AMERI 
CAN WAR, 1,783, TO THE PEACE OF AMIENS, 1,802. 

1. From the peace of Versailles, in 1,783, to the commencement 
of the year 1,793, Great Britain kept free from war, though not 
without some disputes with i'oreign powers, and occasional calls' 
upon her to interpose, as an ally or mediatrix, hi the aftiiirs of other^ 
states, Holland particularly. Soon after the termination of the 
American war, extraordinary changes in the administration took 
place. The ministry that negotiated the peace, at the head of 
which was the earl ol" Shelburne, was displaced, and succee»ied by 
what was called the coalition ministry, from the extraordinary cir- 
cumstance of Mr. Fox and lorfl Nortn becoming joint secretaries of 
state, after an oppositiori peculiarly animated, and a positive declara- 
tion on the part of the former, that they differed so in principle as to 
render such an union Ibr ever impracticable. 

2. 'i'he unpopularity of such an apparent dereliction of principle, 
as might reasoiiably be expected, rendered their continuance in 
power extremely urecarious, and it was not long before their re- 
moval was effected, in consequence of a bill brought into parlia- 
ment by IMr. Fox. to regulate the affaii-s of India. The measure 
was judged to be fraught with danger to the constitution, by throw- 
ing too much power into the hands of a board of commissioners, to 



MODKHN HISTORY. 8f8 

be chosen bv paHiam?*nf, and though it pa«sp<l tho comm'^ns. it was 
thrown out b_> llie lonl:?, anil the ministry (Jismisfiea. 

3. Mr. Pitt, a younger swn of the grcfit lord Chatham, noiv catiie 
into power, not in aii\ suhonlinate situation, hut as prenii<T, though 
at the early agii ot^ tweniy-t'our, and under circunwtances peculiailj 
embarrassing, for he had long to contend against a majority of tfie 
hou.se of commons, who threatened to stop the supplies, and effect 
his removal, as not enjoying the confidence of tlie people. This 
oeing judged too great an interference wiii» the prerogative, and 
Tiany addresses being presented to the king to retain him in his 
service, the parliament was at length dissolved, and the issue turned 
)ut to be extremely t'avourable to the choice of his majesty. 

4. Tlie alFiirs of India manifestly requiring the interposition of 
government, Mr. Pitt, as soon as possible, procured a bill to tnal 
effect to be passed, according to which a hoard of control was to be 
appointed, not by parliament, but by the crown. Though this in- 
creased in some degree the influence ol" the latter, it was judged to 
be far less hazardous than the proposal of Mr. Fox, which thrca'ened 
to throw such a power into the hands of the minister and his friends, 
as might enable them to overawe the sovereign, and render their 
removal almost impracticable. Mr, Pitt's bi.*l, also, was ;'ound to in- 
terfere far less with the chartered rights of tiie company. It passed 
the lords, August 9, 1,784. 

5. Another measure of considerable importance occupied the at- 
tention of the minister, during the year 1,786, which was expected 
to contribute greatly to the support of public credit This was the 
establishment of a new sinking fund, by appropriating the annual 
sum of one million, to be invariably applied to the liquidation of the 
public debt. At a subsequent period, a sinking f»md of still greater 
importance was esiablished, by which every future loan w;uj to 
carry with it its own sinking fund. This was proposed to the house 
in 1792, and readily adopted; it consisted in raising one per cent., 
besides the dividends upon every new stock created, to be appUeci 
by the commissioners tor the reduction of the national debt, in the 
same manner, and under the same regulations as the origmal mil- 
lion.* 

6. From the commencement of the year 1,786, to the year 1,795, 
the attention of the British parliament w^as in a very extraordinary 
manner occupied with the charges brought against Mr. Hastings, 
governor-general of Bengal, in February, 1,786. Mr. Burke, whose 
mind had been long afi'ected by the abuses practised in India, by 
the servants of the company, had appeared for some time to have 
fixed his eye upon Mr. Hastings, as a fit object of prosecution : and 
he now moved for papers to substantiate the charges upon which 
he meant to impeach nim. These charges being disrussed in par- 
liament, during the session of 1,787, and referred to a committee, 
were confirmed by the house of commons, on the 9th of May, and 
the articles of impeachment exhibited to the house of lords, on the 
14th ; in consequence of which Mr. Hastings was taken into cus- 
tody, but, on the motion of the lord chancellor, a<lmilted to bail. 
The trial did not commence till February 15, 1,788, was continued 
not only through the whole of that parliament, though very si wly, 
but after much debate, determined to be pending on the commence- 

* By this provision every loan would have its own fund, whicli would 
operate at compound interest, and discharg;e the debt ia forty i&vcn yeari 
at the longfest, from the time it was first incurred. ,. 



SM MODERN HISTORV. 

ment of the new parliament, 1,790, and not brought to a coDclasioo 
till the month oi" April. 1,795. 

7. The question whether the impeachment abated on the dis- 
solution of parliament, appearing to involve a constitutional point 
of the highest importance, was discussed with singular attention, 
and a large display of legal and parliamentary knowledge. Th€ 
law members of both houses wore never perhaps so divided in thtif 
opinions; but the numerous precedents cited uy Mr. Pitt seemed 
Clearly to decide the question as t'ollows : that though legislative 
processes are abated by prorogation or dissolution, it is not so with 
regard to judicial proceedings, it appcsired to be a nice and curious 
question, and, as ati'ecting the responsibility of ministers, its decision 
may be regarded as singularly important. 

8. Though in the course of the proceedings and prosecution of 
the various changes against Mr. Hastings, the eloquence of the 
managers exceeded all that could have been expected, yet nevei 
perhaps were so great talents employed with less success; a trial of 
such seeming importance, so strangely protracted ; or a case ot 
impeachment brought to an issue so little answerable to the expec 
tations that had been excited. It would be impossible to denv that 
flagrant and enormous abuses had been committed in India during 
the period in question, yet, the very length of the trial made it ap- 
pear to most persons in the light ol a jjcrseaition, and that of an in- 
dividual to whom the company and the nation stood highly indebted 
for many eminent services. As it ended in the acquittal of Mr. Has- 
tings, that gentleman may be presumed innocent. One good, how- 
ever, seems to have arisen from the investigation ; all succeeding 
governors-general have certainly been more circumspect and correct 
m their proceedings. 

9. In the course of the year 1,787, great disturbonces having 
taken place in the united provinces, fomented by the French, and 
threatening the dissolution of the stadtholderate, an alliance waa 
formed between the courts of St. James's and Berlin, to protect the 
rights of the prince of Orange, and resist the interference of the 
French. Preparations for war took place, but the Prussian army 
decided ma'.ters without any active co-operalion on the part of 
Great Britain. The alarming state of things in France, appeared 
to deter the court of Versailles from rendering that assistance to 
the malecontents of Holland, which the latter had been taught to 
expect. 

10. Puring the session of 1,788, the attention of the house of 
commons was tirst called to the horrible circumstances attending 
the African slave-trade, it is quite surprising that such a tra/lic 
siir^uld have been so long carried on, without exciting the resent 
ment of every sensible mind, and disgusting the feelings of a civil- 
ized people ; unfortunately, when first noticed, it was found to be 
80 deeply interwoven with the interests of our settlements in the 
West indies, and to depend so much on foreign states, as well as 
our own, as to render it almost necessary to proceed slowly and 
cautiously, though it was impossible not to he horror-struck with 
the information laid l>efore the house, particularly in regard to 
what was called the middle-passage, or transportation ol the unhap- 
py Africans, from their native shores to the several islands. As it 
fvould be inconsistent with tht nature of such a work as the present, 
to enter into the detail of the proceedings upon this very interesting 
subject, which took up a long time, and can scarcely now be said to 



MODERN HISTORY. OfS 

be terminated, it may be sufficient to note, that, after continual re- 
ne«v;ils of the subject in the two houses of parliament, yet, owing lo 
many untoward circumstances, it was not finally abolished tiii ihe 
year 1,806, nor has it even yet been in the power of any ministry, 
or any of our diplomatists, effectually to prevent the trade, as car- 
ried on by foreign states, though every person of humane feelings 
must devoutly wish and desire that it should be so. It must, how- 
ever, always redound to the credit of our own country, that the 
voice of compassion and mercy was first heard amongst us. and that 
the first arm stretched out to save and to rescue a large proportion 
of our fellow-creatures from the most abject slavery and cruel toi 
tures that ever were infiicted, was the arm of a Briton 

11. The parliament being prorogued on the 11th of July, 1,788, 
to the 20th of November, was compelled to meet on the day ap- 
pointed, by circumstances of a most distressing kind. His majesty, 
probably through excess of business, to which he was known to 
devote more time an! labour than could well be consistent with 
his health, was seized with an illness which totally incapacitated 
him from discharging the functions of his high and exalted station. 
It must appear strange, that by the laws and constitution of the 
realm, so little provision had been made for a catastrophe by no 
means out of the line of probability, that it became a question inio 
what hands the suspended executive had devolved, and this led, as 
might be expected, to very warm and important debates in pariia 
ment. Though the prince of Wales, being of full age, did not person 
ally claim the regency as matter of right, his party did. The min- 
ister, Mr. Pitt, contended that it belonged to parliament to supply 
the deficiency ; and this question being stated, it was judged expe 
dient to debate it, and settle it by vote. The decision upon this 
occasion was entirely in favour of the power of parliament to 
appoint the regent, none doubting, however, that the heir apparent 
was the fit object of such appointment. Other questions were 
agitated at the same time, of equal importance ; particularly how 
far restrictions could be imposed by parliament, in regard to the ex- 
ercise of preiogatives, the whole of which were reasonably enough 
supposed to be essential to the government of the country. This 
question also was decided in favour of the minister, who had p»*oposed 
resti ictions, with an understanding, however, that they could only 
apply to a temporary suspension ot the kingly power. In this case 
also, the care of the king's person was assigned notto the regent, but 
to the queen. One great difficulty remained after ail the discussions 
upon the regency. It was doubled how the lord chancellor could 
be empowered to put the great seal to a commission for opening the 
sessions of parliament, so as to restore " the efficacy of legislation ;■' 
it was decided that he might be directed to do it in the name of tlie 
king, by authority of the two houses. 

12. Fortunately for the public, this first illness of his majesty 
was of so short duration, as to render unnecessary all the changes 
that had been contemplated. Early in the year 1,789, the lord 
chancellor was able to announce to the houses of parliament, the 
perfect recovery of the king. Nothing could exceed the transports 
of joy with which this intelligence was received throughout the 
whole kingdom. A national thanksgiving was appointed, and his 
majesty went himself in great state to J;t. PauPs, to ofti.r •)p his 
grateful devotions on the event. The illuminations on the «xxa£»or 
were so general, that it is probable, from the accounts given of 

Ee 



^6 MODERN HISTORY, 

thftm, thai scarcely u c.oUu^e in ihe most n-rnole DHrtH of the islnni) 
was iviinoui Jla «ln)\v ul lo^aiiy i\iui aiiecuoti. i'hc app*'iiratv:e of 
Jie riK'iro|)oli«, in pailictjlar, was most exlnioniinarj, ami nolv\ilh- 
slandiiig ihn immeujju concouiNe ol* people thai coiilinucd almost the 
wliole night in the streets, and the crowded throng of carriages and 
horsep, so strong a tiisposilion was bhown by all ranks and descriptionh 
oi persons to condurt things peaceaMy, that fewer accidents occurred 
tiian were ever known belore in siniilar cases. 

13. ll should be noted, as a mailer ol" general history, that had 
not his majesty recovered so opportunely, dillicullies of an extnior- 
dinary nature might have ensued, from the dillerent proceedings of 
the two legislatures of Great Biitain and Ireland. While in the 
former it was decided that the prince could not assume the regency, 
as matter of right, and that the parliament had a power to imnose 
reslriclions, in Ireland, his right appeared to he acknowledged by 
the two houses agreeing to address him, to take upon him immediately 
the govenimeni of that kingdom, during tlie king's incapacity, and 
with the usual powers of royalty. 

14. In the year 1,789, the proceedings in France began to occup- 
the attention of Europe, and of England in particular. A struggle lor 
freedom seemed to be so congenial to the spirit of the people of the 
latter country,, that it is not to be wondered that the commencement 
o( so extraordinary a revolition should excite the strongest sensa- 
tions. Unfortunately the abuses in the French government were so 
many, and some of them so entirely contrary to every principle of 
reason and equity, that it soon became apparent that nothing less 
than a radical change, and revolution of every existing institution 
and establishment, would satisfy the disturbed minds of that volatile 
people ; minds unhappily prepared not merely to resist oppression, 
but to throw olf every restraint of religion and morality, iiuch an 
example, therefore, required to be watched and guarded against^ in 
a country whose free constitution supplied its own means of relor 
mation in every Oise of necessity, and where tumultuary proceedings 
could only lead to ends the most lUtal and deplorable. Mr. Pit< 
seemed aware of this, and though his measures of precaution were 
supposed occasionaXy to press too hardly on the liberty of the sub- 
ject. It must be admitted that a very improper intercourse was at 
limes carried on between the several popular associations in England 
and Irelanil, and the national assembly of France. The object of 
the latter, in its replies to the addresses presented to it, being, accord- 
ing to all reasonable interpretation of the terms used, to invite and 
encourage tlie discontented of all countries to follow their exampie, 
which was every day becoming more violent and anarchical. 
This was not all j emissaries were employed to propagate theii 
principles in other countries, many of whom came to England, and 
mi't with an encouragement not to be overlooked by a government 
properly sensible of the dangers to be incurred by any adoption of 
Sijch sentiments and principles, in a country so very differently situ- 
ated from that of France. England had long ago done for herself 
what France was now attempting ; and though no such changes and 
revolutions can be expected to take place without some violence, 
yet England had pais«d through litis ordeal^ and accomplished her 
point a whole century before France began to assert her libeilies. 
it was little less than ;i;i insult to every true EngUshman, therefore, 
to aVempl to slir him up to such violent proceedings as had already 
been countenanced and sanctioned by the French revolutionisLs; but 



MODERN HISTORY. 

that wch attempts wpre making, ciuld not but be too obvious. On 
the IHlh of November, 1,792, the njitional ns?embly passed adeciee, 
that tney would grant fraternity and assistance to all who might wish 
to recover their fiberty. This was two months after they had pro- 
claimed the eternal abolition of royalty, and imprisoned the kini;; after 
they had declared hereditary nobility to be incompatible witti h tree 
state ; and thus, by implication, declared that England and moot 'j* 
the other states of Europe were not free. It was afterwards proved, 
by their own acknovvle<lgment. that before any declaration of war 
more than a million sterling bad been senl to England from the 
national treasury of France, for purposes strictly revolutionary, 
No country was free from these political disturbers ; even general 
Washington, as president of the United States of America, was 
obliged to publish letters patent, to withdniw his countenance from 
tiie accredited French ministers in that country, who had grossly 
insulted him as head of the executive government. 

15. In the year 1,790, an unpleasant dispute aro5e between the 
courts of St. James's and Madrid, which had nearly involved the 
two countries in a war. it related to a settlement on the north- 
western coast of America, which had been attempted by some sub- 
jects of Great Britain, at Nootka Sound, for the carrying on a fur 
trade with China. The Spaniards, conceiving this to be an invasion 
of their rights, under a claim to these distant regions the most ex- 
travagant and absurd, with gre?it precipitation attacked the English 
settled there, took the fort which had been erected with the consen^t 
of the Indians, and seized upon the vessels. It was not possible to 
pass over so great an outrage ; but by the vigorous and tiniely prep- 
arations made to procure reparation, and the little hope ot assist- 
ance lo be derived from France, in case things sbculd come to ex- 
tremities, the Spanish court was brought to terms before the expira- 
tion of the year; and not only every point in dispute ceded to the 
English., but many advantages granted with regard to the navigation 
of the Pacific ocean. 

16. In (he course of the same year, the British court interfered 
successfully to restore peace between Austria and Turkey, and 
was further instrumental, though not without some hindrances, in 
reducing the revolted Netherlands to the dominion and authority 
of the tbrmer power. Her attempts to mediate between llussia 
nnd the Porte, were by no means so successful, and had nearly, in- 
deed, involved the nation in war, for an object of very little im- 
portance in the eyes of the public at large, though the ministei 
seemed to think otherwise. In consequence, however, of the op 



position he met with, he was induced to forego the plan he had in 
view, of preventing Russia getting possession of the town of Ocza- 
kow, and a peace was concluded with that powe-r at Yassi, January, 
1,792. 

17. Towards the close of the same jear, after the king of France 
and his r.*„^ily were in a state of conhnement, many attempts were 
made by the national assembly to ascertain the views of England 
with regard to the confederacy formed against her, and the question 
of p'^ac^ or war seemed nearly brought to an issue, before the horrible 
execution of the kin^, in the month of January, 1,793. That event 
being followed by the dismissal of the French minister at London, 
a^^^jared so totally to dissolve all friendly communications between 
the tivo countries, as to induce the French government, by a decree 
d ihe assembly February 3, 1,793, to declare war against the Imni 



3t8 MODERN HISTORY. 

o/" Great Britain and the stadthoUer (^f Holland ; in which decree, 
there was evidently nii altempt in the very wording of it to <a;eparaic 
the people of the two counlries trom their respective sovercigni*. 

18. liy thi* time, indeed, the encroaching disposition of tne 
French revolutionists was manitested in their anriexation of Savoy 
to France forever, as soon as they had gained any advantages over 
it; and in their conduct in the Netherlands, by declaring the navi- 
gation of the Scheld free, contrary to all subsisting treaties with 
tl»e Dutch. Tiie same spirit was apparent in their refus;d to ex- 
empt Als.ice and Lorraine (rom the operation of the decrees for the 
abolition of leudal rights, and in their forcible seizure of Avignon 
and the comtat Venais.-iin, which had belong-ed to the Roman see 
tor many centuries. It is true, the indiscreet manifestoes of the 
combined armies were suthcient to stimubite a people, already in 
a high degree of irritation, to acts of severe reprisal, in ail cases of 
success ; but it was very manifest that they had already violated 
their own principle of noi acting on a system of aggrandizement, 
of which they made such boast at the beginning of the revolution. 
Their glaring abandonment of this principle, and the injury done to 
the Dutch by opening the Scheld, were the ostensible grounds of 
the v/ar on the part of England. The declaration of France, in 
some degree, saved the minister from the responsibility of having 
actually commenced hostilities, however, in the opinion of opposi- 
tion, he might be said to have provoked them ; but it should still be 
observed, that there was a treaty subsisting between the two countries^ 
athrming that the recal or dismission of public nnnislers should be 
considered tantamount to a declaration of war. If so, and the Irealf 
was not invalidated by the change of things at Paris, as many asserted, 
the tirst declaration of war proceeded from the English government, 
who, on the suspension of the kingly authority, had recalled lord 
Gower from Paris, (many other courts, however, having done the 
same,) and on the death of the king, abruptly dismissed the French 
minister. M. Chauvelin, from England. 

19. The exact objects of the hostile interference of England 
were never formally explained in parliament, though in the king's 
declaration they were regarded as too notorious; every thing con- 
duced to render it apparent, that they had in view as much to op- 
pose the propagation of anarchical principles, as the violence of 
territorial aggressions ; that previously to the declanition of war 
on either part, the English government had shown a disposition not 
to interfere with the internal affairs of France, seems manifest from 
many circumstances. 

20. It is not necessary to enter into the details of the war that 
took place after England joined the confederacy. The extraor- 
dinary progress and success of the French apperUdns to the histoiy 
of that country, and may theretbre be found elsewhere. Thougn 
the British troops fought with their accustomed bravery, and ob- 
tained in their hrst campaign some signal advantages, yet, owing 
in some measure to the want of harmony and cordiality between 
the confederates, but still more to the overwhelming force of 
France, now risen en masse^ they ultimately met with great reverses, 
and were compelled to abandon the country they had undertaken to 
defend ; hut though unsuccessful by land, on the ocean England 
maintained her wonted suj)eriority. xMany of the French West In- 
dia islands fell into her power in the summer of 1,794, and a most 
decisive victory was gained by lord Howe, over Uie brest tleet, oo 



MODEllN H1S1X3RY. 329 

the 1st of June. The island of Corsica also was subdued, and by 
the anti-g.allican party, with the celebrated Paschal Paoli at their 
head, erected into a monarchy, the kingly power and prerogatives 
being freely conferred on his majesty Georgo 111. In the month of 
October, however, 1,796, the French party recovered the ascenden- 
cy, and the island being evacuated by the English, was re-annexed 
to France. 

21. At the conclusion of the year 1,794, though France had on 
the continent made surprising acquisitions, the spirits of the English 
were far from being shaken, and the utmost efforts were cheerfully 
made for continuing the contest on the ocean; and in all the colonies 
of the enemy, the advantages were clearly on the side oi the British, 
during the years 1,795, 1,796, and 1,797, when negotiations for 
peace" took place, but without being brought to any favourable issue. 
At the close of 1,797, his majesty, attended by the two nouses of 
parliament, and the great officers of state, went to St. Paul's, to otfer 
up a public and national thanksgiving for the naval victoiies obtained 
in all parts of the Avorld ; upon \vhich occasion, many flags and 
colours taken from the French, Spaniards, and Dutch, were borne in 
solemn pomp to the cathedral, and deposited on the altar. Nothing 
could exceed the enthusiasm with which the British nation at this 
period appeared disposed to resist the threats of the enemy. The 
national militia having offered to transfer their services to Ireland, 
to suppress a rebellion which had broken out there, volunteer corps 
were formed in all parts of the kingdom to supply their place, and 
the people were readily induced to submit to a measure of iinance, 
then tirst adopted, namely, of raising, by a triple assessment, (after 
wards converted into an income and property tax,) a large proper 
tion of the supplies wanted for carrying on the war wit/nn the year ; 
sc much, in short, of the loan, as should exceed the sum discharged 
by the operation of the sinking fund, so that no addition should be 
made to the permanent debt. 

22. In the year 1,798, the affairs of Ireland occasioned great dif- 
ficulties. A regularly organized rebellion, the leaders of which 
.were in constant communication with the enemy, threatened to- 
tally to dissolve the connexion subsisting between that country 
and <jreat Britain, and to invite th<5 aid and co-operation of Fran(!e, 
at the manifest hazard of rendering Ireland a dependency of the 
latter power, as had already been the case with Savoy, Belgium, 
Lombardy, and V'enice. Ireland had but lately obtained concessions 
from England of no inconsiderable importance, a free trade, and the 
recognition of her political independence ; but the catholics were dis- 
satisbed with the national representation, to the defects in which 
they attributed the continuance of the penal statutes still directed 
against them. The French revolution led to the formation of the 
society of United Irishmen, in 1,791, which hac many reforms and 
changes in view, though short perhaps of an entire revolution. In 
1,795, from representations made to it of the oppressed 5tate of lie- 
land, the French government regularly proffered its assistance to 
subvert the monarchy, and separate Ireland from Britain. Fortunate- 
ly the plans of the traitors were timely discovered, and though il 
was not possii)le to prevent a recourse t^ arms, which afflicted n.ans 
parts of the kingdom between April and October, yet the pr»i \im 
ringle-aders were for the most part seized, executed, or rori }>» i.-jtl to 
fly, and under the able government of lord Cornwalhs, tranquillity 

K e 2 45 ■ 



S«0 MODERN HISTORY. 

uras lynpplly restored, with less dillicultv and damage than had het^n 
i xppcted. 

i.i. The siluntion of affairs in Ircdand (hiring 1,798, led in the fbl- 
/ou ina; yC'"'' l<> the project ol* an union Ijetwoen the two comilrios, 
which Mr. Pin suhniilled to the British pai liament in the lonn o(' a 
message rroin the king^ January 22, 1.7yi). Ti»e Irish legislature 
having been declared independent k\ 1,782, it w is ohvious that no 
such njeajiure could be carried into execution without the free con- 
sent and acquiescence ot" the Irish parliament. Many circunvstan- 
<'.es set^ined to condwe to render the pr(>|)osed union desirable and 
beneficial to both nations, nnd at this particular moment, to recorj- 
•:ile most people to it. The catholics of Ireland had become dis- 
StUisded with the parliament of that country, while the protectants, 
who were greatly outnimibered by the catboiics, though they pos- 
sessed tour titlbs of iht property of the kingdom, had good rea>on 
to suppose their interests and ascendency would be best secured 
in one united and imperial parliament, tban in a distinct legisla- 
ture, in a country where the catholics had already obtained their 
elective iVanchise, and composed the bulk of the population. They 
might also reasonably apprehend the consequences of the overtures 
that had been made to France, and the alarming progress ol" revolu- 
tionary principles. In the case of the regency, the dangers incident 
to two distinct legislatures, had been rendered s-ulHcienlly apparent 
On all these accounts, though the measure was at tirst very coldly 
entertained, and even rejected by the Irish house of commons ; the 
minister was greatly encouraged to proceed, by the strong support 
bn received in bothcountries, <Vom persons of all ranks and parties. 
A series of resolutions was proposed to the house, to be laid before 
his majesty, recomYiiendatory of the ])roposed union, which, after 
some opposition, was sent to a committee by a majority of 140 to 
15. In the lords, the address passed without a division ; a protest, 
however, being entered on the books, signed by three lords, Hoi- 
land, Thanet, and King. 

24. The last year of the eighteenth century was distinguished 
by the most important events in India, where the En;;lish, under the 
government of the earl of Mornington, totally defeated the most 
insidious, and powerful enemy, the forces in that remote country 
ever had to contend with; Tippoo Saib, the sultan of Mysore, son 
of the celehnited Hyder Ally Khan, who had usurped tlu)se domin- 
ions in 1,761. In the years 1,784, and 1,792, treaties of peace luid 
been concluded between the Julian and the English, which, however, 
had had \ery little elfect on the Ibrmer, who had shown himself 
constantly attached to the French interests ; and hnving been com- 
pelled by the hist treaty to cede one half of his dominions to the 
conquerors, and lO deliver two of his sons as hostages into the hands 
.^f lord Cornvvallis, ihe governor-gei>eral, appears to have harl)Oured 
^le most invetenjte halnnl against the English from that moment, 
.ind to have meditated, by the aiil of the French, and certain of the 
native powei's, nothing less than their total extirpation. It would be 
impossible, perhaps, to hnd in history stronger histanccs of tluplicity 
and treachery, than were practised by this celebrated potentate 
against the 1-irilish interests, during the years 1,797 and 1,798, ic 
the spring of the latter of which, lord IMornington arrived in Iiuiia 
With the French directory, with the French colonial government i^ 
Mauritius, wiih the king of Candahar, with the courts of Poonah 
nd Hyderabad, with Huonaparte in l^ypt, ond even witli the Otto- 



MODEim H1S1X)KY. 831 

mvn Porte, at the same time, the wily sultan mcinaged to carry on 
secret negotiations, nmi(l«t tne strongest prolessiuii^ ol .imitv uud 
attachment towards the English government. It has been conjectur- 
ed, that had he obtained effectual aid from the French, in extirpating 
the 'i:^ng!i3h, he would as willingly have turned against his European 
abettois; the purport of all his negotiations with the native powers, 
being to stir them up to a general combination against the injidek 
and enemies of the prophet, without any distinction of the two 
nations'^. 

25. By the extreme vigilance and cautious proceedings of the 
new governor-general, the intrigues of the sultan, notwithstanding 
his reiterated assurances of tidehty, were so amply discovered and 
exposed, as to vindicate, in the fullest manner, the declaration of 
war which took phice in February, 1,799, and which was speedily 
followed up by (he most vigorous proceedings on the part ol" the 
army, terminating in the capture of Seringr-ipatam, the capital of 
the Mysorean dominions. May 4, and the death of the sultan, whose 
body was found, after the action, covered with heaps of dead, liis 
immense territories were divided amongst the allied powers^ the 
remains ol his family provided for in the Carnatic, and a boy of five 
years old, the surviving representative of the Hindoo dynasty, restor- 
ed to the throne of his ancestors. 

26. In the first year of the new century, the projected unimi and 
incorporation ol the two legislatures and kingdoms of Great Britain 
and Ireland, was brouglit to a conclusion. Doubts were expressed 
in the Irish hou^^e of commons, and supported by great strenortb of 
argument, whether, as a delegated body, and without a fresh ap- 

'peal to their constituents, they could formally consent to their own 
annihilation. Strong suspicions also were thrown out, that the plan 
had no other object in view than that of reco\ering to England the 
domination she had surrendered in 1,782, when the independency of 
the IrisU legislature had been fully, and, as it was alleg<^d, finally 
acknowledged and established; but these objections were over- 
ruled. It was no surrender, it was urged, of their legislative rights, 
to consent to be incorporated with the parliament of Great Britain, 
but a consolidation of them ; and their consent would acquire a 
character from the regulations of 1,782, highly honourable to the 
nation ; she could now treat as an independent state, and upon a 
footing of equality, instead of being in any respect compelled, as 
might otherwise Ixive been Hie case, to an union of subjection. 
Eiirly in the yeai 1,800, the assent of the two houses of parliament, 
in Ireland, was signified in addresses to his majesty, transmitted 
through the lord lieutenant, which being submitted to the British 
parliament, after much discussion and debate on the bill in gen 
eral, as well as its several provisions, the union of the two king, 
doms was linally arranged to take place from the first of January, 
1,801. 

27. The act of incorporation contained eight articles : the first 
three decreed the union of the two kingdoms, the maintenance of 
the protestant succession, and consolidation of the parliament By 
the fourth, it was settled that four prelates should sit alternately in 
each session, and twentv-**ight lay pe^rs be elected for life, while 
two members for each c<Minty, (thirty-two in all) and thirty-six citi- 
zens and burgesses, shoul<l represent tfie commons. The fit'th article 
united the churches of England and Ireland, the sixth and seventh 
provided for the commercial and financial arrangements of the two 



sat MODERN HISIXDHY. 

countries, and the eighth for the maintenance of laws then in f ♦« 
aiul continnanre of the courts of jiulicature. 

28. On the tirst of January, 1,8U1, a royal declanilion was i« ledj 
rogiilating the j?lyh» and tiller apperJaiiiing to the imperial cro o of 
Groat Brilairi and Ireland, with tiie arms, tlags, and ensigns ih -r€of 
In these arrangementSj tiie o|jporlnnity was judiciously rak-.# of 
laying aside the title of king of France, and tlie French arm j the 
title in English was contined to Great liritain and Irelnnd; in .^itin, 
" hnkinnwrnm Rei^^ and the quartering of the ''''Jlews de /«,' omit^ 
ted in the blazonry. 

2^ A fresh revolution in the government of France, about this 
time, having thrown the executive power, in a great measure, 
Jnto the hands ot a supreme magistrate, the tirst consul, and over- 
tures for pe;w:e having been made by Buonaparte in that capacity, 
much discussion upon the sulject took place between the ministers 
of the two countries, but wiihout efl'ect. The Auslrians having 
sustained a defeat in Italy, had solicited and obtained a suspension of 
hostilities, and entered upon some negotiations for peace, to which 
England was invited to become a party, upon consenting to a naval 
armistice- but her maritime power stood so high, that wnile Malta 
continued subject to France, and the French army unsubdued in 
Egypt, she could not reasonably be expected to forego such advan- 
tages, and to place herself upon a footing with her continental ally, 
whose situation was so different. Mer determination to coniinue the 
war, was soon followed by the surrender of-iMalta, on the 5th of Sep- 
tember, 1,800, and in the course of the next year, the French trorps 
were compelled llnally to abandon Egypt; thus terminating an tx 
pedition, in a grea-t degree mysterious, but which, no doubt, might, 
nave led to the disturbance ol our power in hulia, had it not been for 
the interruption it met with on its way thither, and the overthrow of 
Tippoo ^aib. 

30. hi the course of the year 1,800, the enemies of England were 
greatly increased by the revival amongst the northern powers, of 
the armed neutrality, originally devised and adopted in 1,780. As 
this dispute involved a very curious point of international law, it 
would have been well, if it could have been brought to such an 
issue as might have settled the question for ever ; but, after much 
negotiatioiK and some very unpleasant conflicts at sea, (particularly 
with the Jjanes,) seizures and embargoes, the matter terminated 
r.ither in an uncertain compromise, than any positive adjustment 
The right of search bv belligerents, however inconvenient to neu- 
trals, seemed to have been acknowledged for many centuries, as a 
principle of maritime law ; upon the system of the armed neutrality, 
It was contended that ships under convoy should pass free, the Hag 
of the neut.'-al power being sufficient pledge and security that the 
carpoes were not contraband of war. The claim in this case being 
evidently directed against England, then, and at all times mistress 
of the sea, rendered it a point of extreme imporUmce ; one which 
she could not surrender without a contest, or armed negotiation; 
otherwise, and if it had not been decidedly in favour of her oppo- 
nents, the countenance given ♦« the new system by so many states of 
Europe, Russia, Denmark, Swetien, Prusski, Naples, France, Spain, 
Holland, Austria, Portugal, Venice, and Tuscany, (for by some steps 

r other they all seemed di-^posed to adopt the spiiit of it,) might have 

en expected to amount to a formal recognition of its principle, as 

roper law of nations ; the dispute, however, upon this occasion. 



MODERN HISTORY. 333 

was settled at Petersburg, by negotiation, after the accession of the 
emperor AlexanJer, and attended with concessions on the part of the 
Bailie powers, of singular importance, though less complete tnan 
they might have been, owing to the counter corxessions of Britain. 
Thus, though it was decided that enemy's property emharkeil on 
board neutnd ships, should be liable to confiscation, and that the 
right of searching merchant ships, even under convoy of a ship of 
war, should be recognized, yet, it was at the same time determined 
that arms and ammunition only should be considered as contraliand, 
and that the right of searching merchant ships under convoy shoulcj 
appertain exclusively to vessels belonging to the royal navy. If not 
entirely decisive, however, the stipulations of this celebrated con- 
vention highly deserve to be looked up to as a proper standard of 
the rights of neutraUty. 

31. During the contest that arose with England, out of this con- 
federacy of the nothern powers, tiie king o.' Prussia, one of the con- 
tracting parties, saw tit to take possession oi ihe king of Great Brit- 
ain's electoral states of Hanover, but on t.; ^ change of affairs in 
RussJa. was speedily induced to restore them. 

32. By the treaty of peace concluded at LuiiCville, between the 
emperor of Germany and France, February 9, 1801, England was 
left without an ally, and a change of ministry having taken place 
about the same time, may be said to have laid the tbundation for 
more serious negotiations for peace, on the part of England and 
France, than had hitherto taken place since the commencement of 
the revolution. Nothing, however, seemed to hasten it so muoh 
as the defeat of the French army in Egypt, and the settlement of 
the differences between England and the Baltic powers, which 
enabled her to negotiate with more advantage, and greatly lower- 
ed the spirit of the French government. Preliminaries were signer? 
on the tii'st of October, 1,801, and a definitive treaty concluded at 
Amiens, between Great Britain and the French republic, Spain and 
Holland, on the 25th of March, 1,802. By this treaty, England 
obtained Ceylon from the Dutch, and Trinidad from tne Spaniards, 
relinquishing all her other conquests ; Malta being given back to 
the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, under the guarantee of the 
principal powers of Europe. 



SECTION XIV. 

FRANCE, FROIVI THE DEATH OF THE KING AND QUEEN, 
AND OVERTHROW OF THE GIRONDIST OR BRISSOTINE 
PARTI, 1,793, TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DIREC- 
TORY, 1,795. 

1. The situation of France, towards the close of the year 1,793, 
was deplorable in the extreme. It lay at the mercy of a faction 
not merely blood-thirsty, but which nothing but blood would satis- 
y. The jacobins, or Kobespierrean party, determined to root out 
every thing that could, by the remotest implication, be denounced 
as adverse to their plans, procuretl a decree to be passed, exceed- 
ing every thing that can be conceived m atrocity. Such was tiie 
*' Loi sur les suspeasj''' passed in September, by which their agents 



334 MODERJN HlS'lX)KY. 

in all parta ot the country were empowered lo arrest^ Imprisoo, 
and tf>ereby doom to destruction, wnomsorver suspicion in any 
manner attached lo. not nuTely iis principals, but as connected witn 
principals, however unavoidably, natur.illy, or accidentally. One 
article alone will explain the rvt*. The following are the persons 
denounced in the 5th :— All of the ancient class of nobilily ; all hus- 
bands, wives, lathers, molheis, sons, or daughters, brothers, sistei-s, 
or agents of eniigrant-s who shall not have comtanlly manifested 
on attachment to the rexolutioti. The (pieen, the twenty-two victims 
of the Girondist party, and general Custnie, may be considered as 
among the earliest and m«:>st distinguished persojis that fell under 
the power of this horrible faction. The due d'Orlenns, though not 
belonging to the Girondist party, was denounced by liobespierre 
himself, as connected with them, and publicly executed on the 6th 
of November; but his life and conduct, both public and private, had 
been such, that he fell totally unregretted. It would be vain to 
attempt to relate the many dreadful events w hich marked this bloody 
peri'^ki. It is to be hoped history will never agiuu have to record 
such complicated cruelties and miseries, such premeditated murders, 
such studied torments, mental and bodily. 

2. Or. the 17th of November, of this memorable year, the cath- 
olic religion, (at the instance of an archbishop of Paris^ Gobet !) 
was publicly abjured by the convention, and decrees past, amidst 
the most tumultuous acclamations, for substituting a religion oi reason 
in its room. The churches were quickly d'^spoiled of their ornaments, 
the altars destroyed, civic feasts insliluleo instead ot religious festi- 
vals, and Liberty^ Equality^ &.c. consecrated as objects of wor.^jip. 
These revolutionary and anti-catholic decrees were moreover 
ordered to be translated into Italian^ on purpose that they mi^ht be 
transmitted in that most intelligible, and therefore most oflensive 
shape, to the pope. The calendar underwent also a correction. A 
new republican ibrm and era being adopted and established, to com- 
mence from the 22d of September, 1,7^)2, the day on which the na- 
tional convention began its sittings, and royalty was abolished. The 
year was divided into twelve parts, of thirty days each, distinguished 
according to the prevalent seasons, Viniemiairc, September and Oc- 
tober ; JBnunaire^ October and November; /V/'/mrire, November and 
December; A'tro^e, December and .January; Vluviose^ January and 
February ; Ventosc., February and March ; Gemiinul^ March and 
April; Florcal^ Auril and May; Prairial., I\Iay and .June; Mejsidor. 
June and July; Thcrmidor., July and August; FructuJoi\ August and 
September. The Sabbath was abolished, and tive complimentary 
days added, all commemorative of tlie revolution. I-^ich month »vas 
divided into three decades, and a respite from labour allowed on 
every tenth day. 

3. It was not possible (o stippose that those who ruled during 
this dark ''* rei^n if terror^'- could long be sulTered to retain theii 
power and station in the republic. Fortunately for the good ot 
human society, their very crimes rendered them jealous and sus- 
picious of each other, so that before many months had passed, 
ifter the execution of the queen and the brissotines, the earth was 
rid of such monsters, proscribed and driven to the scaflolJ l)y their 
own friendo and associates in wickedness ; Robespierre, from whom 
the faction chiefly took its denomination, being at length accused, 
condemned, and exec'ited, in the course of a few hours m the month 
of July, 1,794, to the satitfactioD of the whole civilized world. Be* 



MODERN HlSTOliy. 3Jte 

fore this great day oi retribution, however, one moie victim of roy- 
aUy w;is brought to the scnffold, whose sole offence must have been 
the heroic display she iiad madr, in her constant aitendance upon 
the king, her brother, ami his most unhappy tamiiy, of every amia- 
ble virtue that could adorn a woman. The princess Elizabeth, who 
had continued in the temple, with the two chiidrer. of the unhappy 
Lewis XV' I., from the period of his execution, was brought belbre 
*Jie revolutionary tribunal, accused of '•* accompanying the late king 
.vhen he attempted his escape ;" of having '• attended upon and ad- 
ministered help to the wounded in the conlhct with the guards ;" 
and of " having encouraged her infant nephevr, Lewis XV 11., to en- 
tertain hopes ol ascending the throne of his father;" and upon these 
charges sentenced to die, xMay 10, 1,794, and executed without pity 
or remorse 

4. it was during the year 1,793, that Napoleon Buonaparte, a na 
tive of Corsica, had lirst an opportunity of distinguishing himself in 
the French army, being employed in the direction ot the artillery at 
the siege of Toulon, which had fallen for a short time into the hands 
of (he tlnglish. Hitherto the war against the powers in opposition 
to France, had been carried on in a most desultory and extraordinary 
manner, with more success certainly on the part of the Frencn than 
could have been expected, from the extraordinary condition and cir- 
cumstances of their armies, and the strange state of responsibility in 
whiuh theii commanders were .placed by their rulers at homo. 
Some of their generals were compelled to desert, many were pro 
scribed, and many, after displaying the utmost valour in the tielo, 
wtie actually brought to the scallbld. Nevertheless, the irjpulse 
given to the revolutionary army, by the circumstances of their coun- 
try, aided by mistakes and jealousies on the part of their opponents, 
enabled it to combat effectually against much better organized 
troops, and to resist the attacks that were made upon it in all quar- 
ters; ibr in addition to the Austrians and Friwsians, Sardinians, Eng- 
lish and Spanish, in La Vendee and other departments, a civil war 
prevailed, where many acts of heroism, indeed, were displayed 
by a brave, but unsuccessful band of royalists, who ultimately 
paid dear for their revolt, by the most horrid and disgraceful punish- 
.Tients. 

5. The French revolution had now attained that pitch of extrav- 
agance and disorder, which left no hopes of any check or termi- 
nation, but that which actually ensued, namely, a military despo- 
tism. According to the remarks of one of the ablest merabei-s of the 
tirst national assembly, one who was sacriticed ht the period we 
have been treating of, in a way the most treacherous and revolting 
to every feeling mind, the French revolution being undertaken not 
tor the sake of men, but for the sake of opinion, had no distinct 
leader, no Cromwell or Fairfax. All were leaders, all institutor*, 
all equally interested in the course of affaii-s. Such a revolution, 
he observes, must be commenced by all, but he w;is sagacious 
enough to foresee that it would probably be terminated by one. All, 
however, for a certain time, being leadei's and institutors, nothing 
could ensue from such a state of things, but continual struggles to be 
uppermost ; continual denunciations and proscriptions of rival parties; 
and a strange succession of new constitutions, and new forms of gov- 
ernment, as any opening seemed to occur for bringing things to a 
settlement 

G. The death of Hobeapierrc, and oi many of his accomplices, 



336 MODERN HISTORY. 

clearly afforded mch an opening, if not for setlling, &t least lor 
ariulioratine: things; but for some trmc the convention ind tlie na- 
lit)ii seenu'd to be in too great a smpii'-e and consternation to ])ro- 
ceed with any method to so desirable an end. The lormer having 
had its origin in tlie days of anarchy anrl confusion, seemed Uttle 
prej)ared to defend or s^iipporl its own dignity, but liie cry of hu- 
manity began again to be raised, and to be iieard, and in no long 
::ourse of time atler the deieat of Robespierre, the jacobin club, 
Vom which had emanated all the previous acts and decrees, so 
(lisgr.icelul to France, was abolished and dissolved, by a decree of 
he c(Mivention. The refonnation of the laws ancf government 
«^ave greater trouble. The pain of death had been decreed against 
^ny who should propose to set aside the constitution of 1,793, and 
witli this sentence hanging over them, all the people had sworn to 
uphold and maintain it. Tired, however, of the absolute and un- 
controllable power ihcy had exercised, many membei-s, even of the 
convention, sincerely wished for more limited authority. A com- 
mittee was appointed to prepare a new code of laws, and, in the 
mean time, processes were carried against some of the most violent 
of the abettors of the late tumults and disorders, particularly the 
commissioners who had sanctioned the most dreatlful proceedings 
at Lyons, Nantes, Orange, and Arras. The execrable law under 
which they had acted, "• Loi des suspects," was repealed, and a just 
vengeance directed against those who had been most forward to car- 
ry it into execution. 

7. At length a new constitution was framed, presented to the 
convention, and approved. Two legislative councils, one of five 
hundred members, and the other of two hundred and fifty, were 
to enact the laws ; the former to propose, the latter to sanction or 
reject them. The executive government was committed to five 
directors, chosen by the legislature, but whose responsibility was 
ilUlefined, and their connexion with the legislative bodies not sutii- 
ciently provided for, either as a balance, or controlling power. It 
was not without other faults and blemishes, but it may undoubtedly 
be regarded as making a much nearer approach to order and reg- 
ularity, than the one which it was intended to supersede. It was 
Ibrmally accepted and proclaimed, September 23, 1,795.* 

8. This may be considered as the third constitution established 
since the fii*st meeting of the states-general, in 1,789; great objec- 
tions were made to one article, which secured the return of a very 
large proportion of the members of the convention, to serve in the 
new legislature. Tumults were raised in the sections of Faris, and 
d\\ attack made upon the convention, w hich, however, was at last 
rescued from the violence of the mob. Jiuonaparte, who was then 
at Faris, was appointed to act upon this occasion in defence of the 
assembly. 

J. Lxternally, the affairs of FVance may be said to have been at 
this moment in a high and extraordinary degree of prosperity. The 
campaigns of 1,794 and 1,795, committeti to the charge of very able 
generals, Fichegru, Souham, Jourdan, Kleber, Moreau, and Du- 
eommier, had hitherto succeeded beyond their "itmost expectations. 
The Jbelgian s'ates, and the united provinces, had not only been 

• The.directofB being Reubel, Lt- toumeur, Lapcveillere-I^^paux, Bar- 
rd». and Sieyea ; but the latter declining: the honour, Camot lupplied hit 
place 



MODERN HISTORY. 337 

wrested from the hands of their defenders, the Austrians, Prussians, 
and British, but associated with the French republic in a close coo- 
federacy. Tlie stadtholdei-ship was again abolished, and the siadt- 
hoider and his family obliged to take refuge in England. In the 
mean time, peace had been concluded with many of the belligereirt 

{)owers, highly advantageous to France; with Prussia, Spain, the 
andgrave of Hesse, the grand duke of Tuscany, and others ; while 
the navigation of the rivers Rhine, Meuse, and ScheWt, had been 
rendered free, in all their courses and branches, to the people of 
France. These proceedings, with regard to the Belgian states and 
Holland, were the commencement of a system pursued from that 
time on all the frontiers of the new republic. By a decree of the 
national assembly, the French generals were directed to proclaim 
every where the sovereignty of the /)eo/>/e, to suppress all authorities 
and privileges, to repeal all taxes, and estaolish provisional govern- 
ments on democratic principles. By this system of '''J'ratemizatioji^' 
as it was called, the subdued countries being formed into republics, 
•' repuhliquee satelliUs^' as they were signiticantly denominated by the 
French themselves, were associated with France as subordinate 
states. Of the states first revolutionized in this manner, the Batavian 
republic took the lead, surrendering to France, without, hesitation, 
the chief of her fortresses, and thus extending, and at the same time 
protecting her frontier. The mistake she made in thus welcoming 
fhe French, was but too soon discovered. The French levied heavy 
contributions; the English took from them many of their foreign 
settlements, and particularly the cape of Good Hope, and the island 
of Ceylon. 

10. In the month of June, 1,795, Louis XVIL, the unfortunate son 
of Louis XVL, died in the temple, under circumstances extremely 
suspicious, and very deplorable, having been some time in the cus- 
tody of a low-bom drunken wretch, who did every thing he could 
to insult and torment him, and undermine his health. He was in the 
eleventh year of his age at the time of his death. His sister, the 
princess i*oyal, (the present duchess of Angouleme) was soon after- 
wards most happily released from her miserable prison, whence ii 
father, mother, and aunt, had been successively led to execution, 
and where an only brother had died a victim to cruelty, and perhaps 
poison. Her royal highness was exchanged for certain members of 
the late convention, who had been delivered up to the allies, by the 
generals who had incurred the displeasure of their rulers at raris, 
or had fallen into the hands of the enemy bv other accidents. 



SECTION XV\ 

FRANCE, FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DIRECTORY, 
1,795, TO THE PEACE OF AMIENS. 

1. The appointment of the five directors, was an act of policy 
on the part of the ruling members of the convention, who thought 
it better to hazard such a division of the executive power, than to 
give umbrage to the people, by the renewal of a first magistrate, 
though an elective one. As these new othcers, however, owed 
their nomination to the influence of those members of the late con- 
^rention who were chosen to form a part of the legislative body ; a 



^ MODEKXS- HISTOKY. 

close union was soon found to subsist between the diivctura and the 
majoiitv ot the council. 

'i The council of anrienti", consisting of two hundred anti fifty 
□nen)t>ei!^, at fir:<t appeared to form the bulwark of the new coiisli- 
lution; having no share in the framing of the laws, they were af)le 
to interpose with the greater dignity in pronouncing their iud^mchl 
upon such as were referred to them, and ol'len exerciseu the re- 
dtored privdege of the veto beneficially for IMc public. The judi- 
cial rnuiiilers of the reign of terror were terminated, and the guv- 
eninnent liisplayetl, in many instances, a i-etuni to moderation and 
humanity, extremely desirable and praisewortfiy, but in the south 
eni department, a system of reaction and retaliation prevailed, wnich 
it was beyond their power to control. An organized body of as9;»«siiis 
kept all those parts o{ the nation in a state of incessant alarm. The 
metrop»)lis was in some degree restored to its \vonted gayety, but 
eveiy thing bespoke, as might reasonably be expected, a most de- 
moralized state of society. The stage became intolerably licentious, 
and the public amusements were di^^graced. by a freedom of man- 
ners, and imlelicacy of dress on the pa;t of the femaU's, beyond mea- 
sure offensive. Tliose whose nearest connexions had been doomed 
to the scaffold, could fimi no better mode of commemorating their 
loss, than by festive meetings, railed *•' Bah a la Fictirru^^'' to wluch 
no one could lie admitted but such as had lost a fiither. a mother, a 
husband, a wife, a brother, or a sister, by the guillotine I 

3. liitheito tiie prowess of the French armies had been mani- 
Tested much more m the north, and on the Rhine, than in the 
southern parts of the continent ; towards Italy, the Auslriaas and 
Piedmontese seemed to hold the French in check. Dugommier had 
bkJeed invaded Spain with efl'ect; and by his attacks contributed 
to bring about a peace with that country ; but now a new scene 
was about to open, leading to such a succession of victories and 
revolutions as it would be impossible fully to describe in such a work 
as the present. 

4. Ivirly in the year 1,796, general Buonaparte obtained ^being 
then twenty-six years of age,) the chief command of the army of 
Italy, as it was called. His eagerness to commence operations 
diew upon him some remonstrances. It was suggested to fdm that 
man) things were wanting in his army necessary to the campaign. 
** 1 have enough," said he, '■'if 1 conquer, and too many if" 1 should 
be beaten." The Austrian army in those parls was conmianded 
by ireneral Beaulieu, an officer peculiarly active and enterprising. 
Ci^-neral liuonaparte took the command of the French army on the 
Jiiih of March, and between the l's!lh anil loth of April, beat Ifie 
Anstiinn troops in three distinct engagements, at Monlenolle, Mil- 
le-imo (or Montelezino,) and Dego. hi the space of four days, it 
U.v* l»een compuietl, that the Austrian army was diminished to the 
amount of 15,lKJ0 men, being separated at the same time from their 
l^ieflm^mtese allies. After the battle of Dego, Buonaparte advanced 
rapidly into Piedmont, nor did he stop till lie had arrived at the 
very pites of Turin. There lie agreed to an armistice solicited by 
the kiiig, who w;is ignominiously compelled to submit to his occu- 
pying with trench troops all the principal fortresses of his coui^ 
iry. Happy to be allowed to retain the capital, he was also obliged 
to cede ^avov, Nice, Tende, and Beuil. h'rom Turin, huona- 
pui-t« pursued hi« ccune iato Lombardy, and by the ceieb»ted 



MODEllN HISTORY. 339 

battk of Lodi, un the 10th of May, obtained complete po9ee«ioc of 
the Milanese. 

5. Unwilling to etitpr immediately into the narrow parts of Italy 
in this stage of his proceedings, he salisdeu himself witli threaten* 
io^ the pope and the king of ^'aples, till he brought them to tern^ 
ol peace ; the former surrendering to the French republic, Bologna^ 
Ferrara, and the coasts ol the Adriatic, from the mouths of the Fo» 
to Ancona ; and the latter consenting to contribute largely to the 
maintenance of the French army, and to close his ports against 
the enemies of France. The dukes of Parma and Modena, made 
eubmission in time to save their countries. The grand duke of 
Tuscany had previously acknowledged the French republic^ but 
was Liidden very peremptorily to exclude the English from the 
port of Leghorn. The submission of all these princes and states 
to the overwhelming force of the army undei the command of Buo- 
naparte, was but part of the vicloiy he obtained over them. In 
every step he took, he was careful, by new laws, treaties, and po- 
litical arrangements, to *' revolutionize"" the countries over which 
he obtained an ascendency by arras, and to incorporate them with 
the French repuLlic. Savoy, Nice, and the Mihmese, were thus 
brought under his dominion, and ultimately erected into distinct, 
though subordinate r€;public5. 

6. It was at the very commencement of the military career of 
this extraordinary man, that he adopted a system of plunder, which, 
for a long time, engaged the attention of the whole civilized world. 
In all the treaties concluded with the Italian princes, he stipulated 
that French artists should be admitted mto their public g-alleries, 
museums, and palaces, to select as many as they might choose, of 
tlie choicest performances of the celebrated painters and sculptors 
of all ages, and cause them to be conveyed to l\'iris. French sentiment 
has dwelt upon the circumsiance of the immortal Raphael, Titian, 
and Domenichino, having thus had it in their power, and in such 
critical moments, to pay the ransom of their native countries, over 
looking the sad violation of sentiment occasioned by the removal ot 
these precious pledges of their stupendous talents from the hands 
which had so long preserved them, and from places of which they 
had been so justly regarded as the choicest and most valuable 
ornaments. 

7. The siege of Mantua was attended with many severe contlicb*. 
Od the reduction ol' that important PJace, Buonaparte is stated to 
have thus addressed his soldiere . " The capture of Mantua termi- 
nates a campaign which has justly entitled you to the everlasting 
-gratitude of your country. You have triumphed o\er the enemy in 

tiiree pitched battles, and seventy interior engagements ; you have 
taken a hundred thousand prisoners, fil'ty rield-pieces, two thousand 
biUtering cannons. The country you ha^e subdued hriS nouri.-hed, 
maintained, and paid the army during the whole campaign, and you 
have remitted thirty millions to the minister of finance, in aiil of the 
public treasury. You have enriched the museum at Paris, wilh 
more than three humlred of the choicest and most valuable works of 
art, both of ancient and modem Italy, and which it had taken thirty 
ages to produce/' 

8. Though we kuow from subsequent accounts of French victo- 
ries, that they are net always to be depended upon, yet there can 
be no doubt, that the abDve address does pretty tairly describe the 
cxtraordioary rapidity and extent of Buonaparte's tirst operations 



940 MODKllN HISTOKV. 

in the field. The years 1,79G and 1,797, wore indeed marked by 
such surprising ini<tances of this nature, that they deserve a place 
hi history, though tl»e prudence and good generalship of such pre- 
cipitate steps has heen reasonahiy questioned. Mantua capitulated 
on the 2ii of Tehruarv, 1,797, and Buonaparte pursued his course 
in the direction of the Austrian capital. Iea\ing Italy liehind him, 
uith a view of penetrating to \ ienn;i. Though ohlige«l to tight his 
way, he succeeded, Mai*ch ii, 1,797, in taking possessiwn of (Jradis- 
ca, which laid open to hini the provinces ol Goritz, Carniola, ;md 
Carinthia. 

9. The Austrian gran>l army was commanded hy the emperor's 
brother, the ai-chduke Charles, an able general, a great favourite 
with the soldiers, and who had combated the French on the Khine 
with signal success. He was not, however, strong enough to awH.il 
the approach of the French, who soon reached Leoben, only thirty 
miles tVom V ienn;i, where great consternation was excited, and the 
imperial liimily compelled to retire. As both armies, however, 
were brought into a very critical position, negotiations were en- 
tered into at this place, an armistice concluded on the 0th of Apiil, 
ami preliniinaries of peace signed on the loth of the same month, 
1,797. 

10. Before we notice the celebrated treaty of Campo-Formio, 
by nhich the peace was settled and contirmed, it may be lit to con- 
sider the state of those countries which Buonaparte had left behind 
on his march upon Vienna. He had nade peace on his own terms 
(most advantageous ones for Franct) with rarma, Modena, Rome, 
and Naples. He tiad overrun Sa» oy, obtaintnl possession of the 
Milanese, and reduced Mantua. He liad erected Genoa into the 
Ligurian republic, and the Milanese he converted into tlie Cisalpine 
republic, after having tirst given it the name of Transpadane, in 
reference to the river Po, and in con^radislinction to the Cispadane 
republic, consisting ol Modena, Bologna, Reggio, and Ferrara, con- 
federated in 1,796. He had passed V enice on his way to 'J'rieste, of 
which he took possession on the 3i\ of April, 1,797. The Venetians 
had allorded an asylum to Lewis W 111., and wavered greatly in 
taking part either with the Austrians or tlie French- not being able 
to calculate upon the issue of the contest. Thev had also fallen 
into domestic broils and dissensions, which f«ave the French command- 
er the opportunity he always sought, of introducing a French army 
to allay their ililferences. The consequences were, 'hat (hey im- 
mediately seized upon the fleet, the Ionian islands, and, in fact, all 
the Venetian states, which er>jd>led Buonaparte greatly to improve 
the peace he was making with the Austrians. Alt)ania and the ionir 
«n islands he kept to himself; to the Ci>alpine republic he asisigned 
the western dependenci'^s of Venice, reserving for Austria, the capi- 
tal, Istria, Dalmalia, and the island of the Adriatic, in exchange tor 
the Netherlands and the duchy of Luxemburg. He had profess- 
ed to enter upon the Venetian states, merely to rescue them from 
the hands of Austria, but by this extraordinar? manoeuvre, he not 
only delivered them over to the very power from whom he under 
look to save them, but he obtaine*! trom Atistria the very object foi 
Wie sake of which her English allies had refused to make peace id 
1,790. Such appears to have l>een the chief foundation of the cele 
nrated treaty ot Campo-Formio, concluded between the emperor and 
Uie French republic, October, 17, 1,797. 

11. Previously to the conclusion of the treatv of Campo-Formio, 



MODERN HISTOKY. 341 

the allies had lost thi-ee of their confederates, the dukes of Wir- 
tembnrg and Bavaria, and the Margrave of Baden, all of whom 
had found it necessary to purchase peace of the directory by heavy 
contributions. Such great advantages m its external relations 
were, however, far from contributing to the internal tranquiUity of 
the republic. The tirst tive directors, as might naturally have been 
expected, were bv no means accordant in their views, or of equal 
talents and abilities; and provision seemed to have been made 
for fresh revolutions, by the continual recurrence of new elections, 
both in the legislative assemblies and directory. One of the five 
directors was annually to go out, and one third of each of the le- 
gislative bodies to be renewed. The tirst event of this kind, as 
might be expected, revived all the jealousies of rival parlies, and 
produced an explosion almost as violent as any that had yet occur- 
red ; the explosion of the 18th of Fructiilor, as marked in the short- 
lived republican calendar. Le Toumeur quitted the directory by 
lot, and was succeeded by Barthelemi, who soon appeared inclined 
to join Camot against Keubel, Barras, and Larevilliere-Lepaux. 
The three latter were for assuming a despotic power; their oppo- 
nents were divided, some inclined to the restoration of royalty, 
others to the emancipation of the councils from the sway of the 
directors, Keubel and his two associates ; but as they formed a mi- 
nority, and their enemies were prompt in their measures of revenge, 
and had moreover the command of the military, it was not long be- 
fore the latter obtained the victory they sought. On the 4th of 
September, 1,797, the legislative assemblies were surrounded with 
ti*oops, and at the instance of the three ruling directors, two of their 
colleagues, (Carnot and Barthelemi) several members of the two 
councils, many public ministei-s, and many men of letters, declared 
guilty of anti-republican meas jres and principles, arrested and impri- 
soned ; and, on the 5th, sentenced to deportation to the unhealthy 
and remote settlement of Guiana, in South America. The authors, 
editors, directors, and proprietors, of no less than forty-two public 
journals were included in the sentence.' Some of the proscribed 
members found means to escape ; but those who were conveyed to 
Guiana, suffered dreadf\illy from the voyage; many died from the 
unvvholesomeness of the place, some tbund means to return to Europe, 
particularly general Pichegru and the ex-director, Barthelemi, who 
were conveyed to England from the Dutch settlement of Surinam. 

12. Buonaparte returned to Paris not long alter these disturban- 
ces, and was received with peculiar honours. The people began 
to look up to him lor deliverance from the tyranny of three direct- 
ors; and the latter were a? eager to remove him from the metropo- 
lis. In the midst of the honours paid to him, on account of his vic-r 
tories in Italy and Germany, Barras, with great emphasis, nominat- 
ed him as the hero destined to place the tri-coloured dag on the 
tower of London. Troops were actually assembled on the coasts 
of Flandei^ and Normandy for the purpose ; but Buonaparte him- 
self, seeing the impraclicablility of sucn an attempt, meditated 
more distant expedition. 

13. In the coui-se of the year 1,798, the system, began so sue 
cessfully in Flanders and Holland, of revo''itionizing the countries 
into which the French armies should penetrate, was carried to a 
great extent. Watchful to seize upon every opportunity afforded 
them by internal dissensions, the French this year obtiiined posses- 
•ioD of B.ome, Switzerland, the Pays de Vaud, the GrisoM, and 

Ff2 



S49 MODEKJS HISTORY. 

Genera, under cipcumstance^ peculiarly distressing to the eiistins 

governments, and commonly attended with heavy exactions, and 
the plunder of tho*«r churches, palaces, and museums. The pope 
was driven from Rome, partly by his own suhjecls, and partly 
through an overweening conrtdencc in his own power and intJu- 
ence. The Roman republic was proclaimed February 15, 1,790; 
and the finances being found in a bad state, the Vatican and other 
public buildings strip|)ed of their contents. The Pays de Vaud, 
u hither the trench had been invited, to protect them against the 
aristocratic despotism of the Bernese, was formed into the Lenuin^ 
and Switzerland, after many cruel sacrifices, into the Jlehetic re 
public, or rather into three republics, tor that was ultimately the 
arrangement adopted ; provisional governments being in all place.** 
appointed, conformably, in a great degree, to the principles of the 
brench constitution. No remonstrances on the part of the free can- 
tons could save them from the directorial decrees. .\n address to 
this ertect, |)eculiarly pathetic and eloquent, from the cantons of 
Srhwii/, Uri, .Appenzel, Claris, Zug, and Underwalden, had no 
elTect whatever in preserving them from a change of constitution, 
forced upon them by democratic France. The degenerate Ronuim 
had appeared to pride themselves upon emulating their heroic an- 
cestors, in re-establishing the republic, under the auspices ot Gallic 
invaders. But the brave Swiss resisted to the utmost the rude dis- 
turbers of their ancietit free<lom. The modern republicans of Rome 
chanted a Te Deum, to hallow their deliverance. The Swis-s sung 
Ineir antiquated songs of patriotism -ind t'reeOom, till the most dire 
necessity compelled them to surrender their established constitutioo 
to the ilictales of a French directory. 

14. On the 5th of May, Buonapaite left Paris for Toulon, to take 
the command of an expedition, the real object of which has scarce 
iy been ascertained to this day, though it appears most probable, 
tiiat he designed to join Tippoo Saib in India, and to subvert the 
British empire there. He was accompanied by many artist*', natu- 
ralist*, and antiquarians, and a large proportion of the army which 
had served under him in Italy. Malta lying in his way to Fppt, 
he tidied not to take possession of it, partly by I'orce, and partly oy 
intrigue, subjecting that island and its deiitndencies, Goza and Cumi- 
no, to the Irench republic, June 12, 1,798. its conquest had for 
some time previously been meditated, but it had lately been put 
under the protection of the emperor of Russia. Paul I. : it was treated 
by the French its ill as other place?, notwithstanding the utmost 
assurances to the contrary. The knights were driven from the 
isla!ul, many of the people compelled to join the French army, 
and new laws imposed un«ier the authoiity of the directory. In the 
month of J»dy, this year, 1798, a triumphant entry into Paris, of 
all the works of art collected in the several places sulxiued by the 
French aims, took place amid the acclamations of the people. The 
French lleet had narrowly escapeil at Malta the pursuit of ar Eng 
ilsh one, un«ler the command of Nelson ; and after the subduction 
ot the island, it was able to proceed, still undiscovered, to Egypt, 
where the English had already been to look for them in vain. On 
the 2d of July, Buonaparte took possession of Alexandria, mooring 
his tieet in the bay of .\boukir. In less than three weeks from hil 
landing, and after a severe action with the Mamelukes, called the 
battle of the pyramids, Cairo, and the whole of the Delta fell inta 
hi« power ; but his triumph was lesgened by the loss of his fleet, on 



MODEllN HISTORY. 845 

the lat of Aasust, which, being attacked in the bay ty Nelson, was 
almost totally destroyed or takea, the French admiral Bnieys l»emg 
killed and his sh'p burnt ; four ships only, ♦wo orihrm liigates, xvere 
all that escaped. When Buonaparte leil Toulon, his fleet consisted 
ol 400 sail, including thirteen ships of the line, and it was rathei 
increased than otherwise by his enterprise at Malta. 

15. The victory of Nelson ^ave a new turn to the war against 
tlie French. On his quitting Lgypt, he carried his tleet to JNaples, 
where the utmost joy was manifested by the court at the blow which 
had been given to the French preponderance. The aueen invoked 
the Austrians to renew the war against France; and the expedition 
to Egypt and attack upon Malta having excited the czar, and even 
the grand seignior, to resist aggressions so unprovoked and alarming. 
Francis II. was not insensible to the call made upon him. England 
was not backward to encourage and aid such movements, in every 
part of Europe. The king of Sardinia, and the grand duke of Tus- 
cany showed themselves wilUng tojoin the new confederacy; but 
the king of Prussia was not to be prevailed on to abandon his neo* 
trality. 

16. The Neapolitan court, which had been the foremost lo ex- 
cite this new war, were the tirst sufl'erers from it. Having invaded 
the territories of the church, and even obtained possession of Home, 
they were suddenly driven back by the French, the capital taken, 
and the royal family compelled to retire to Falermo, in Sicily. Na- 
ples was not taken possession of without a formidable insurrection 
of that extraordinary portion of its population, the Lazzaroni^ with 
whom the king, whose amusements were often unbecoming his high 
rank, happened to be popular. This resistance provoked reprisiUs 
♦ xceedirvgly distressing to the inhabitants, and almost niinous to 
the city: the tumult, however, was at length appeased, and the 
kingdom of Naples converted into the Fartluiiopean^ or Keajxililan 
repitblk. 

17. The king of Sardinia, and the grand duke of Tuscany were 
also made to pay dear fur the renewal of hostilities, both being de- 
prived of their dominions, as allies of the Neapoiitans. and com- 
pelled to abandon their capitals. The aged pope, who had indeed, 
by many unwise provocations, irritated the French, a refugee in 
the Tuscan territories, unwilling to accompany the deposed princes 
in their retreat from Florence, and too confidently relying on the 
reverence that would be paid to his years and station, was actually 
arrested m his monastic retirement, and conveyed to Valence, in 
Dauphiny, a prisoner,- where he died broken hearted, Augiist 29» 
1.799. On the establishment of the consular government, his body 
was honourably interred, and a monument erected over him. 

18. But the directory, in the midst of these arbitrary seizures of 
states and kingdom;", acted with too little foresight, as to the effecta 
ot the Ibrmidable confederacy of Russia and Austria. The French 
armies were widely separated, and many of the most successful 
generals, through a pernicious jealousy, disgraced and removed 
from their command. This disheartened the soldiers; and reverses 
were preparing lor them, both in Germany and Italy. The Hussmn 
army, under Sou varolii entered the latter country early in the spring 
of the year 1,799, and on the 18th of April was at Veronji. The 
character and manners of this northern general, made a great im- 
pression bcth upon the aljied armies, and upon the inhabifcints of the 
countries he invaded 1'hc French, under the celebrated Moreaii, 



34i MODERN HISTORY. 

were obliged to fall back, leaving lae Milanese exposed to the cojoor 
bi«ed torces. After various actions, Milan was invested ; and, alter 
a nineteen days* siege, taken May '2-i. Turin, Alessandria, Mantua, 
and rorlona, were reduced in the months ot' June and July ; and 
in most of these places, as ivtdl as in other parts of Itidy, Tuscany, 
Naples, and Rome, great indi^natiMi v.as manitested against the 
French, oi" whose tyranny they had all Uisted, and of wliose I'riend- 
ship they were alreaiiy become weary. In a short time the French 
retained, of all their conquests in those parts, only Genai and Savoy, 
li). While these thi.igs were going on, the councils at Paris be- 
gan to <ljstru>t tlie government of the directors, and to ask why 
buojKiparte was at such a distance. Inquiries ot' this kind were 
often put to his brother Lucien, who had a seat in the council ot^ 
live hundred. A party was formctl against the most obnoxious of 
the directors, and three found it necessiiry to retire. Another revo- 
lution in the g«»vernment was evidently preparing. Buonaparte's 
absence and otyeci seemed equally mysterious. It was supposed 
that he meant lu open the old channel of trade between the tlast 
ladies and the Mediterranean. After the dcsti-uction of his fteet, 
as though banished from !■ ranee, he appeared eager to estiiblish h 
colony in Egypt, which, perhaps, was originally in his view, in 
carrying thither all that the arts and sciences of £urope could con- 
tribute of utihty or beauty. Ail his works were superintended by 
persons of known celebrity for talent and knowledge o( every de- 
scription ; but he was turned from this object by the jealousy ot 
the Turks, who, after the battle of Aboukir, (or of the Nile, as it 
is generally called in England,) were ready enough to join the 
English in attacking the French, condned, as it v/ere, within their 
territories. Buonaparte, to be beforehand with them, marched into 
Syria, where the pacha of Acre, a mtm of most ferocious character, 
commanded. He succeeded in taking many Ibrtresses, and for 
three months maintained a war in the very heart of the country, 
but his artillery having been intercepted by the English, who had 
also been admitted into Acre, his attempts upon the latter place 
were frustrated, and, being threatened o[i all sides, he resolved to 
return to Egypt; there he received letters to inlbrm him of the 
reverses in Italy, and the disordei-s at Paris, ami to pre-'s his return ; 
but the Turks liad landed at Aboukir, and taken possession of the 
fort, and it Wiis judged necessary for his lame, that he should not 
quit Egypt without l>eating them. He hastened to attack theini, 
and siKceeded; but not without many severe- condicts, and an eight 
days^ siege of the fortress of Aboukir. Soon after this success, be 
embarked clandestinely for France, leaving the army under the con> 
D)and of general Kleber, (who comi)lHined greatly of oeing so duped 
and abandoned,) arul in a very e.xtraordinary manner escaped all the 
English ships cruising in Ijje Mediterranean. 

io. Buonaparte arrived just in time to take advantage of the 
distracted state of the government. The legislature was a prey to 
faction ; the directoi-s divided in opinion , the jacobins aiul aruirciiists 
extremely troublesome, and nut unUkely to recover their sway; 
while many departments were in a state of insurrection and civil 
war. Sieyes, the most wise and politic of all that had yet been m 
the directory, foresaw the necessity of a change, and wanted only 
some military genius to sunuort his measures, and to whom he 
could conhde his designs. Ihree other important characters ap> 
^ared to rest tlieir iiopes on the interference of Buonaparte; 



MODERN HISTORY. S45 

Fouche, minister of police ; Cambaceres, minister of justice ; and 
the ex-minister for foieign affairs, Talleyrand Perigord. 

21. Within a month after the arrival of Buonaparte, a proposal 
%vas made in the council of ancients, to remove the legislative bod- 
ies to St. Cloud, and to confer on Buonaparte the command of the 
troops at Paris. At the moment the decree was passed, Buonaparte, 
accompanied by many of the generals who had distinguished them- 
selves under him, appeared at the bar, denouncing threats ngainst all 
who should traverse the decree just passed. The council of live 
hundred, taken by surprise, made some show of resistance ; and Buo- 
naparte appearing amongst them, gave such otfence, that he was in 
danger of assassination, amidst the cries of "Down with the tyrant 1" 
"No dictator!" His brother Lucien, at that time president, was 
loudly called upon to pronounce a decree of outlawry against him, 
which he evaded by throwing aside his othcial dress, and renouncing 
Jiis seat in the assembly ; after which, Buonaparte, in some alarm, 
having joined his troops, the meeting was dissolved, and violently dis- 
persed by the soldiery. It was allowed however to assemble agjiin 
under the former presidency, the Jacobinical members being excl uded, 
when a new order of things, approved by the council of elders, was 
brought forward, decreed, and proclaimed. The directory was abol- 
ished, and three new chief magistrates appointed under the name ol 
consuls, while committees were formed to prepare a new constitu- 
tion. Eighty persons were to compose a senate, one hundred a 
tribunate, and three hundred a legislative body. 

22. The time seemed now to be a/rived when the excesses of the 
revolutionary movement had prepared men's minds tor a transition 
from a state of anarchy to one ot despotism. Popular liberty had 
fallen into disrepute, Iran the violences of the jacobins; and a 
strong executive government seemed indispensably necessary to re- 
store things to any degree of order and consistency. Though the 
.five directors appeared to be exchanged for three consuls, there 
,.was, in the Inst instance, no correspondent division of power and 

authority. To the first consul were assigned functions and pre- 
rogatives exceedingly distinct from those of his colleagues. "Unity 
of thought and action was declared to be a fundamental quality in 
the executive power."' So far tliey were evidently going back to 
the first and best principles of monarchy. Hitherto, however, an 
elective and limited consulate was all that was contemplated. Gen- 
eral Buonaparte w;is appointed first consul, Cambaceres the second, 
and Le Brun the third ; the first two for ten, the last for only five 
years; Buonaparte, to say the least, having all the power of a king, 
though not the name, i^ssigned to him. — a power approaching too 
near to absolute and uncontrollable despotism. 

23. In the first discharge of his new functions, however, he was 
carelul to display a spirit of moderation, forbearance, and conciliation. 
in many popular acts at home, and overtures of peace to England. 
The latter were without effect, and a large subsidy being granted by 
the British parliament, to enable the emperor to continue the war 
no time was lost by the French in endeavouring to recover their 
footing in Italy. In" the month of May, 1,800, the first consul left 
Paris, to take 'the command of the army in those parts; and after a 
most surprising passage through the mountainous parts of Switzer- 
land, and the capture of the town of Costa, with the celebrated Ibrt 
of Bard, succeeded so far as to be able to enter Milan once more in 
triumph, the Austiians retiring before him, little expecting that he 

44 



Jgl$ MODERN HISTORY. 

rouKl find a way into Lombardy b^ the road he had chosen. The 
Russian army had been withdrawn in disgust, after the proceediiies io 
Switzerland, which had greatly offended the czjir. Previousfy to 
the entrance of the tirst consul into Milan, the French, under Masse 
na, had been compelled to evacuate Genoa : but the Austrians were 
doomed to sufler a reverse ; and though in the famous battle ol 
Marengo, which took place on the 14th of June, they fought with 
the most desjHirate courage, and sustained an action of lourteen 
hours *vith great heroism, and the fairest prospects of success, the 
«nemy received reinforcements al so critical a moment as to enable 
them to obtain a complete victory, which was soon followed by a sus- 
pension of hostilities, solicited by the Austrian general. 

24. Negotiations (or peace were entered into at Paris, and the 
'preliminaries were signed; but, through the remonstrances of the 
' English government, (as it is supposed.) the emperor refused his 

ratitication, and the war was continued, both in Germany and Ital^ 
tilt the 25th of December, 1,800, when another suspension of hoslri- 
ities being agreed to, at Steyen, a town in Upper Atistria. soon led 
to the treaty o( LAuieville^ between the French republic and tne empire^ 
signed February 9, 1801 ; by which the Rhine was made the boun- 
dary of the French republic, leaving the several princes dispossessed, 
in part or in wliole, ot their territories on the left side of the river, 
to be indemnihed in the bosom of the empire ; the Adige, in the 
same manner, being tixed to be the boundary ^.>etween the Austrian 
territories in Italy and the Cisalpine republic. The Grand duke of 
Tuscany renounced his dukedom in favour of the intant duke of 
Parnai. created king of Etruria ; and the independence o{ the Bata 
vian, Helvetic, and Cisalpine republics, was recognised and guaran- 
tied by both parties. 

25. The English government had refused to enter into a naval 
armistice, though in danger of being deserted by the emperors of 

J Germany and Russia, and had declined every offer of peace upon 
^9uch ternw, while Malta and Eg;^pt continued in the hands of France. 
But after the re-capture of the former, and the defeat of the French 
'under Menou, at Alexandria, in September, 1,801. both parties seem- 
ed more disposed than before to enter into negotiation, with serious 
views of bringing things to an accommodation. On March 27th, 
1,802, a definitive treaty was signed at .Amiens, more favourable Jo 
France that to England, though nothing could exceed the joy ex- 
pressed in the latter country, on the terminaiion of hostilities wilo 
the French republic. It was soon found to be no better than a truce 
of very short duration. 

26. The power of the French republic at this moment was enor- 
mously great, in addition to the former possessions of France, it 
had gained the Netherlands, and a considerable portion ol* Germany, 
Geneva, Piedmont, and iSavoy had been incorporated • with it ; Hoi 
land and Switzerland were rendered effectually dependent upon it 
The Cisalpine republic, including the Milanese, the duchies of Mo- 
denju Mantua, and Panna, and part of the Venetian and Roman ter^ 
ritories. was placed under the presidency of the tirst consul, for a 
tenn of^ ten years. Genoa, or the Ligurian republic, had been re- 
covered by the treaty of Luneville ; Spain was entirely at the com- 
mand of f ranee, as well as Tuscany, under its new possessor, the 
vassal king of Etruria. It had recovered also iL« West Indian settle* 
ments, and acquired a considerable footing in South America. 



IHODERN HISTORY. ' 847 

SECTION XVI. 

FRANCE, FROM THE PEACE OF AMIENS TO THE TREATIT 

OF TILSIT, 1,807. 

1. It has already been observed, that the first steps of the con- 
sulate were of a conciliatory nature. I'^ndeavours were made to 
pacify the rebellious departments; the law of hostage, which had 
been in its operation exlremelv vexatious, w;is repealed; and the 
list of emigrants closed. On the fii-st change of the goveminenu 
measures were taken to repress >I)e violence c{ the jacobins, ana 
awe the factious ; but the sentences passed on the most obnoxious 
were afterwards mitigated. 

2. Soon after the conclusion of the peace of Amiens, the first 
consul gave great satisfaction to the bulk of the r'ation, by restoring 
the catholic religion. On Easter-day, 1,802, the peace was ratitied 
in the metiopoliUm church, with all the sanctions of the aiicient 
relidouji forms, and a large attendance of new prelates. The basis 
of the convention with the pope had been settled and arranged in 
the preceding year, upon the tbllowing principles: — That a new 
division of the French dioceses should be made, suited to the re- 
publican division of the country ; and that the tirst consul should 
nominate the new archbishops and bishops, leaving it to the pope, 
as a matter of course, to confer canonical institutions. The bishops 
to appoint the p\rish priests, subject to the approbation of goveru* 
v.cnt. The pope to procure the ancient bisiiops to resign, and to 
engage not to disturb the alienated property of the church. Ko 
bull, rescript, kc.^ from the court of Rome, no decrees of synods, or 
general councils, to be received, or promulgated, without the consent 
of government. No national or diocesan meeting to take place with- 
out the same authority ; or any nuncio, legate, or vicar, to be allow- 
ed to exercise his functions, 

3. Such were sonie of the principal articles of the concordntum 
of 1,801. The pope seemed to be glad to make any conctssiong 
that might recover France from the depths of iutidelity ; while the 
articles themselves plainly show that the tirst consul, m restoring 
Catholicism, had no intention to subject the nation, as heretofore, to the 
dominion of the Roman see, even in spiritual matters. A still strong- 
er proofi however, of which, appears in the liberty afibnled, at the 
same time, to the Lutherans anJ Calvinists, who were placed neaily 
iipon the same fooling with the catholics: and we.e even allowed lo 
.have three seminaries of educi\tion ; two in tJie eastern parts ol France, 
for the Lutherans, and one at Geneva, for the Calvinists. Frovision 
tvas also made in the new concordr.tum for the supposed case oi a 
protestant being chosen chief magistrate of the republic. 

4. On the second of August, 1,802, by an extraordinary expres- 
sion of the public will, the consulate, the term of which, in the case 
of Buonaparte and Cambaceres, Iiatl been limited to ten years, was 
conferred on the former fur life. The onginal proposaf had Iteen 
only to extend the term; but the people in the different cnmmnna 
being called upon to give their opinion, voted, almost unanimous- 
ly, for its being contmued lo the fii-st consul for life, which wa» 
readily sanctioned by tlie senate. 



548 MODERN HISTOKY, 

6. This appointment was soon Ibllowed l)y .1 new form of coi> 
stitutiun, calculated to throw greater power into the hands of the 
first magistrate, who was permitted, not only to nominate his col 
leagues, but to make war, Ibrm alliances, conclude peace, pardon 
criminals, and virtually to choose the members of the legislative 
body, by means of the senate, which was almost entirely uniler 
his intluence. He was careful, at the same time, to put the govern- 
ments of the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics, and other newly ac- 
quired states, upon a similar footing, reserving to himself, in all cases, 
tne supreme power as tirst magistrate. All tnese steps were so art- 
fully taken, as to appear to be the regular result of popular choice 
and deliberation. Liberty, equality of civil rights, and national 
representation, were professed to be the objects in view ; but care 
w;is taken to render each dependent on the domineering influence 
and directions of the tir?t consul. It was at this period that the Cisal- 
pine was converted into the Iialian republic. 

6. Switzerland was not so easily to be brought under the French 
yoke, though its struggles lor liberty and independence were (inally 
unavailing. Many ol the cantons displayed an almost invincible at- 
tachment to their ancient constitution, and resisted, in every way 
they could, the menaced invasion of their rights ami privileges; but 
the more they were divided amongst themselves, which unhappily 
proved to be the case to a high degree, the greater opportunity was 
afforded. to the despotic ruler of t ranee to interpose his othces to 
restore peace, nominally as a mediator, but really and efiectually to 
the subjugation of theco-.mtry, which, when reduced, was in mockery 
declared to be free and independent. Remonstrances on the part of 
the English court, are supposed to have had some edect in mitigating 
the rigour of his exactions, and rendering the new constitution pre- 
pared for them, more congenial to their feelings than might other- 
vfise have been the case. 

7. In 1,802, by the death of the duke of Parma, and in virtue of 
a previous convention with Spain, the tirst consul, in the name of the 
French republic, took possession of the duchies of Parma, Placentia, 
and Guastalla, and incorporated them soon after with France. The 
only son of the deceased duke of Parma, by a Spanish princess, 
having assigned to him by the treaty of Euneville, the Tuscsm states, 
under the title of the kinj^dom of Etruria. 

8. Though, by the above treaty, the indemnification of those 
princes, whose rights and property had sufle red from the progress 
of the t'rench, seemed to be left chielly to the decision of the diet 
of the empire, Buonaparte formd means to interfere to his own ad- 
vantage, favouring those most from whom he had the mOst to fear, or 

* who were most lilioly to be subservient to his views. For the duke 
'^of Wirtemburgh, the landgrave of Messe Cassel, and the margrave 
of Baden, he secured the electoral dignity ; while the indemnifica- 
tions were provideil tor by (he secularization of many eccleeiasticiil 
states on the right side of the Rhine. 

9. It was soon found that, by the peace of Amiens, little cordialily 
was produced between the two nations. The first consul professed 
to be bound by that treaty only to particular specified points, and 
appeared through his agents, secret or avowed, to be preparing for 
a renewal of hostilities. He had some reason, it must l>e confessed, 
to be oflended with the liberties taken with him in some of the pub- 
lic journals of England at this time ; and though it can scarcely be 
supposed that peace could he his object, yet he appears to hare 



MODfc:RJN HISTORY. - 349 

been prOToked and irritated by the distrust of the British govern- 
iiient and nation. So early as the month of May, l,8t)3, the two 
countries may be said to have been again in a state of war with 
each other. 

iO. On this quick renewal of hostilities, the first consul had re- 
coui-se to a most extraordinary measure, in detaining all the Eng- 
lish who happened to have come over to France during the peace, 
for business or pleasure, as a sort of hostages for the future conduct 
of their country. He also projected a powerful invasion of Eng- 
land, which had on!y the effect of rousing the latter country to such 
vigorous and patriotic exertions as entirely to frustrate all his 
achemes and intentions. A levy en inmse was proposed, subject 
to the regulations of parliament. As another act of vengeance 
against England, an army was sent to occupy Hanover, though the 
king, in his electoral capacity, had determined to remain neuter. 

1 1. The first consul had now, for some time, exercised not only 
kingly, but almost despotic power, and artfully placed himself in 
such a situation of control and influence, with regard to all the 
public bodies, assemblies, and councils of the nation, that it is not 
to be wondered tliat he should have aspired to, and obtained, the 
highest dignities it is in the power of a nation to besto v ; though, 
had he acted with less prudence and policy, nothing certainly could 
have occurred more surprising than the undisturbed elevation of a 
Corsican adventurer to one of the most splendid thrones of Europe. 
By an organic senatus consultum of the 18th of May 1,804, Buona- 
parte was declared Emperor of the French. The title to be he- 
reditary, as to his immediate descendants, and, in case of failure of 
male issue, granting him a further power to adopt the children, or 
grand-children, of his brothers. All laws were to originate with 
the sovereign, or to be proposed in his name ; and due care was 
taken, by rendering the legislative body and tribunate dependent on 
the senate, in the appointment of which the emperor was to have 
almost the whole power, to prevent the passing of any laws contrary 
to his will. The imperial title thus conferred on him, was acknowl- 
edged by most of the states of Europe, though not by Ei gland. 

12. This assumption of the imperial title, by Napoleon Buona- 
parte, and the subsequent confederation of the Rhine, led the em- 
peror of Germany, Francis 11., to abdicate the Germanic empire, and 
to change his title to that of emperor of Austria, thereby securing 
the same hereditary honour to tne house of Hapsburg, and at the 
same time, not entirely resigning his political relationship to the 
states and empire of Germany. 

13. On the 2d of December, 1,804, Napoleon was crowned, in 
the church of Notre Dame, with extraordinary pomp and splendour, 
having previously invited, or rather compelled the humbled pontift 
of Rome to be present at the ceremony, and to anoint him. His 
empress, Josephine Beauharnois, to whom he had been some time 
married, was crowned at the same time. 

14. One of the first .acts of the new emperor was to change the 
name of the Code civil des Francais^ introduced under the consular 

fovernment, for that of the Code Aapoleon. His two brothers, 
oseph and Lewis, and his two colleagues, Le Brun and Cambaccies, 
were declared grand elector^ cov^table^ arch-chancellor,, am! arcli-trcas- 
urer^ of the empire ; and the dignity of mareschal was corderred on 
the most distinguished of his generals. But, in order to give more 
sliibiiity to hia throne, or intimidate his enemies, "jnder pretence of a 



nis 



SfiO MODERN HISTORY. 

royalut conspiracy, he had many eminent persons bronght to trltl; 
•moni others', the two celebrated generals, Fichegru and Moreaa 
The lormer was, scon atier, found dead in liis prison, nnder circun> 
Btances implying littie less than a most deliberate munler; the latter, 
nu equal object of drea<l and alarm, and whose death was probably 
conteiiiplated, was permittee], however, to retire to North America. 
It is scarcely credible, though it certainly appears upon record, that 
the French minister at Berlin was directed to move the king of Prus- 
sia to deliver up the luitbrtunate Lewis XVIii., then at Warsaw, and 
to send him to France, to answer for the ccncem he waa stated to 
have had in this conspiracy. 

15. Having ifl>tained the imperial dignity in France, Napoleon ap- 
ared dissatis-tied to be only president of a republic with regard to 

is Cisalpine conquests. Means were foiind to induce the constituted 
authorities of the new Italian republic to offer to him the cror.n of 
italv, an offer he was quite prepared to accept, as though the whole 
of tTiat devoted country had been already suUlued. On the 26th of 
May, 1,805, he repaired to Milan, and taking the famous iron crown 
from the altar of the cathedral, placed it on his own head, denouncing 
vengeance against all who should dispute his right to it. Having 
done this, he appointed the son of the empress Josephine. Beauhar- 
nois, to be his viceroy, and agreed, that upon his death the two 
crowns should be separated. Soon alter he seized upon Genoa, dis- 
possessed the doge and senators of their poiver, and decreed, that 
henceforth the territories of the Ligurian republic, as it was called, 
should be annexed to France. These rapacious proceedings at length 
provoked a fresh confederacy against nim, so that before the year 
was passed, not only England, but Russia, Prussia, and Austria, were 
m arms to resist his encroachments. Sweden had joined the confed- 
eracy, but retired in disgust. Such, however, was the dread of the 
power or vengeance of France, that several of tlie German princes, 
particularly the elector of Bavaria, sided with Napoleon, in opposi- 
tion to the emperor Francis. 

16. By sea, the power of the French and Spaniards combined failed 
of gaining any advantages over the allies. On the 21st of October, 
l,8Ui, in the battle of Trafalgar, a complete victory was obtained by 
the British fleet, under lord Nelson, who perished in the action. 
There was a disparity in the number of ships, in favour of the French 
and Spaniards, ol thirty-three to twenty-seven. On the continent, 
the course of the war was very different. The king of Prussia was 
dilatory in his proceedings, and even treacherous. Sweden had 
withdrawn. The emperor Francis employed an inefficient com- 
mander, if not worse, (general Mack,) and the Russians, who were 
more in earnest, were baffled by the unsteady proceedings of their 
allies, and distressed by want of provisions, sickness, and fatigue, 
After the battle of Austerlitz, in December, the emperor of Austria, 
whose capital had been in the hands of the enemy, solicited peace, 
submitting tosiirrender whut h;ul been allotted to him of the Venetian 
territories, together with the principalities of Lucca and Piombino ; 
and to acknowledge Buonaparte as King of Italy. Bavaria acquired 
a part of the Brisgaw and Tyrol. Such were the terms of the peace 
ol Presburgh, October, I,0U4. 

17. The succession of «iome of the German states from (he empe- 
ror of Aaslria, had, in the mean time, produced changes thai require 
to be noticed. The electors of Bavaria and Wirtemburgh were 
elevated to th*» rank of kings of their respective countries ; aod 



MODERN HISTORY. 351 

Eugene Beauharnois, viceroy of Italy, son of the French empress 
Josephine, obtained in marriage the daughter of the new king of 
Bavaria, though she had been previously betrothed to the prince of 
Baden. 

1 8. The court of Naples, during this war, through the injadi« 
clous, but natural, resentment of the queen, sister to the late un- 
fortunate queen of France, had the misfortune to incur the high dis- 
pleasure of Napoleon, bv admitting a British and Russian army to 
land on its territories. The French despot lost no time in pronounc- 
ing sentence on the rebellious neutral. He quickly mad^ it known 
that the Bourbon dynasty had ceased to reign at Naples. The royal 
family was compelled to retire to Palermo, and in a short time after, 
Napoleon conferred the Neapolitan crown on his brother Joseph, 
much to the discontent, however, of the people, who for some time 
gave him great disturbance. Joseph was proclaimed king, March 
30, l,80(i. 

19. The emperor of the French had another kingdom in view for 
his brother Lewis, constable of France. Holland had submitted to 
several forms of government, without obtaining that order and tran- 
quillity which was supposed to be in the contemplation of those 
who directed her affairs. It was suggested that a monarchy would 
remedy all the disorders to which she was exposed ; and it was hint- 
ed, too plainly to be misunderstood, that it would be agreeable to the 
emperor, if the leading persons of the state, not the community at 
large, would give countennnce to such a change. So great was the 
infatuation, or timidity, of the persons to whom these suggestions 
were made, that tbey did not scruple to solicit the appointment of 
the emperor's brother, who declared nimself king of Holland ac- 
cordingly, June 5, 1,806. To the credit of the new king, it should 
bo observed, that he soon fell into disgrace with his imperial brother, 
by bemg too lenient to his subjects, and by ende ivouring to mitigate 
the rigour of the French decrees. 

20. In the year 1,806, Napoleon succeeded in subverting the 
constitution of the German empire, by detaching many of the prin- 
cipal states, chiefly of the western and southern divisions of Ger- 
many, to form what was denominated " The Confederation of the 
lihine,'''' by which the several princes consented to renounce the 
laws of the empire, to contract a federative alli;«ice with the 
French emperor, and to supply him with troops whenever he should 
demand them. In consequence of this gross defection of so many 
members, the emperor, by a solemn edict, abdicated the govern- 
ment of the Gennanic empire, absolving all the electors, princes, 
and states, from the obligations by which they stood bound to him, 
as their legitimate head ; thereby terminating, as it were, a gov- 
ernment which had subsisted for a thousand years, and been un- 
interruptedly contided to the house of Hapsburgh from the year 
1,438. 

21. It seemed as if every thing, at this time, was doomed to fall 
before the power of the Corsican. Prussia, which had hitherto 
acted a most unwise part, in neglecting to add its weight to the 
confederacy of 1,804, and even submitting to be cajoled into an 
alliance with France, became, in the course of the year 1,806, sen 
ssible of her error; but to no good purpose. She now precipitately 
entered into a war for which she was ill-prepared; with no sup> 
port but that of Saxony ; and having put her army under the com- 
mand of the duke of Brunswick, sustanued two signal and almost 



85a MODERN HISTORY. 

fatal defeats, at Jena and Averstadt^ laying tlie capital open to the 
advance ol" the enemy, wlio entered it in Iriuniph ; and, iieing too 
well received and entertained by the people, diii not fail, ais in all 
other cases, to take due advantage ol iheir willing subn^ission. In 
the course of the contest, the Saxons were detached from Pr\js.«ia, 
and the dwke of Brunswick being wounded, and obliged to quit his 
dominions on the advance of the trench, died miserably at Altona: 
Napoleon, in resentment, meaniy refusing to sutler his body to be 
buried amongst his anceslore. 

22. It was during his sojournment in Berlin, November, 1,8(>6, 
that the French emperor dictated that extraordinary deciee, de- 
claring lue British islands to be in a state of blockade, though he 
had no naval force capable of interrupting their commerce in any 
part of the world. By this decree, the whole trade of Britain was 
proscribed; no intercourse of any sort was allo>»ved to take place; 
all British subiecls on the continent were threatened with arrest and 
contiscation ot^ property, and every port shut a<rainst English ves- 
sels, in I'russia, J>enmark, the Hanse towns, Holland, Tlanders, 
France, Spain, Italy, &.c. 

23. The progress of the French, in the territories of the king of 
Prussia, occasioned fresh alarm to the emperor of Russia, and to 
the British government, and procured for Frederick that assistance 
which his I'ormer supinenoss and intrusion on the Hanoverian states 
might very reasonably have rendered hopelej?i. The king of Swe- 
den w;i9 also subsidized by Englar.d, to senn an army into Pome- 
rania ; but all the eflori^ ot the allies were insulhcient to stop the 
career of the French. The Russians fought many severe battles, 
at Eylau, Friedland, &,c., but were unable to prevent the French 
getting possession of Dantzic and Konigsberg ; losses so severely 
lelt by the king of Prussia, as to compel him to conclude a separate 
peace, as a conquered ^nemy ; while Napoleon, with consummate art, 
not only peisuaded Alexantler to abnndon the king of Prussia to his 
fate, but lo form an alliance with himself, for thr further spoliation 
of the Prussian dominions, and to concur in arrangements very 
adverse to ihe general interests of Europe, and serviceable only to 
his own family. By the treaty of Tilsit, July, 1,807, the emperor 
of Russia agreed to acknowledge the Rhenish confederacy, now 
consisting ot' many states, and Joseph and Lczcis Buonaparte, :is kings 
of Naples and Holland. He swlfered the French emperor to conier 
on his youngest brulhor, Jerome^ with the title of king of Westpha- 
lia, the Prussian provinces l)etween the Elbe and the Rhine, the 
states of Hanover, and the territories of the duke of Brunswick, and 
landgrave of Hesse Cassel, while the greater part of Prussian Poland 
was given to the elector (now king) ol Saxony, with the title of duke 
of Warsaw ; and by secret ai tides, as it has been alleged, most of 
the usurpations of ihe French, in aX narls of Europe, were sanc- 
tioned and confirmed. During the whole of the years 1,8^36 and 
1,807, the German v-tate^ w<'re undergoing continiial changes, 
through the overbearing tyranny of Napoleon. All the princes who 
joined the Rhenish conferleralion were rewarded with titles or ter- 
ritorial possessions; all who fivoured the allies, dispossessed of 
their dominions, and (U*clare<l enemies of France. To pprticularize 
all these revolutions, few of which were permanent, would exceed 
*.he limits of the present work. 

24. Among other acquisiiions resulting from the trealy ot Tilsit, 
Napoleon recovennl the lonijin islands. These islands, subsequent 



MODERN HISTOKV. 858 

to the treaty of Campo-Formio, had beeii greatly agitated and dis- 
turbed, and it seemed difficult to know what to do with them. In 
March, 1,000, however, by a convention between Russia and tl.e 
Por/e, it was settled that Corfu, Cephalouia, Zante, Ithaca, Cerigo, 
St. Mauro, and Paxo, should be formed into one state, under tne 
guarantee of the contracting parties, by the name of the Ionian 
republic. By the treaty of^ Amiens, 1,802, Napoleon engagful to 
acknowledge the Septinsular republic ; but, by the treaty of I'ilsit, 
it was restored to him again by Russia. This treaty, in short, ap- 
peared to be dictated entirely by the despot of France. Prussia, 
abandoned by her Russian ally, suffered dreadfully. The king oi 
Sweden refused to become a party to this memorable convention, 
and manifested a determination to resist, to tiie upmost, the en- 
croachments of the French ; but he had little judgment or prudence 
to direct him ; and he had not the means to contend against such an 
adversary as Buonaparte. After many ineffectual attempts to save 
Stralsund, and keep his army in Pomerania, he was at length 
compelled to retire, with the loss both of Stralsund and the isle of 
Rugen. 



SECTION XV 11. 
SPA N AND PORTUGAL FROiVI 1,788 TO 1,814. 

1. These two countries are by nature so connected, that though 
their interests are, and generally have been, very different, and 
*he people little disposed to friendly associations, yet. with regard 
to the affairs of Europe, they have very commonly been involved 
in the same troubles, and never long permitted to enjoy traoquiUity, 
ivhile the leading powers of the continent have been engaged in war. 
This has been already sufficiently manifested in the history of these 
two contiguous kingdoms, during the former part of the eighteenth 
century, but has been rendered still more conspicuous by the events 
of the subsequent years. 

2. Charles IV. of Spain, came to the crown in December, 1,788. 
when the French revolution was just beginning ; and it was not till 
some few years after, and in the midst of the rei^n of terror, that 
his kingdom became involved in the disturbances of that great catas- 
trophe. The Spaniards, in tho year 1,793, ofiended with the vio- 
lence offered to the royal family of France, had invaded the latter 
country, and taken the town of Bellgarde, liltle foreseeing the 
speedy and severe reprisals to which they were exposing them- 
selves. Early in the year 1,794, the French, under general Dugonv- 
mier, invaded Spain, and succeeded, not only in beating the Spanish 
army, but in securing the occupation of many places of importance. 
These successes were not only avaVable to the restoration of peace 
with Spain, but procured for the French, by the treaty of 1,795, the 
Spanish portion of the valuable island of St. Domingo, in the VV^esl 
Indies, and, in 1,79G, an alliance with the Spanish monarch against 
EngUind, — an alliance fatal to Spain in many respects; her fleet be- 
ing beaten by the English in battle, ofi the cape of St. X'inoent, the 
island of Trinidad taken from her, and retained by Great Britain 
at the pe;ice of Amiens, and her commerce crippled and impeded 
in all parts of the world. 

3. Though she sought, by a large subsidy to France, to be per- 

Gg2 4b 



854 MODERN HISTORY. 

mttted to remain neuter, aHer the rene\v.»l of the war in 1,803, yet 
she \va« not long allowed to be at peace. In 1,801, the Englisl). 9n»- 
picimis of her close connexion with France, seized upon some or hei 
treasure shi|)s, coming from South America, with a sudtlenness judg- 
ed hy many to be not strictly justifiable ; ami, in 1,805, war was form- 
ally ileclared against Great Britain. IJul in Inis new war she was 
ag.iin doomed to suffer misfortune, her fleet being totally beaten by 
loni Nelson, on liie 1st of October, 1,805, in the celebrated battle on 
cape Trafalgar. (See Sect. XVI., § 16.) 

4. During the year 1,806, Spain appeared disposed to break with 
France, had any misfortune befallen the latter power; but her suc- 
cesses in Prussia seem to have intimidated Spain, and to have in- 
duceii her, in 1,807, through the manceuvres of Godoy, the Spanish 
minister, who had a view to the principality of Algarves, to enter 
into -a regular treaty with Fnmce, for the partition of Portugal. 

5. Hitherto the latter country, since the elevation of Buonaparte 
to the chief' magistracy, had been suflcretl to remain neuter. 1 he 
reigtiing queen having been declared insane, the power had devolved 
to the prince of Brazil, crown prince, in 1,799, who, in virtue of !iis 
purchased neutrality, had been able to keep his commercial relations 
with England, unmolesleil by the French, till the treaty just mention 
ed between the latter power and Spain. 

(5. France was not long in availing herself of the permission she 
had obtained to march an army thiough Spain, f')r the subjugation of 
Portugal. Having made deniands on the regent of Portugal, with 
which he could not, in honour, comply, it w;»S(UH:lared that the house 
ofBraganza had ceased to reign ; and, shortly afterwards, the French 
army, under general Junot, passed the Irontiei-s. In these extremi- 
ties, instigated by the English, the royal family determined to embark 
for An.erio<i. They set sail on the 21st of November, 1,807 ; and, 
on the 30th Junot, with his armv entered Lisbon. 

7. The slate of Spain, at this period, was undoubtedly tuch 
as to encourage the most ambitious views of the French emperor. 
Nothing could exceed the weakness of the court of Madrid, or the 
contusion of the national atlairs. At the very moment of the parti- 
tion treaty, the hereditary prince, Ferdnnand, who had refused to 
marry the n)inistei''s si<ter-in-law, on the suggestion of the court, 
was arrested, imprisoned, and threatened with a criminal prosecution, 
for having secretly sought a matrimonial alliance with Buonaparte's 
family. This was followed by disturbances, and the imprisonment 
of the obnoxious minister, Godoy^ diute of Alcudia, and, since the 
convention of 1,795, generally called the '*" prince of peace."" 
Charles IV., harassed and distressed hy these tumults, was induced 
on the 19th of iMaich, 1,8U8, to resign his crown in favour of his 
son, now become Ferdinand \ II. ; but he soon afterwards revoked 
his ahjjication, as forced upon him, and extoited by the dread of 
personal violence. Nothing could be more directly calculated to 
promote the views of" Buonaparte than these divisions, wliose con- 
stant policy it was, in all cases of" premeditated conquest, to promote 
dissension, in order to be called in as an arhitrai(>r or mediator, 
which was the case in this instance. Alter Buonaparte had been 
baHled in his hopes ol' compelling the l<ing and queen to emigrate, 
through the resistance of the jM-onU.' of ^paitJ to such a nieasure, 
the whole royal family were iuvi'^il to repair to Bayonne, lo confer 
oo the stale of affairs ; an invitation the most insidious, but which 
had its eflect. On the 14th of April Buonaparte arrived there; Fep* 



MODERN HISTORY. 355 

dinand on the 20th, and on the 1st of May, Chailes IV. and hi? queen, 
after the favourite, Godoy, had been released, on fheir application to 
Bi'onauarle. 

d. 'ihe transactions at Bayonne exceeded almost every thing to 
be met with in any preceding history. The persons invited were 
exactly those whom Buonaparte would have l>een glad to have seen 
driven into his toils- in this case they were weak enough to go 
thither of their own accord. Having the two kings completely in 
his power and beyond the frontier of Spain, he compelled Charle? 
to resume his authority, on purpose that he mi^ht resign it into the 
hands of the French, proposing, on the terms ot an equivalent else- 
where, a similar act of renunciation on the part of FerdinamI; 
which the latter indignantly refusing, was at once declared to be 
excluded from all he had, and all be might have had, and even 
threatened with the loss of liberty. This so intimidated the degrad- 
ed prince, that at length he unconditionally resigned his royal digni- 
ty, tii-st into the hands of his father, and through him, into those of 
Buonaparte, who soon obtained, though in a manner the niost extra- 
ordinary, the consent of most of the principal personages of the state, 
as weil as of the constituted authorities, to the appointment of his 
brother Joseph, then king of Naples, to the vacant Spanish throne, 
and to render it hereditary in the family of the usurper. In the 
mean while, Ferdinand was sent to Valancey, and afterwards to Fon- 
tainebleau, as a prisoner, and Charles and his queen to Compiegne : 
their joint abdication of the Spanish crown was publicly announced 
at Madrid on the 20th of May, to the great disgust of the Spanish 
people in general, who soon resolved to be revenged for the horrid 
indignities tlvey were made to undergo. 

9. In the course of the very month in which all the transactions 
at Bayonrje took place, and Joseph Buonaparte entered the capiUU 
of Spain as king, the national resentment was manifested by a gen- 
eral rising, and insurrection in all the principal provhices; but it 
was tii-sl in Andalusia that any thing like an organized' government 
was formed for the conduct of the war, on the part of the patriots ; 
there, a provincial jvnia^ or council of magistrates, inhabitants, 
and constituted authorities, was formed, at SeviLe, which led to 
other conventions of the same nature, in places least molested by 
the French, and in all of these Ferdinand Vll. was proclaimed king, 
and war openly denounced against the French, accompanied with 
proclamations and manifestoes, highly creditable to the good sense- 
spirit, ardour, and patriotism of the Spanish nation, and expressed 
in terms very different from the language to which the French ty- 
rant had been accustomed. Joseph Buonaparte entered Spain on 
the 9th of July, 1,808, escorted by four thousand Italian troops, and 
followed by upwards of one hundred carriages, conveying his suite 
and the members of the junta assembled at Bayonne, to assist at his 
inauguration. He was ill received, or rather sullenly treated by the 
inhabitants, on his passage to the capital. Joseph entere<l Madrid 
on the 20th of July ; at which very lime the Spaniards obtained an 
important victory over a French army marching upon Cailiz, which 
were compelled to capitulate to the amount of fourteen tb.^iisand 
men, while the French fleet at Cadiz was seized by the vigilance 
and activity of don Thomas Morla. These successes on the pjirt 
of the Spaniards, comnelled the new king to retire from the capital 
to Burgoa, after plundering the tresisury and securing tlie crown 
leweU. 



560 MODERN HISTORY. 

10. Id the mean while, it was soon discovered that the aid of 
other powers would be wanted, in order to rrf^cne the kingdom and 
pciiirwula Trom the grasp of Napoleon. Application was accor{lin€;ly 
made to the court of London, to the Swedes, and to the Portuguese 
ind Austrians The former paid a ready and willing attention to 
the call ; and the whole British nation evinced, in an extraordinary 
manner, the utmost desire to render effectual assistance to Spain, 
whose cause seemed to be justly interesting to every friend of freedom. 

11. While these things were passing in Spain, a similar spirit 
had arisen in Portugal, against the tyranny and usurpations of the 
French ; and the arrival of a British army, in the month of August, 
under sir Arthur Wellesley, (afterwards duke of Wellington,) gave 
timely effect to these patriotic movements. The relief of Portugal 
was sooner accomplished than proved to be the case afterwards 
with Spain. On the 21st of .\ugust a decisive battle took place at 
Vimiera, between the French and combined armies of English and 
Portuguese ; in which the former were so entirely beaten as to be 
obUgcd to evacuate the country ; and which they were enabled to 
do, by a convention conchuled at Cintra, under circumstances consid- 
ered far ton favour.ible, by Europe in general, and which was re- 
sented by the people of England. 

12. The evacuation of Portugal, however, at all events, set an 
army free for the use of Spain, which, at the latter end of the 
month of October, to the amount of twenty thousand men, entered 
that coimtry, under the command of sir John Moore; the emperor 
Napoleon having quitted Paris just about the same lime, to lake 
ihe command of the French army there. Unfortunatelj. the state 
of Spain at the moment of this first attempt on the part ol England, to 
give aid to the patriots, was such as greatly to embarniss tlie British 
commander: he had been taught (or rather, the government at home 
nad been so) to expect a strenuous co-operation on the part of the 
Spaniards; in which he was exceedifigly disappoiiited. while he 
continually received advice of the augmentation of tne French 
forces, to an amount far exceeding all his calculations: nor did he 
consider even his own army so well-appointed as to enable him 
to contend, in the heart of the kingdom, whither he was directed to 
proceed, with any fair probability of success. He was evitlently 
dispirited with the prosjpect before him; and though a perfectly 
hn ve officer, felt liimselt bO ill-supported by the Spaniard?, at least, 
by those who directed the public affairs, [it not even deceived and 
lietrayed,) ami so erabanassed by want ol money and other supplies, 
as to be compelled to retire. Ihe retreat of his army, though un- 
happily disgraced by many irregularities and disordei-s amongst the 
doldiery, was conducted, in the lace of the enemy, (Buonaparte him- 
self beh»g sometimes present,) with singular courage and dexterity, 
till (hey reached Corunna, where, at hist, the tnmsports not being 
arrived, an action with tlie pursuing army took place, which 
ter.Tiinated in l;»vour of the English, though with the loss of the gal- 
lant, but unfortunate, commander, whose death was greatly lamented. 
After I his action, on the arrival of the transports, the English troops 
e.iiuarKev! without molestation, and on the 18th of January, 1,809, 
iet sail for England. 

13. fiefore sir John Moore finally determined upon retiring, he 
had learned that Buonaparte had recovered possession of the capi- 
lal, whicn, after (he departure of Joseph, the patriots had endeav- 
oured to fortify and defend ; hut it was surrendered to the enemy 



IV10J3EKiN HiSTOllV. Sbl 

.•Mirly in the month of December, 1,808, by the temporarj governor, 
Don Thomas Morla. Spain was iiir Irom being subdued at the close 
of the year 1,808, though the aspect of things was alarming, and 
the French extremely confident of success. Joseph re-entered 
Madrid, in great pomp, in January, 1,809. In the mean time. Napo- 
leon had decreed that the inquisition should be abolished, many mon- 
asteries suppressed, and the feudal privileges abrogated. 

14. After the afliiir of Corunna, the French army under general 
Soult, (duke of Dalmatia.) invaded Portugal again, and A\as able 
to get possession of Oporto ; while another army, under general 
Victor, threatened Lisbon. It was at this moment that fresh troops 
arrived from England, under the command of sir Arthur Wellesley, 
who quickly recovered Oporto, and then turning against V^ictor, 
once more relieved Portugal from the presence of the French, in 
June he entered Spain, and by the 20th of July was in a situation 
to threaten Madrid ; on the 27th and 28th, at Talavera del Reyna, 
he was attacked by the French under Joseph Buonaf;<rrte, assisted 
by four marshals ; but was able, in conjunction with the Spaniard*, 
aj'ter a very hard fought battle, to repel them with great loss. 
Though this victory was not attended with any immediate advan- 
tages, and would appear to have been rather nishly hazarded, the 
British general, for his great skill and conduct during the action, 
was raised to the peerage by the title of viscount Wellington of 
Talavera. 

15. Though a central junta had been appointed in 1,808, to give 
consistency and strength to the proceedings of the patriots, they 
*vere stiW ill-prepared either to contend against the enemy atonCv 
or conjointly witli the British. In the battle of Talavera, and after- 
wards, their movements had rather embarrassed than assisted the 
operations of the latter. It would have been well if the Spaniards, 
from the first, could have been prevailed upon to appoint lord Wel- 
lington generalissimo of all the forces acting against the French. 
The latter, however, were much harassed by a sort of desultory 
war, carried on by guerilla parties, who intercepted their supplies, 
and without attempting any regular engagement, (for which, indeed, 
they were unfit,) were continually attacking them in the way of 
ambuscade and surprise ; for which their superior knowledge of the 
country evidently gave them great advantages. 

16. It is not to be wondered that the extraordinary situation of 
Spain should occasion great embarrassment in the management of 
the war. In the place of the supreme central junta of 1,808, a 
regency had been appointed, and the cortes assembled, but without 
sunicient effect. The Spanish armies acted without system, and the 
nation at large manifested a jealousy of their English allies, which 
prevented such a co-operation as might have brought the whole under 
one command, to the evident advantage of the cause, in which they 
must have been, though with different degrees of zeal and judgment, 
equally interested. This distrust on tl.e part of the Spaniards ex- 
posed them also, it is to be feared, to treatment tar from conciliatory 
on the part of the English- The war which was renewed between 
France and Austria, in 1,809, drew the attention of Napoleon in 
some degree from Spain : but those differences being soon adjusted, 
early in the year 18 10, powerful reinforcements weie se'it from 
France to the Peninsula, to reconquer Portugal, and " drive the Eng- 
lish into the sea." What has been said of Spain is by no means ap- 
T^Ucable to Portugal : in the latter country, not only a better spirit 



558 MODtRN" HISTORY. 

was maniiestcJ, but the uriny being placed umler British command* 
ami regularly orgaiiizecl, by general lonl Beresford, was soon render 
cd capable of afionling very effeclu:'.! aid and assistance. 

17. During the whole of the years 1,810 and 1,811, the contend- 
ing armies were occupied in striving to gain advantages over each 
other, which called forth all the skill and judgment appertaining 
to the science of war. The detail, however, of the several actions 
which took place, of the investment and capture of the strung holds 
of the two portions ol the Peninsula, do not belong to such h work 
as the present, it was not till the summer of 1,812, and after the 
victory gained by lord Wellington over the French under man?hal 
Mannont. in the battle of Salamanca, that the total expulsioc of the 
French, and overthrow of the throne of Joseph, became a matter ol 
little doubt. The battle of Salamanca may be said to have opened 
the gates of Madrid once more to the patriots and allied aimy, and 
restored the Spanish crown to Ferdinand. The battle was fought on 
tlie 22d of July. On the 30th, lord Wellington entered Vailadolid. 
the enemy retiring before him; and on the 12th of August, Madrirj 
surrendered to the British arms. Joseph and hi; suite having pre- 
viously quitted it. Lord Wellington was received in the capital with 
the acclamations justly due to the liberator of Spain ; but had the 
Spaniards themselves used the exertions they might have done, 
'^Napoleon being at this time engaged in Kussia,) the Peninsula 
might probably have been sooner delivered from the French, after 
the recovery ol the capital, than proved to be the case. 

18. The latter made a stand at Burgos, which was invested by 
the English, but atler a siege of more than a month, abandoned with 
considerable loss ; the British forces being once more obliged to re 
tire as far as Ciudad Rodrigo, on the frontiers of Portugal. The 
Spaniards, however, at length appeared to be roused to a propei 
sense of their situation, and wisely confided to lord Wellington the 
termination of this protracted war. In December, 1,812, he wa.« 
appointed generalissimo, and distinguished by extraordinary powers. 

19. It seemed now to be practicable to end, by a decisive ac- 
tion, the contest for the possession of Spain ; and lord Wellington 
lost no time in seeking the opportunity. He took the field in the 
middle of the montli of May, 1,813, and on the 2 1st olJune, brought 
the enemy to action on the plains of Vittoria. Never was a vie 
tory more decisive than the one obtained at this time by the com- 
bined British, Portuguese, and Spanish armies. Joseph and his 
troops were compelled to quit the tiel«l with such extreme precipi- 
tation, as to leave behind them tifly pieces of artillery, two thousand 
carriages of different descriptions, stores^ provisions, and .-^r immenso 
booty, consisting chietly of the plunder ot Madrid, fortunatc'y rescued 
upon this occasion from the usurper, who was present, and very 
oarniwly escaped. 

20 After the battle ol Vittoria, and the fall of the strong towns 
of St. Sebastian and Pamneluna, the British, Portuguese, and Spjin 
ish troops crossed the Bidassoa, and entered France. Early in 
March^ the city of Bordeaux freely opened her gates to gcnend 
Bereslord, in the name of Lewis XV IlL, at the same time admitting 
the king''s nephew, the duke of Angouleme. On the 10th of Apri^ 
the British stormed the French entrenchments n'^ai Thoulouse. On 
the 12th, general Soult filed out of the town, under the muzzles of 
the British guns. Ou the 13tli, news arrived of the abdication ol 
Buooiparte, and the entraace oi' the alhed tOferai^Dt ioto Paris 



MODERN HISTORY. 3o» 

U B conjectured that the French commander knew of these things 
before, but in the hope of gaining some advantage over the invadei^ 
ni France, concealed if. 

21. Before the allies reached Paris, Psapoleon had released Fer- 
dinand Vn , whose return to Spain was. however, rendered veij 
-inaccepubie to many who had espoused his cause in his absence, 
particularly the members of the regency and existing cortex, wiih 
whose proceedings, in regard to the new constitution proposed for 
his acceptance, he expressed himself extremely displeased ; they 
had previously refused to acknowledge a treaty concluded by Ferdi- 
nand with Buonaparte. He threw himself also into the hands of 
those who were friends to the ancient system, which, with extreme 
bigotry, he endeavoured to re-establish in its worst forms. From 
that time to the present the nation has been kept m a state of con- 
siderable ferment and confusion. By a revolution in March, l,820i 
the cortes were restored, and the tree constitution of 1,812 pro- 
claimed and sworn tu by the king. The inquisition also was tinally 
abolished : but the effects of these last movements remain to be 
proved. 

22. The old king, Charles IV., died at Home, in 1,819. The bat- 
tie of Vittoria, which relieved Spain from the presence of the 
French armies, restored Portugal to her former independence. On 
the 2Uth of March, 1.816. the queen. Maria Isabella, die^ • ^;J *r.i9 
succeeded by ihe present king. Jolin \'I., who had be=a regent 
since 1,799, tlie seat of government being still at Kio de Janeiro, in 
Brazil. 



SECTION XVin. 

VRANXE, FROM THE PEACE OF TILSIT, TO THE ABDICATIO.N 
OF NAPOLEON 1,814. 

1. The treaty of Tilsit leit Napoleon at liberty to pursue his career 
of vengeance and usurpation in other countries. He obtained by it 
such an influence over Russia. Austria, and Prussia, as to mduce 
them to break with England, without any other re&jon ; and as soon 
as he had thus disposed of matters in those quarters, he turned h'n 
views to the Spanish peninsula, where a Bourbon dynasty still ex- 
isted. In three months after the signing of the treaty ot" Tilsit, he 
concluded the famous partition-treaty with Spain, already spoken otl, 
in virtue of which, French troops were to be allowed to pass into 
Portugal, for the sacritice of that ancient kingdom ; and afterwanU. 
no doubt, in the views and designs of the French emperor, o*' ^prti.l 
itself 

2. Of his subsequent invasion and occupation of both count n€«s, 
and of the war for several years carried on, before he coul J twj 
compelled to renounce his usurped dominion in Spain, an account 
is given in the preceding section. On the 17th of December, 1,807. 
in the s:»me spirit of resentment against Gi-eat Britain, which had 
dictated the celebrated decree of Berlin, declared the British isles 
to l>e in a state of blockade, the French emperor issued another 
decree, at .V/ticui, (in consequence of the British retaliatory orders 
of council, November 21st,) by which every ship which shouU 
submit to be visited by the English, or consent to any p^uoiarf 



560 IMUJ3i:i(.\ iiisroKY. 

exactions whatsoever, should ho liahle to coiitisca^on as a lawful 
prize; hut his vongcancc' fVIl Ijanlest upon Portugal, whose com- 
•nercial and political rolatiou'* with Kui^lanil so (.'xasperatcd hini, 
ihat, in an audience given lo the loreij^n ministei-s at 1" ontainehleau, 
je openly ileclared, that il" lh<? rej^ont of i'orlugal did not within 
two months conlurni to the continonlal system, and totally renounce 
lis connexions with l^ngland, the house of Hraganza should cease to 
teigcL Sucli was th«i haughty language of this extraordinary man, 
m the face of iMirope, alu-r the convcnlion at Tilsit ! 

3. In a few days after this denunciation of" the Portuguese dy 
nasty, the regent closed his ports against Knglish ships of all descrip- 
tions, hut not in time to stop the French armies, who pressed so 
closely upon him, that on the i29th of November, (see the preceding 
section,) he was obliged to quit his European dominions for Kio Ja- 
neiro, in the Brazils, and on the very next da3' Lisbon was occupied 
by French troops under general Junot. 

4. The short-lived kingdom of Etruria wa.s brought to an end 
about this time; and the queen-regent, late duchess of Parma, 
with the king, her son, obliged to depart for Spain, her native 
country. 

5. Ill March, 1 ,808, a decree was passed in France, ordaining the 
renewal of titles of honour, princes, dukes, counts, &«:., and cre- 
ating a new order of hereditary nobility, as essential to an heredi- 
tary monarch. About the same timoj Joseph Buonaparte was re- 
moved from Naples, and made king ol Spain ; and Joachim Murat. 
grand duke of Berg, married to the sister of Napoleon, was declarea^ 
king of Naples. 

6. The kingdoms of Naples -and Italy being thus entirely in the 
hands of Buonaparte, in order to prevent their communication from 
being intejrrupted by any hostile power, he seized upon the pope's 
temporalities, for which Pius VI. ventured to excommunicate him. 
He had the audacity to remind the pope, in thus despoihng him, 
that the kingdom of Christ was not of this world ; though the only 
reason alleged for what he had done, was, that Pius had refused to 
declare war against England ; a friendl y })ower, and one from which 
the pope declared he had never received the smallest injury, 

7. On the 9th of April, 1,809, war was renewed with Austria, 
and so rapid was the progress of the French, that after three severe 
actions at Abensberg, Eckmuhl, and Katisbon, Vienna was compelled 
to capitulate on the Pith of May. The A-istrians, afterwards, under 
the archduke Charles, gamed some advantages over Buonaparte ; 
but, before the autumii was passed, a peace was concluded, at Vien- 
na, extremely humilitating to Francis II. To France he was obliged 
to cede the Illy rian provinces; lo Bavaria, Saltzburg; to Saxony, 
the whole of West Gallicia ; ami to Russia, East Callicia; he w;is, 
moreover, compelled lo accede to the continental system against 
England, and to acknowledge Joseph Buonaparte as king of Spain. 

8. But as if these concessions were not sutlicient to mortify the 

fride of the head of the empire, and representative of the house of 
lapsburgh and Lorraine, the French emperor, to the surprise of 
Europe, demanded and obtained in marriage the daughter of Fran- 
cis 11., the archduchess Maria Louisa, having previously been, wil"h 
great form, divorced from the empress Josephine, with her own 
consent, for the express purpose of forming a connexion ot" higher 
liopes, and afl'onling a prospect of an heir to his newly acquired inv 
pcrial dominions. The marriage took place at Paris, April 2, 1,810. 



MODERN HISTORY. 361 

9. loteDt upon providing for every branch of his family, the 
grand duchy of Tuscany was revived by Napoleon, in 1,809, and 
conferred on his sister Lliza. princess of Lucca and Piomhino, 
The grand duchy of Berg, vacated by the removal of his brother- 
in-law, Joachim Murat, to the throne of Naples, was given to Louis, 
his nephew, son of the king of Holland ; and on the 17th of May 
the pope's temporalities were declared to be incorporated with the 
French dominions, and the title of king of Rome appropriated to the 
imperial prince, heir to the French empire. The situation of the 
papal territories, between the kingdoms of Italy and Naples, was 
such as in hostile hands might be made use of to intercept the com- 
iiunication between the two ; and therefore the pope, who appeared 
friendly Xo England, was of necessity to be despoiled of his doniin- 
ions, but to receive a revenue of two millions ot francs. The new 
constitutional government was to bo in full activity and force on the 
1st of January, 1,810. On the 14th of January, 1,810, the elector- 
ate of Hanover was annexed to the dominion of the emneror^s 
brother, Jerome, king of Westphalia; and on the 20lh of March, 
I.Sll, Napoleon was gratified with the birth of a son, who, accord- 
ing to the arrangements already spoken of, was immediately digni- 
6ed with the title of king of Rome. 

10. In June, 1,812, Napoleon, offended with some parts of the 
conduct of the emperor of Russia, who had begun to appreciate 
more justly the character of the artful and ambitious Coi-sican, 
once more declared war against him, having influence, besides, to 
prevail upon Prussia and Austria to join him. His advance towards 
the Russian dominions was most rapid ; but, considering the distance 
to which he was carrying his army, and the inveterate hatred and 
Ifldignalion he had excited by his bold threats against his imperial 
adfersary, his subjects, and his empire, extremely rash. His power, 
it is true, was immense, 400.000. infantry, 60,000 cavalry, and 1,200 
• ieces of artillery ; Germans, Polanders, Dutch, Swiss, Italians, 

iniards, and Portuguese, being numbered amongst his troops; 
.. -.1 nothing could exceed the anger and resentment of the Rus- 
sians. 

11. On the 9th of May the French ruler left St Cloud; on the 
24lh of June he crossed the Niemen, and on the 14th of September 
attained his grand object of entering the capital of the Muscovite 
dominions. But his reception was far from being such as he ex- 
pected, or such as he had m.et with in other capitals. The cUy was 
lii-ed by order of the governor, and by the hands of the enraged in- 
habitants; and the French had only ruins to occupy, in a latitude to 
wliich they were totally unaccustomed, and with aJl the horrors of 

Siberian winter belore them. 

12. On the 10th of October, after having solicited an armistice, 
and proposed peace, both of which were peremptorily refused, 
Buonaparte and his disappointed army began their dreary and 
perilous march back to France. Nothing could exceed the diffi- 
culties and distresses to which they were exposed, from the severi- 
ties of the weather and climate, and the attacks of the Russians, 
from Moscow to the capital of Lithuania, where they arrived on 
the ICth of December. On the 6lh, the emperor Napoleon totally 
abandoned bis harassed armv to its fate, having qnitted it at Smor- 
gonie in disguise ; destroyed t&e bridges by which he passed, regard- 
less of those he let't befiind; and traversing Poland and Germany, 
uiade the best of his way to Paris, where he arrived at midnight, 

Hh ' 4G 



36t MUDKU?! HISTOKV. 

Deccml)erl8, having lost, or rather sncriliced, upwards of 150.JOOO 
men, mcUitling prisoners', 107,500. 



13. It was naturally e.vpecletl that tlii.-» total defeat of all his 
projects in regard to Russia, together with the niiserahle condition of 
Ills annjT when it reached the contiiies ot" Franco, would have termi- 



nated his giddy career ol pride and ambition : hut in this the wrrld 
was deceived, in the IbHowing year, he eagerly resumed hostilities, 
but manifestly to great disadvantage. Though he was readily fur- 
nishe.l u.th a fresh army, amounting to 350,000 men, he had soon 
opposed to him not only Russia, hut Austria, Prussia, and Sweden, 
ftuhsiiJized hy England. Several of the contederates ol" the Rhine 
ventured to abaihlon his caase ; and it hecame very apparent that 
the aUied powere were more in earnest and more tmited now than 
on any former occasion. Mnny battles were fought in the course of 
the summer, with douhtfid success, till, at last, tlie great "" Battle of 
Nations," as it has fitly enough been called, took place at Leipzig, 
in which the French sustained so signal a defeat, as seemed evi Jently 
to prognosticate the ruin and discomtiture of the great disturber of 
Euro}>e. This celebrated battle, or succession of engagements, 
took place on the 16th, 18th, and 19th days of October. Leipzig 
was taken only two hours af'er Uuonaparte had effected his escape. 
The king of Saxony and all his court were captured by the allies; 
a French garrison of 30.000 men, besides 22,000 sick and wounded^ 
with the Freiich magazines, artillery, and stores. The emperor ot 
Russia, the king of Prussia, and crown prince of Sweilen, each at 
the head of their respective troops, made their entry into the town 
at diderent points, after the engagement of the 19th, and met in the 
§reat square, amidst the univei-sal acclamations of the people, 
ust before th.e batUe of Leipzig, the allies derived great advanUige 
from the defection of the kings of Jiavaria and Wjrtemberg, and the 
grand duke of i3aden, from the cause of France, and the consequent 
junciioa of 55,000 of the Ravariin troops; and during the action of 
\ne 18th, a party of tiie Saxons, bringing with them 'ii guns, desert- 
ed to the crown prince of Sweden, and desired to be led directly 
agamst the Freiich. So much was the aspect of things changed with 
regard to the destinies of Buonaparte, who, on his return to Paris, 
had but too much reason to declare, (as he diJ in his speech to the 
senate on the 1 Uh of November,) ''.All Lurope was with us a year 
ago, — all Lurope is now against us.*' 

14. The innnediatc consequences of the victory at Leipzig were. 
the dissolution of tiie new-erected king<lom of Westphalia, and the 
granil duchies of Berg and Frankfort. The dukes of Brunswick 
and Hesse Casscl recovered their dominions, and the prince of 
Onmge was not merely restored to his stadtholderate in liolland, 
but proi-.laimed sovereign of the Unite«l Netherlands. On the Xd ot 
December, 1,813, the allies passed the Rhine; the southern frontier 
of the Pyrenees having been invaded by the British and Portuguese 
ill October preceding. 

15. Though four great armies of the alhes were now within the 
territories of France, their work was not accomplished. The 
French generals, and Buonaparte himself, who, in a very affecting 
manner, quitted Paris on the S^5th of January, 1,814, interrupted 
the progress of the Russians. Prussians, an;J Austrians, endeavoured 
lo prevent, in every way thkjy could, their advai.cc upon the canltal; 
uut all their excrtlona proved vain, though the attainment of that 
jjreat obj«'*t wa> deferred fr»r iorae months It wr^ not tUl the 3lr. 



MODERN HISTORY. 36d 

«^ay of March, that their triumph may be said to have been ccmplet- 
ed : on that day the emperor of Russia and the king of Prussia, at 
the head of their respective armies, entered Paris in the most solemn 
and imposing manner. On the 2d of April, Buonaparte was formally 
deposed by the senate, and on the 1 1th he was permitted to abdicate, 
upon terms judged by many to be far too favourable. He was al- 
lowed to retire to Elba, (a residence of his own choice,) retaining his 
imperial titles, and having that island and its dependencies assigned to 
him as sovereign, with a revenue of two millions of francs. The duch- 
ies of Parma, Guastalla, and Placentia, were at the same time secured 
to the empress Maria Louisa, and her descendants, and provision 
made for all his other relations. Buonaparte, having previously had 
a guard appointed, set out on the 20th for the seat of his new and 
very reduced dominions, much exposed occasionally on his passage to 
popular resentment 

16. On the the entrance of the allies, they were careful in their 
manifestoes to distinguish between the French people, or nation at 
large, and the tyrant whom they had conspired to overthrow; and 
evinced the strongest disposition to bury in oblivion, with becoming 
magnanimity and forbearance, the numberless insults and injuries 
they had received at the hands of the French, while under the do- 
minion of their now prostrate foe. They took no steps to force upon 
them the exiled family, but left the settlement of their government 
and constitution entirely to the senate and provisional administration. 
The Bourbons had been proclaimed in the south, and the count 
d'Artcis appeared at Paris on the I3th of April; but the recal of 
the king was the work of the French themselves, as we shall have 
occasion to observe in a subsequent section. 



SECTION XIX. 

POLAND, FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE EIGH- 
TEENTH CENTURY TO THE TREATY OF VIENNA, 1,813. 

1. No country in Europe has suflered more from a faulty constitu- 
tion than the kingdom of Poland. No country has afforded more 
convincing proofs of the mischiefs apperttiining to an elective mon- 
archy, the constant source not only of internal commotions, cabal, 
and intrigue, but the occasion generally, upon every vacancy, of 
foreign hiterference. At no era did Poland suffer more, perhaps, 
from this combination of evils, tl in towards the commencement 
of the eighteenth century ; nor has she ever since been able to re- 
cover her independence. The arbitrary, though not unprovoked, 
proceedings of CHarles XII. of Sweden, in 1,701, when he deposed 
Augustus, and insisted upon placing Stanislaus on the throne, in despite 
of Austria and Russia, plainly showed how little power a divided 
country possesses against the encroachments of an ambitious neigh- 
bour, and how naturally the interference of one such neighbour 
exposes the invaded country to similar nieasures^ on the part of 
others; for Augustus himself had been previously forced upon the 
Poles by Russia. From the above period to the present day Poland 
has been exposed (o a continual recurrence of such events; and to 
promote the views of a combination of foreign potentates, kept in a 
state of internal disunion and distraction, constantly favourable to 
their ambitious designs. 



304 MODKKJN HLSTOKY. 

2. Augustus, elector of Saxooy, who Has depoeied in 1,704^ wmI 
c " t ronnilly to ab<licate the throne by the treaty of AH- 
1 1 I, TUG, was restored by the assisl.ince of Kuftu^i, jiitei 
i,,v w »ii». oi l^ulUi»va in I'lOJ, and reigned Tor the space of tvventy- 
tbur years, <lying in 1,733. (Sect. I.) His reign \v;l^ tar from beiog 
an happy one : he oflendetl the Poles by the intruluction of Saxoo 
lri>oj)s, and by residing too much away from them in hi» electoral 
dominions : he lived in the midst of factions and conspiracieSi, being 
conlinually at »v:ir wiiii the dissidenU or anti-catnolics^ while be totally 
failed in his endeavours to render himself absolute, or the crown he- 
reditary in his family. 

3. The war which arose upon the death of Augtistus, has been 
already noticed. Had the Poles been wise enough to remedy that 
great defect in their constitution, which rendered the crown elec- 
iive, they couM not have done better, perhaj>s, than to have made 
It hereditary in ll>€ i>erson and family of Stanislaus Lesciosky, the 
princip;il competitor of the house ol Saxony, he being a Pole by 
birth, and very amiable in his private character: but U>ey were nc 
longer their own m;L«ters; and they were divided amongst them- 
selves to such a degree as to render the interposition of some foreign 
power almost necessary to determine their choice. Upon this oc- 
casion the emperor of Germany, whose niece tlie young elector of 
Saxony had nvirried, assisted by the Kussi.ms, overcame the French 
influence which had been exerted in favour ol" Stanislaus, ai<d, by 
eflectually removing the latter, procured the election to fall on the 
son of tlie late king, Augustus 111. 

4. This king of Poland, on the death of the emperor Charles Vl^ 
1,"40, laid claim to the whole .\ustrian succession ; and not altogether 
without re;ison, had not the Pragmatic Sanction stood in his way, 
his wile being the eldest daughter of the emperor Joseph, elder 
brother of Charles VI.; the object of the Pragmatic Sanction being 
to secure the inheritance to the females, in default of male issue; 
an^ on the demise of Charles \'l., his danghler becoming his imiredi- 
ate neir and representative, it certainly appeared hard that the 
daughter of the elder brother, who had been emperor, should be so 
entirely excluded. The hope of succeeding to some part, at least, 
of the late emperor's hereditary dominions, iniluced the king of Po- 
land to enter into a confederacy with liavaria, Prussia, and France, 

against the house of Austria; but he derived no advantage fr ' - 

alhance: he al'terwards changed side?, and at the commence 

the seven years' war, as has been before shown, (Sect. VI.) ; ...^.^.. 
niost severely tor having espouse«l the case of tlie empress queen, 
and entertahiet! views against Prussia, which the wary sovereign of 
the latter countn' found tneans to delect, and cruelly to revenge. 

o. It was not hkely that a king who owed liis alection so entirely 
to the interference of t'oreign powers, should acquire iuiy thing 
hlce independence, or authority at home or abroad. During tht 
reign of Augustus HI. great feuds and animosities prevailed among 
tlK> iMagnats, while the king himself was entirely subject to the 
inMuence ot Russia; a circumstmce so resented by his su'4ects as 
to md.^ce them to avail themselves of the privilege of the LiUnuA 
l^eUi^ to dissolve all the diets he convoked, and thus leave the king- 
dom almvst %uthout any governmeni. Augustus III. died in Ihe year 
l.7o3, at a period when the Kussian sceptre had passed into hands 
well fitted 10 promote, in every way possible, (just or unjust^) its 
aggrandizement and splendour. Catherine II. if suppq^ jl^ jl^^* 



-MODERN HISTORY. seft 

had her eyes upon Poland before the demise of Augustus, and to 
hare been prepared not only to set aside the son of the latter, but to 
advaiKe to the vacant throne some creature of her own; she paid no 
attention therefore tc the solicitations of the house of Saxony, and w?9 
very shortly relieved, indeed, from all competition in thai quarter. 
by the early death of the new elector. In conjunction with Prussia 
she succeeded, but not without a spirited opposition on the part of a 
lew Polish patriots, in bestowing the crown of Poland on count Po- 
niatowski, one of her favourites, and a Pole by birth ; a man of talent, 
and amiable in his disposition, but hkely to continue, as well as hi? 
predecessor, entirely under her control. 

6. Nothing could be a greater mockery than the care which the 
czarina and the king of Prussia pretended to take of the liberties ot 
Poland, at the very moment that they were forcing upon the nation 
a king of their own choice and nomination. So far from tryuig 
to amend their faulty constitution, and eradicate the seeds of future 
animosities, they particularly entered into an agreement to prevent 
the king rendering the crown hereditary in his tamily. or becoming 
absolute ; that is, in fact, independent, or powerful ; for this was their 
great object. And when it was to be submitted to the diet to ap- 
prove their nominee, and declare count Poniatowski king, a Rus- 
sian army was sent to Warsaw, to support {he freedom of the election. 
The choice of the diet of course was soon decided to be in favour of 
the Russian favourite, who became king accordingly, September 7, 
1,764, under the name and title of Stanislaus Augustus. 

7. From this period, the three neighbouring powers, Russia, 
Prussia, and Austria, the two former, however, most particularly. 
may be said to have been interested in the internal dissensions of 
that unhappy kingdom, which afforded them plausible grounds of 
interference, and which they could therefore have no sincere incli- 
nation to alhy or adjust till they had effectually gained their own ends : 
the object of Russia probably was to maintain her own power and 
ascendancy over the w hole country ; but Prussia meditated a parti- 
tion, which might put her into possession of Polish or Western Prus- 
sia, a district of much importance in every point of view. 

8. Whatever may have been originally the distinct views of the 
SCTeral parties, it is very certain that they derived peculiar advan- 
tages from the extremely unsettled state of the country, which was 
at this time torn to pieces by the contests and disputes between the 
catholics and dissidents^ or dissenters from the established religion : 
the latter, who since the middle of the sixteenth century had ac- 
quired many privileges, were supported bv several different foreign 
powers ; those of the Greek church by Russia, and the protestants 
of all persuasions by Pnissia, Denmark, and Great Britain, all of 
whom were called upon to interpose as guarantees of the famous 
treaty of Oliva, 1,6C0. The diet, instigated by the court of Rome 
and heads of the church, judged it right to uphold the established 
faith, and Stanislaus, though his principles were more tolerant and 
liberal, appeared to take the same side, being jealous also of the too 
great power of Russia, of which he^could not fail to be continually 
reminded, not only by the open favour shown to tne dissidents bv 
Catheiiue, but by the insolent superiority assumed by her general, 
commanding in Poland, prince Repnin, and the extremely arbitrary 
and sanguinary manner in which the empress sought to oiaintain her 
preponderance. 

9. In the mean while confederacies were forming in all pa.is ^l 

Hh2 



36(J MODEliN HISTOKY. 

the kingdom lo restore, if possible, the independeDce of their 
rouiifry. (such at lenet was the object of the catholics,) or to priv 
cure foi the protesiai.ts all the rights and privileges to which Iney 
laildaim, and of soin-; of which they had been unjustly deprived. 

The latter, under prince Kadzivil, supported by Russian troops, 
rojn gelled the diet of Warsaw, in the year l,7t37, to accede lo 
their demands ; this hastened the grand confederacy of the catho- 
lics at Bar, in Podolia, in 1,768, whose object was to 'lirow off the 
Russian yoke, with the aid of Turkey, who had been induced by 
Trance to declare war against the Russians in that very y» ar, upon 

he occasion of the latter having passed their frontier in pureuiiig 
a Polish party, and committed considerable depredations. 

10. Though the confederate catholics had clearly the good of 
their country in view, yet such was the influence of Russia, that 
the king and senate were compelled by Catherine to declare war 
against the Porte, and so far lo counteract, as, much as possible, 
the elTorls that were making to accomplish their own inilependence. 
In Austria- indeed, during this stage of the business, tne confede- 
rates at Bar had a friend in Maria Theresa, who espoused the 
claims of the Saxon family, and who sent them both arms and 
money, to enable them to check, if possible, the domineering pro- 
ceed'ugs of the czjirina, of whicii indeed she had good cause to be 
jealous. But the time was apnroaching in which, notwithstanding 
the most striking and formal declarations to the contrary, Poland 
was to become a prey to her three more powerful neighbours, and 
wiien all «ilher feelings were to give way to that of duly apportion- 
ing and dividing the spoils of thai unhappy country. 

11. It seems now to be pretty generally agreed, that the plan 
ct dismembering this unlortunate kingdom originated with the king 
of Prussia, or his brother, prince H nry ; and that it was owing lo 
particular circumstances that they were able to brin)» the two othei 
oarlies so readily to acquiesce in their measures ol nartition. Had 
treilerick himselt been more rapacious, it would probably not have 
been so easily accomplisiied, but, in order to gain what he most 
coveted, for his own share, he appeared willing to allow the other 
iwo partitioning powers to acquire rather more than fell to his lot, 
U)th in extent of territory and amount of population. In admitting 
A.istria to any share at all, he made no scruple to assert that his 
/^mcipal motive was, that she should bear her part in the blame 
th it must attach to so arbitniry and rapacious an act. 

12. Though the Polish king and nation were compelled to ac- 
quiesce in these proceedings of the three powers, they did not do 
so without remonstrating in terms the most striking and dignitied, 
accompanying their remonstrances and manifestoes with an opcD 
appr-al to the several states which had guarantied the integrity of 
I'oliiod ; but all in vain. They obtained no assistance Irom foreign 
fctates, no abatement of their demands on the part of the par- 
titioning powers, and were at length obliged, by a solemn diet, to 
sanction tliis gross dismemberment of their country. In two seve- 
ral discussions of the case, however, in the senat-e, and assembly 
of Nuncios, the minority on the division was most numerous and 
respectable. In the Ibrmer, the question was carried by a major- 
ity of ttx only, in the latter by one. The motive alleged by the 
partitioning powers, for this extraordinary proceeding was, that they 
were anxious to amend the constitution, to preserve die Ubertie« 
of Poland, and to appease the disorders which had for to long a 



MODERN HISTORY. S67 

space of time disturbed the country, but they fulfilled none of these 
pretended purposes. They did nothing to amend the constitution, 
hut imposed a new one upon them, fraught with those very 
impertiBctions, of which they migiit for ever continue to t-.ike ad- 
vantage. They perpetuated the elective monarchy, abridged 
more than ever the authority of the king, and continued the nbc' 
rum veto, a sort of tribunitial privilege, exceedingly inimical to 
the peace of the country. So far from uoholding, they trampled 
upon their liberties in every way they could, and promoted the dis- 
orders they pye tended to remove, by encouraging, rather than 
checking, the licentious conduct of their soldiery. In fact, a 
greater act of atrocity, or a more bareft»ced mockery of national 
feelings, never perhaps took place, or was even attempted, than in 
the dismemberment of the kingdom of Poland. Austria and Prus- 
sia did, indeed, make an attempt to vindicate their claims to the 
countries they took possession of; but Russia scarcely judged it 
iiecessary to make any declaration to that effect. The archives of 
i^russia and Hungary were ransacked, and titles revived and in- 
si-^ted upon, which, to say the least, had been in abeyance for many 
centuries. How far this measure may justly be said to have affected 
tlie balance of power in Europe, is a distinct case. For a long series 
of years, if hot of ages, Poland had been so ill governed, or so weak, 
as lo have had little influence on that balance, though her situation 
seemed to point her out, and still appears to do so, as capable of ma- 
terially influencing or counteracting the operationsof her many pow- 
iMlul and ambitious neighbours, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Turkey 
The worst consequence, however, arising from the confederacy 
'.(gainst Poland, seems to have been the countenance tnereby given 
lo the partitioning system in general. 

13. It was in the year 1,773 that the division was finally agreed 
to, and settled, and even sanctioned by the Polish diet. Of some- 
what more than thirteen thommid square German leagues of terri- 
tory, the partitioning powers took a good third, taking at the same 
lime no measures to lessen the evils arising from the detective con- 
stitution of Poland, in the portion allotted to the natives. It must 
be acknowledged, that they bestowed great pains on the improve- 
ment of their respective shares ; but no benehts of this nature, con- 
ferred on particular parts of the country, could compensate lor the 
unfeeling depredations committed upon the whole. 

14. The tolloiving has been given as a fair representation of the 
pirts allotted to the several powers, by the delegates appointed to 
adjust the respective claims. Other accounts, indeed, are extant, 
which it would be dillicult to attempt to reconcile with the one 
we are about to give ; a very exact statement, however, may not 
be necessary. 'Ihe Russian allotment consisted of Polish Livonia, 
parts of the palatinates of VVitepsk, Polotsk, and Minsk, and the 
whole palatinate of Micislaw, containing a population of 1,500,000 
souls. The king of Prussia obtained the district called Royal, or 
Western Prussia, excepting the towns of Danlzic and Thorn, with 
a population of 8G0,000 souls. Austria gained a large territory in 
the south of Poland, comprising Red Russia, Gallicia, and parts of 
tlie palatinates of Cracow, Sandomir, Lublin, Bezk, V'olbynia, and 
Podolia, containing a population of 2,500,000 souls, and the valuable 
salt-woks of Vielitzka, which produced an annual revenue of £90,000. 
This district was annexed to the Austrian territories, under the an- 
cient appellation of the kingdoms cf Gallicia and Lodomeria. Such 



36« IVJODERN HISTORY 

were the results of what is now distiugu:3hed by the name of tbe 

FIRST partition of Poland. 

15. The 111 tie assistance Poland received to ward off the dwgrace 
and misery of this tii-st partition, the evtraordinarj apathy with 
which it seemed to be beheld by tlie otlier powers of Luiope, leit 
little hones of her regeneration, or escape from the toils into which 
§he haa fallen ; nor indeed has she ever escaped from tJiem, or 
recovered the smallest degree of independence. Aflei the rtrsl 
partition, the object she had most to dread was some accidental 
disunion of the partitioning powers, who would be sure ^o wreak 
their vengeance upon her; and an event of this very niiture seems 
to have been the cause of what has been called the sfxoxd parti- 
tion, in 1,793. Russia and Austria, in the years 1,787 and I,7o8, by 
too close an alliance, having given umbrage to the king of Prussia, 
he insisted that the constitution formed for Poland, in 1,773, wa« 
void, and offered to assist the Poles in framing a new one. which 
was completed under his auspices, May 3, 1,791. Had this consti- 
tution been able to keep its ground, Poland, so much of it at least 
as remained to the natives, might have recovered some degree erf 
credit and freedom; it was in a great measure Aie work of real 
patriot*?, enlightened and moderate reformers ; it abolished the 
bberuin re/o, and the elective monarchy, except in the case of the 
extinction of some hereditary dynasty; it rendered the person of 
tlie king inviolable, but gave him responsible ministers ; it provid- 
ed a representative senate, not much differing from the English 
house of commons. Unhappily, this good work found enemies 
amongst the ancient nobles, who did not like to give np their pre 
tensions to royalty, and who had recourse to the old and ruhious 
expedient of inviting ibreign help, always at hand to avail itself 
of the internal commotions of that devoted country. Russia was 
called in, by the confederates of Targovitz, and a renewal of losses 
and calamities ensued of cpurse. The king of Prussia, so far from 
supporting the new constitution, the diet, or the king, as he seem- 
ed absolutely bound to do, by his own acts, eagerly seized upon the 
towns of Dantzic and Thorn, ^vhich had been specially excepted 
in the last partition, joined the czarina, in her efforts against the 
patriots, under the brave Kosciusko, and linally succeeded in pro- 
vailing over a country, which, from the enthusiasm and spirit dis- 
played on this occasion in her defence, deserved a better itite. By 
the second partition, in 1,793, Russia is said to have acquired 4,000 
German square miles of territory, in V'olhynia, Lithuania, Podolia, 
and the Ukraine ; and Prussia, besides the towns of Dautzic a-nd 
Thorn, 1,000 square miles in south Prussia, v.ilh all the ilansealic 
towns. A iAiVfi and last partition soon ibllowed, in the year 1.795, 
between Russia, Prussia, and Austiia. which may be said to have 
put an end to the kingdom and republic of Poland; Stanislaus, its 



unhappy monarch, being lenioved to Russia, where he soon after 
died, February 12, l,79ii. In this hist partition, Cracow was ^iven 
to Austria, and Warsaiv to Prussia. From the i^esistance oi the 



natives, who gained greater advantages in many engagements than 
could have been expected from the nature of their force, the slaugh- 
ter accompanying Inese latter revolutions was dreadful, and on the 
part of the Russians attended with circumstimces of cruelty too 
much resembling what had taken place in 1,772. 

16. It would be ditlicult to describe the state of Poland, from 
the period of the bst jxirtiiion^ in 1,795, to the treaty of Vienna, in 



MODERN HISTORY. SW 

1,815. The injuries the natives had experienced at the hands of 
the three partitioning powers very naturally disposed them to ac- 
cept any offers from the enemies of their oppressors; and, as Buo- 
naparte had frequent opportunities of making such offers, it is not 
to De wondered that he should have obtained their assistance, and 
subjected them, more or less, to his government and control ; but 
as he was only at times in opposition to, and as often allied with 
one or other of the three powers, Russia, Austria, or Piussia, he 
was never able to propose their entire emancipation, even if he had 
desired it. Thus continually deceived and mortified, they derived 
no advantage from the aid they gave to France, if we except that ten- 
dency towards the recovery of a separate existence, (for it can 
scarcely be called more,) the creation of the grand ducl.y of War- 
saw, in 1,807, which, by the treaty of Tilsit, and with the consent 
of Buonaparte, was consigned to the king of Saxony ; the emperoi 
of Russia at the same time acquiring much of Poland from Prussia, 
In 1,812, the kingdom was declared by the diet of Warsaw to be re- 
established; and by the treaty of Vienna, in 1,815, being formally 
delivered up by the king of Saxony, it became annexed to Russia 
and was declared to be, '• irrevocably attached to it by its constitution, 
to be possessed by his majesty the emperor of all the Russias, hh 
heirs and successors in perpetuity." The part assigned to Prussia 
took the name of the grand duchy of Posen. The salt-mines ot 
Vielitzka were confirmed to the emperor of Austria, and such dis- 
trict* as had been acquired by the treaty of Vienna, in 1,809. The 
town of Cracow was declared to be for ever a free, independent, and 
strictly neutral city, under the protection of Austria, Russia, and 
Pnissia. The navigation of the rivers and canals, in all parts of an- 
cient Poland, (as it existed in the year 1,772,) was by particular 
treaties, between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, declared to be i'ree^ 
so as not to be interdicted to any inhabitant of the Polish provinces, 
belonging to either of the three powers. 



SECTION XX. 

iSREAT BRITAIN, FROM THE PEACE OF AMIENS, 1,802, TO 
THE DEATH OF GEORGE III., 1,820. 

1. Bf.fore one year had passed from the conclusion of the peace 
of Amiens, circumstances took place which too plainly indicated a 
strong probability of the renewal of hostilities, and so early as the 
month of May. 1803, letters of marque and reprisal were again is- 
sued against the French, by the Britisn government, apparently 
with the full consent of the people at large, notwithstanding the 
enthusiastic joy which had been expressed on the termination of 
the war in the vear preceding. It was upon this occasion that the 
first consul had recourse to a measure, singular in its nature, and 
which exposed many persons and families to great inconvenience. 
He forcibly detained all the English who happened to be in France-. 
not only for purposes of business, but of pleasure or curiosity ; nor, 
with very few exceptions, were any of them able lo return to their 
native country, for the long space of ten or eleven years. Prepa- 
rations also were made ibr the invasion of England, which only ex- 
cKed a stronger disposition, on the part of the latter country, to pie- 

47 



fro MODERN HISTORY. 

pare against such attempts, in a way well calculated to destroy a* 
once all the enemy"'s hopes and prospects of success, in Ireuind, 
indeed, a new couspinicy was set on loot, which w:is supposed to 
rest on some promised support from France ; but this was denied by 
the conspirators themselves, and the (ll-jturbance soon quelled, with- 
out spreading, in fact, beyond the capital. 

2. Though the king of Great Britain had declared, that, with 
reeard to his electoral states, he should remain neuter, Buonaparte 
diti not neglect such an onportunity of wounding his tiee lings, by 
the speedy occupation of Hanover, under circumstances peculiarly 
aggravating to the people. Early in the month of June, 1,8U3, the 
Hanoverian troops were made to lay down their arms, and engage 
not to serve against the French without a previous exchange. 

3. Holland was still too much under subjection to France, to be 
permitted to remain at peace; letters of marque were, therefore, 
also issued against the Batavian republic, on its refusal to agree to a 
perfect neutrality. 

4. In 1,804, a change of ministry in England brought Mr. Pitt 
again into power, at a monient when the ati'airs of the continent^ 
and the increased power of the first consul, who, in the course (>1 
the same month, assumed the imperial dignity, demanded all his 
attention. Before the conclusion of the year, the aid which Spain 
was compelled to render to the French, together with certain ap- 
pearances of hostile preparations in her ports, exposed her to an 
attack on the part of Great Britain, whicli =oon drew from her a 
declaration of war, very fatal to her intere«ts, though scarcely to 
be avoidetl, considering the circumstances in which she had been 
placed by the extraordinary proceedings and demands of the British 
goverament^ which was supposed to have violated the strict rules 
ol justice, it not of international law, by arbitrarily and prematurely 
seizing her treasure-skips^ on their passage to her ports, in an action 
perfectly unforeseen and unexpected, and in which many lives were 
lost. 

5. But if the character of the British nation or government suf 
fered in any respect from errors or mistakes in the commencement 
of the war, its naval power and credit were nighly advanced be- 
fore a year had passed, by the splendid victory obtained over the 
Spanish and French Heets combined, ofl cape Tralalgar, in Octo- 
ber, 1,805; a victory not achieved, however, without a correspon- 
dent loss, as has been before stated, in the death of the very cele- 
bnited lord Nelson, commander of the British squadron, who fell 
early in the action, and whose body, being afterwards brought to 
England, was buried with very unusual honours in the centre of 
Sl Faurs cathedral. 

6 In l,80t3 di<;d Mr. Pitt; a minister whose extraordinary' talents 
nnd integrity of life attached to him many friends and adherents, 
by whom he was ably supported through a very arduous contest, 
a contest which, though some thoughf it might have been avoided, 
others as confi<1ently regarded as entiicly just and necessary, and 
a timely securiiy against the propagation of revolutionary princi- 

Kles, more threatening and dangerous than any aggressions purely 
ostile. It is always easy to say, sucJi and such events would not 
have happened, had a different course from the one actually adopted 
been pursued; but this is at best mere matter of surmise. It is im- 
possible now to speak decisively of what might or might not have 
been the consequences of a longer O^rbcarance from war; it is ex 



MODER^ lIlbTOKY. »7i 

tremely certain that many untoward circunnstances prevented the 
accomplishment of all that Mr. Pitt had in view, and that the power 
of the French emperor, instead of being checiced, was advancing 
with rapid strides to a pitcli of uncontrollable and extended domin- 
ion, when the former was seized with tliat illness which terminated 
nis liie, in the forty-seventh year oi' his age. On his death, a new 
administration wiis formed, including his great parliamentary oppo- 
nent, Mr. Fox, who survived him for the short space of only seven 
months. It is highly creditable to the character of the British nation 
to record, that these two eminent statesmen, who had been for a long 
time so much opposed to each other, but whose abilities and sinceri- 
ty in an opposite line of politics appear to have been duly acknowl- 
edged and appreciated by all parties at the period of their deaths, 
were buried at the public expense, in Westminister Abbey, so near 
to each other, that one stone might have covered the remains oi 
both. 

7. During the short time that Mr. Fox was a member of adminis- 
tration, fresh attempts were made to terminate the war, by negotia- 
tion, but in vain. T. hough the French emperor would have agreed 
to many cessions of importance, both to Great Britain and her 
ally, the emperor of Ruj-sia, it was found impossible to detach trom 
his influence and usurped authority some of the most imoortapt 
parts of Europe, particularly Holland, Switzerland, Italy, and vjfer- 
many. 

8 The system so generally adopted by the tyrant of France, of 
converting to his own use the resources of all other countries, 
which could in any m.anner be rendered subservient to his purpose, 
led the administration which succeeded that in which Mr. Fox had 
a share, to set on foot an expedition which has been judged by 
many incapable of justification on any principles of political expe- 
diency, and which was unfortunately attended with more fatal con- 
sequences than were at first perhaps contemplated. Upon what in- 
formation the ministry proceeded did not fully appear at the time, 
but it was alleged that they had reason to know that the French ruler 
designed to occupy Holstein, and convert to the purposes of an in- 
vasion of the British dominions the Danish marine. 

9. It was determined, in order to prevent such an accession to the 
mval power of France, to obtain possession of the tleet on which the 
memy had thus fixed his view, and though it might perhaps have 
been both hoped and expected by the British government, that the 
Danes would be brought peaceably to surrender into their hands 
>br a time a fleet thus devoted to the ruin of a friendly power, yet 
he result turned out to be far otherwise. The Danes resisted the 
lemand, and though quite unable effectually to defend against tlie 
/orces opposed to them either their fleet or their capital, did not 
^apitulate till about two thousand persons had lost their lives, and 
many houses been burnt in a manner that threatened the entire tle- 
^truction of the city. The end, it is true, was accomplished, of get- 
ting into the power of the English all the Danish ships ol' war, (eigh- 
teen ships of the line and fifteen fri§ates,'i and naval stores; but it is 
• o be feared that it \vill be long before tnc irritation caused by this 
wudden and unexpected attack on a brave people, not at war with 
England, will be allayed or forgotten. 

10. In vindication of the suspicions of the British ministry, it was 
asserted that the Danish marine and arsenals were found m a state 
which left no doubt of the intrigues and agency of the Erench, ac- 



578 MODERN HISTORY. 

cording to the judgment of the officers and poamen employed in the 
expedition. 'Lne general designs of France seem, indeed, to have 
been decisively maniliested, in the measures they now openly pur- 
jued, about the same time, of appropriating to themselves the fieet 
of Foringal, and for similar purposes, but which, fortunately without 
so melancholy a catastrophe, was rescued from the grasp of the 
French ruler, by its timely removal, under the protection ol a British 
iinnament, to the ports of Brazil. The difference between the two 
cases seemed to be this; that in getting possession of th»^ latter fleet 
\re were actually assisting an ally ; in the former, we were com- 
])elling a neutral to adopt a measure judged to be unnecessary on her 
jiart, and on suspicions, the grounds of which she disavowed; but the 
slate of Europe, at that period, appears to have been such, especially 
with regard to the minor states, as to justify precautions against 
French power and French intrigue, seldom, it ever, resorted to m 
other instances : it may also l^e added, th«t Portugal unreservedly 
communicated to England the avowed designs of France ; Denmark, 
to say the least, acted witli a reserve liir Irom friendly, and resisted 
all negotiation ; the consequences to the latter, however, were cer- 
tainly deplorable. 

11. It was in the year 1,807, that the royal family of France, 
whose situation on the continent became every day more alarming 
and insecure, took refuge in England ; they fixed their residence at 
Hart well, in Buckinghamshire, his maiesty styling himself the count 
de Lisle, and modestly declining all "honours and attentions, beyond 
such as might be due to a private nobleman 

12. Ihe vmdictive measures adopted by the French govemmenl 
to ruin the trade and commerce of Great Britain, naturally drew 
from th« latter retaliatory expedients, which were more or less ap- 
proved, as affecting neutral and friendly powei-s, but which could 
scarcely have been avoided, without surrendering her maritime 
rights, and submitting to a pretence of blockade on the . part oT a 
power, whosfc ships had been liiirly driven from the sea by the 
British fleets. Orders in council were issued in the months of Janua- 
ry and November, 1,807, not only prohibiting all trade between the 
ports of France and its allies, but ullimately compelling all neutrals, 
trading to France, to stop at a British port, and pay a duty in propor- 
tion to the value of the cargo. These embarrassments to trade in 
general could not fail to excite great uneasiness in all parts of the 
world ; but the commencement of them is justly to be imputed to the 
extraordinary decree, isstied by the French ruler at Berlin, (the basis 
of the " continentid «ystem,") November, 1,80G, an account of which 
is given in Sect. XVI. : unfortunately the impossibility of satisfactorily 
exempting other states from the effect of these prohibitory and 
rej^ulating decrees, on the part of the two rival countries, involved 
England in a very unpleasant dispute with the United States of 
America. 

13. Of the part England took in the affairs of Spain and Portugal, 
from 1,808 to 1,814, an account is to be found elsewhere (Sec Sect. 
XVII.) It may be suflicient to say, that, during the whole contest, 
the emancipation of those two ancient kingdoms from the power of 
(he French seemed to be contemplated by the whole mass of British 
subjects as their own cause. The people of Great Britain and Ire- 
land, on the tirst application for assistance from Spain, appeared 
rcadv to rise in a body. They hailed the dawn of liberty on the 
comment with the most enthusiastic t'eel'ngs. The deputies from the 



MODERN HISTORY. 3% 

eiipreme junta of Seville, did not arrive in England, on fhcir mission 
to iJie British government, till the 24th of July, 1,8U8 ; but long be- 
fore that, other deputies from the principality of Asturias had been 
received in London, with the most cordial tokens of esteem and 
friendship. They were splendidly entertained by the City of Lon- 
don, the Bank, and other public bodies, as well as by individuals oi 
the highest distinction. Suoscriptions were opened in London, Liver- 
pool, Bristol, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Dublin, Cork, Waterford, and 
many other places, for supporting the cause of Spain ; and several 
military corps, militia, and volunteers, offered their services. Govern- 
ment supplied them immediately with three hundred thousand pounds * 
ill dollars, five thousand muskets, thirty thousand piker., and an im- 
mense quantity of powder and balls, with promises of more effectual 
aid, which were ultimately amply fulfilled. The spirk thus display- 
ed by the British public, on the first certain intelligence received ol 
the anti-gal lican insurrection in Spain, may be said to have continued 
unabated till, through the matchless skill and valour of the confede- 
rate armies under the duke of Wellington, the French were finally 
driven from the peninsula in 1,814, as related in our account ol 
Spain. 

14. His majesty George IlL, having, in the month of October, 
1,809, entered upon the 50th year of his reign, the event was cele- • 
brated throughout the nation in a very striking manner, by services 
of thanksgiving in all the churches and chapels, with suitable dis- 
courses, illuminations, feasts, and other testimonies of joy, but parti- 
cularly by liberal benefactions to the poor. In the month of Noven)- 
ber in the following year, his majesty, much troubled and afflicted by 
the long illness and death of his daughter the princess Amelia, had 
an alarming return ot his former complaint, which terminated in a 
second suspension of his regal functions, and from which he never so 
sufficiently recovered as to be able to transact any business of state. 
On the 20th of December, his rojal highness the prince of Wales 
was appointed regent, subject for a period to restrictions similar to 
those which had been proposed in 1,788-9. This plan was violently 
opposed, as unconstitutional and impolitic, but finally carried in Feb- 
ruary, 1,811. The bill wds completed and presented to his royal 
highness, who did not hesitate to accept the trust, though not without 
remonstrating against the limitations and restrictions imposed on him. 
Early in 1,812, however, these restrictions were to cease. Great 
changes in administration had been contemplated, and many negotia- 
tions were carried on to this effect, but without accomplishing that 
union and coalition of parties, which the regent himselt seemed to 
desire. Not. being disposed to withhold his confidence thereibre from 
those who had so long served his royal father, most of them, on the 
termination of the restrictions, were continued in their places. A 
most melancholy catastrophe, which occurred in the month of May, 
1,812, deprived the nation of the services of Mr. Percival, who was 
assassinated in the lobby of the house of commons, by a person ol 
the name of Bellingham, in revenge, as he himself stated, of a pri- 
vate injury ; a denial of justice, as he called it, on the part of govern- 
ment It seemed to be accidental that the premier happened to bo 
the individual first presented to his notice on that fatal day. 

[The paragraphs 15 and 16 of Dr. Nares' work, giving a very 

short account of the differences between the English and American 

governments in 1,812, 13, 14, and 15, are omitted. For a more par- 

licular, and we trust more impartial account of the war between 

1 i 



374 MODERN HISTORY. 

Great Britain and the United States, the reader is referred to Section 
VI. of Part Fourth, near the close of this volume.] 

17. The year 1,814, will ever be memon\ble in the English histo- 
ry, for the very extnioniiiiary intluence of foreigners of the Highest 
distinction, from the opposite shore, on the ilojviilid of Buonaparte, 
and the conclusion of a war, which had agitated the whole of Eu- 
rope. The list of visitors in^iletl to the grand civic feast given by 
the corporation of London, and all of whom were present, but a 
very few, whom illness kept away, may coiivey some idea of the 
splendid scenes that took place in ditferenl parts of the kingdom 

-in honour of these illustrious guests. It was on the 18lh of June 
that the dinner was given to the following very exalted persoQ- 
Hges: 

The Prince Regent ; the Emperor of Russia ; his sister, the Grand 
Duchess of Oldenburgh, (afterwards Queen of WmxEMBURa ;) the 
Klng of Pkussu; the lioyal Dukes of England : the Prixce Roval of 
Prussia; Prince William of Prussia, son of the king ; Prince Feeder- 
ick., nephew of the king ; Prince Henry^ brother of the king; Prince 
IVilliam, brother of the king; Prince Augiistiis^ the king's cousin ; 
the Prlncl of Orange; the Prince Roval ot \Virtemburg ; the Prlvce 
Royal of Bavaria ; the Prlvce of Oldenburg ; the Prince of Cobourg ; 
Prinxe Charles of ■Mecklenburgh ; Duke of Saxe Weimar ; Prince 
Gagarina; Prince Czeretorinke ; Prince Radzivil ; Marshal Prince 
Blucher; Prince Hardenburg; Prince xMetternich; Prince l.ichten 
stein; Prince and Princess V'olkouske; his highness the Duke ot 
Orleans. 

These illustrious foreigners were entertained, at great cost and ex- 
pense, during their stay, both by the court and public bodies: the 
prince regent accompanied them on a visit to the university of Ox 
ford, and to Portsmouth, where they had an opportunity of witness- 
ing a naval review. 

18. In May, 1,816, the heiress to the British crown, princess Char- 
otte, only child of the regent, was married to his serene highness 

Leopold George Frederic, prince of Cobourg. This marriage was 
contemplated by the nation as an object of the highest hopes ; and 
for several months the amiable and exemplary conduct of her royal 
highness cheered the people with the brightest prospects of future 
good ; but a very sudden and unexpected disappointment took place 
in the month ot'Noveml)er, 1817; the princess w;is delivered of a 
still-bom male infant, and survived her delivery only a few hours. 
Nothing could exceed the concern manifested by the pubUc on this 
n>elancholy and distressing occasion. 

Ii^ the month of November, in the following year, her majesty 
(lueen Charlotte died at Kew, at'ter a long and paint'ul illness ; and on 
the 29th of January, 182U, was followed by ner royal consort king 
George 111. His majesty died at the castle of Windsor, at a very 
advanced age, and in the sixtieth year of his reign ; greatly beloved 
hy his subjects, and universally respected for ins many amiable and 
royal virtues. 



MODERN HISTORY. 875 



SECTION XXI. 

FRANCE, FROM THE ENTRANCE OF THE ALLIES INTO PAR. 
IS, MARCH, 1,814, TO THE FINAL EVACUATION OF IT BY 
TPIE FOREIGN TROOPS, 1,818. 

1. Soon after Buonaparte departed for Elba, Louis XVIII. was 
freely recalled to the throne of his ancestors ; he had been resident in 
many places since his first ennigration, and been driven from almost 
all, by the approach of republican troops, the dread of republican 
vengeance in those who aftbrded him a refuge, and not unseidom the 
fear of poison or jissassination. England, at length, aflforded him the 
asylum he sought in vain elsewhere : there he lived secure against 
French armies, French influence, and, as far as Englishmen could 
protect him, the poisonous drug, or the sword of the assassin. When 
the way was opened for him to return to his native country, and re- 
ceive the crown and the throne, which his people now offered him, 
but which had been so insulted and ifljused, it was characteristic of 
Englishmen to rejoice at his restoration, and at the great change pre- 
pared for him, from a state of banishment, outlawry, and dependense. 
to the. recovery of one of the most brilliant thrones of Europe, and 
from which his unhappy brother had fallen in a way to excite the 
sympathy of every feeling and generous mind : his departure irom 
England to France was accompanied with the acclamations and sin 
cere gratulations of all ranks of people ; the prince regent personally 
es?corted him not only to London, but from London to Dover; and 
took leave of him, in sight of tiie French coast, m a manner the 
most affecting and impressive. White flags were exhibited on almost 
all the churches, near which he had to pass, and nothing could ex- 
ceed the joy expressed upon the overthrow of Buonaparte, and the 
restoration of the Bourbons, both in England and France. 

2. In the latter country, however, it may be naturally supposed, 
the joy could not be general, nor much of what was expressed out- 
wardly, sincere : Louis XVIli. returned to France, not as it was when 
he lett it, but revolutionized; it had undergone great changes, and a 
large proportion of the population was deeply interested in those 
ch inges ; yet many, who returned with him, were quite as deeply 
inerested, in absolutely reversing what had passed, restoring wnat 
h; J been abolished, reclaiming what had been alienated, if not even 
punishing and degrading those who had participated in or been ben 
efited by such revolutions. 

3. In the mean while the exiled emperor was not quiet; he was 
too near to the French coast to be kept in ignorance of what was 

Eassing, and of the sentiments entertained towards him, by those who 
ad participated in his many glorious and triumphant achievements, 
and who could ill brook the degradation to which they might be 
doomed by the restoration of the Bourbons ; the army, in particular 
to whom indeed he had behaved not only ill, but cruelly, in his re- 
treat from Russia and Leipzig, had yet been raised by him to such a 
pitch of glory and pre-eminence, as might reasonably account for its 
feeling both disgust and resentment, at having been compelled to sub- 
mit to the intrusion of strangers into their country anil metropolis, 
strangers, whom they had previously been able not only to defy and 
resist, but in some instances, to triumph over in their own capitals. 



S76 MODERN HISTORY. 

4. The situation of the king of Fmnce, therefore, on hw return to 
his dominions, however acceptable to the greater pact ol Europe, 
could scarcely be such as he might himself wish or desire : it was 
impossible for him to return to the ancient state of things ; and he 
mt:st have foreseen how difficult it would be to render any new corv 
^tilution agreeable or suitable to all parlies. Tiie senate, indeed, 
h;ul prepared a new constitution before his arrival; one which bore 
a cons^iderable analogy to that of England ; the legislative power be- 
ing placed in the hands of the king, the senate, and the representa- 
tives of the nation at large ; and the amount, nature, and distribution 
of the public taxes, left ex:lusively to the decision of the latter* the 
deputies were to exercise their functions lor the space of five years • 
the dignity of senator to be hereditary, and to be conS rred by the 
king, though with a limitation as to numbers, which we^e not to ex- 
ceed 200; religious freedom, and the liberty of the press, were duly 
])rovided for: this constitution was to be presented to him, to be ac- 
cepted previously to his inauguration ; but on his arrival at Paris, he 
did not choose to bind himselt, further than to promise his people 
such a constitution as they would have no reason to disapprove : l»is 
first care was, to arrange matters with the tbreign potentates who 
occupied his capital, so as to be able, as speedily as possible, to get 
rid of their numerous armies ; whose presence could not fail to be a 

ubject of uneasiness to his own armies, as well as to the people in 
eneral : to the credit of the troops themselves, under such extraor- 
inary circumstances, it should be obsen-ed, that nothing could ex- 
ceed the order and forbearance with which they conducted them- 
selves, as victors, in a capital, which, in the way of simple retribu- 
ion, stood fairly exposed to plunder, exaction, and devastation. 

5. Though it was soon settled to refer to a convention at Vienna 
the final adjustment of matters, and arrangement of peace ; ye 
'Vance was quickly made to understand, that her boundaries must be 
greatly contracted, and that the independence of most of the newly 
annexed states and territories must be freely acknowledged ; to tliese 
terms both the king and his minb^ter, prince Talleyrand, plainly saw 
the necessity of yielding, though the pride of the French was likely 
to be wounded by it. 

6. On the 4th of June, the king presented to the senate and legis- 
lative body his own new constitution, which differed in sever.d points 
from that submitted to him on his arrival ; it resened to himself the 
right of proposing laws, and the assembly could only request to be 
permitted to discuss particular points; instead of an hereditary 
senatf , peers, chosen by the king lor life were to compose that body, 
without limitation of numbei's ; the popular representative* were to 
consist of 262, noi under 40 years of age : they were to be convoked 
every year, and were to have the power of impeaching the minis- 
ters for treason or extortion ; the k ng was to appoint the judges, and 
trial by jury was to be continueil : the press was placed under a cen- 
sorship, and an order was given for closing the theatres and shops on 
the sabbath ; an order not only extremely unpopular at the time, 
rut,a« it would seem, ineffectual. In nominating the senate, stime of 
t- 'lonaparte's courtiers and marshals were included, particularly 
T. alleyrand, who became minister for foreign affairs. 

7. The king, who irom the first commencement of the revolutioF 
had displayed a disposition to favour the rights of the people, more 
than other-s of his family, or the chiefs ot the emigrants, was little 
likely of himself to deviate from the principles of the constitution, 



MODERN HISTORY. 371 

(w to disturb unnecessarily the existing state of things, In which so 
ihctny interests were involved, but he was supposed to have around 
hitn persons still bigotted to the ancient system, and anxious to re- 
cover all that they had forfeited by the course of the revohUion 
These things, together with the dissatislied state of the army, paved 
the way for the return of Buonaparte. 

8. 1 he probability of such an event seems to have been strangely 
overlooked by those who were most interested in preventing it: the 
popularity of the deposed emperor had been miscalculated. On tht 
1st of March, l,815l he landed once more on the shores of France 
with only 1,140 attendants; an attempt which many judged to be 
altogether hopeless, yet, to the utter surprise of those who thought 
so, his progress towards Paris, though not unmolested, aflbrded him 
every hour, from the defection ot the troops sent against him. 
stronger hopes of recovering his authority. On the 20th of March 
the king was persuaded to retire from Paris ; and on the evening of 
that very day Buonaparte entered it, being hailed by the populace, 
which had so lately saluted the return of the Bourbons in the same 
manner, with the loudest acclamations. 

9. He was soon convinced, however, that he was not returned to 
his ancient power, and that he, quite as much as Louis XVIII., would 
now be expected to gratify the people with a free constit'ition ; he 
speedily therefore, issued some popular decrees, establishing the 
freedom of the press; abolishing the slave-trade; and regulating the 
taxes which weighed most heavily on the people ; he also conde- 
scended to offer to them the plan of a constitution, very different from 
the system of despotism upon which he had before acted, and con- 
taining many excellent regulations- he had, however, but little time 
to spare for legislative measures. A manitcsto ol expulsion and ex- 
termination had been issued against him by the congress at Vienna, 
signed by the plenipotentiaries of Austria, France, Great Britain, 
Russia, Prussia, Sweden, Spain, and Portugal, and it was indispensably 
necessary for him to prepare for war. To this manifesto on the part 
of the allied powers, Buonaparte was not slow in dictating and present- 
ing to Europe a counter manifesto, asserting in the strongest terms 
the right of the French to adhere to the dynasty they had chosen on 
the expulsion of the Bourbons ; and declaring that the confederate 

grinces had been the tirst to violate the treaty of Fontainebleau; 
ut it is remarkable that, though Buona|)arte so peremptorily assert- 
ed, in his manifesto, the right of the French treely to choose what 
dynasty they pleased to reign over them, he had inserted in his new 
constitution an article, totally, and for ever, to exclude the Bourbon 
family from the succession to the throne. 

10. It was not till June that the several armies were prepared tc 
take the field, and between the 15th and 19th of that month, the fate 
of Europe seen;ed once more to become dependent on the decision 
of the sword. The battle of Waterloo, which took place on the 18th 
of June, and in which the British and Prussian armies, under the 
duke of Wellington and mai-shal Blucher, totally defeated the French, 
effectually put an end to all the hopes and prospects of Buonaparte! 
On the 2()th, he arrived at Paris, the tirst of his fugitive army ; and 
in a very few days after, was compelled a second time to resign lii* 
usurped dominions. On his retirement from Paris, his destination 
appeared to be a matter of extreme doubt, till on the 15th of July he 
put himself into the hands of the English by going on board the Bel- 
lerophon man of war, and surrendering himself and suit uncondition- 

i 2 48 



378 MODEllN HISTORY. 

ally to captain MaitlanJ, the commander of that ship, who sailed Jn>> 
mediately to Torhay with his prisoners, none of whom were {iCT 
inided (o land. 

1 1 On the 3d of July, not however without a stniggle on the part 
of the French anny, Paris had fonnally surrendered to the (hjke of 
Wellington and prince Blucher, who took posisessiion ol' it on the 7lh, 
and on the 8lh the king returned, greeted, as helore, with the cheer- 
ing and acclamations of the fickle multitudes who thronged the roads 
by which he had to pass. By the terms of capitulation, the French 
troops under Davoust had been made to retire beyond the Loire, 
whici) they did with sullen indignation; but on the arrival of the 
Austrians and llussians at Faris, came over to the king. It was very 
obvious, that, having Buonaparte once more in their power, the allies 
could not fail to provide all possible precautions against nis return 
into any situation which might afibid him the means of commu- 
nicating with his old adherents, and thereby resuming the station he 
had occupied lor so many yeai*s, to their extreme annoyance. The 
small, rocky, and totally detached island of St. Helena, in the Atlantic 
ocean, seemed the only secure ))lace of abode to which he could he 
assigned. It was thereibre agreed to send him thither, under the 
cu-<iO(ly of the British governinei»t, but under the eye, also, of com- 
missionei>) appointed to reside there, on the part of the Austrian, 
Russian, an(f French governments. On the 17lh of October, 1,815, 
he arrived at his destined residence. 

12-. Amongst the measures adopted by the military commanders of 
the foreign troops at Paris, none seemed more to occupy the atten- 
tion of Europe than the determination they formed to restore to the 
places which had been robbed ot them the valuable works of art. 
which the victories of the French armies had put into their posses- 
sion, not merely in the way of plunder, but upon a regular system of 
purloining every thing which could add to the splendour aiul great 
ness of their own capital, however grating to the feelings of th'^se 
from whom they ^vere taken, and however severely it must have 
added to the morlitications they had been doomed to suffer from 
weakness or defeat. The justice of such a step couhl not be dis- 
puted, though nothing was more likely to excite the resentment and 
indignation of the I'rench, in whose hands, it must be acknowledged, 
had they been properly acqiiired, they weie likely enough to be 
preserved and exhibited to the world, in a manner the n)ost condu- 
cive to the glory and immortality of the illustrious artists to whom 
they owed their origin; but, as an act of honourable restitution, in 
many instances, to persons and places whose claims would otherwise 
have been mocked and derided, the interposition of the two victori- 
ous chiefs upon this occasion may be justly admired. Prince Hfucher. 
indeed, had a direct interest in reclaiming the spoils of Berlin ana 
Potzdam, but the duke ol Wellington, while he had nothing to re- 
cover lor his own country, freely assisted those whose pretensions re- 
quired the support of such paramount aufhoiity. 

13. By the seconil general pacitication of Paris with the allies, 
November 20th, 1,815, it was agreed that an army of occui)ation, 
amounting to 15U,0UU men, and to be maintained in a great measure 
by France, should for the space of five years be put in possession of 
her frontier fortresses, while her boundary ^i)Ould be farther reduced 
than on the former occasion ; terms sulliciently mortiiying, but justi- 
fied by the turbulent and unsettled principles of the French nation. 
Though the period of five years, however, had been specificaliy 



MODERN HISTORY. 379 

agreed to, the state of things afterwards appearinjg such as to justify 
the allies in departing from the exact letter of the tieaty, in the 
gpring of the year 1,817 they consented to reduce the nrmy of oc- 
cupation one liflh, and in liie autumn of 1,818, it was wholly with- 
drawn fioQi the French territories, and the fortresses on ihe frontier 
lestofed. 



SECTION XXII. 

NORTHERN STATES OF EUROPE, FROM THE CLOSE OF THE 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 

1. Though much has been said of the northern courts in the pre- 
ceding sections, as bearing a part in the transactions on tiie continent, 
during the last and present centuries, yet as they have not been 
mentioned distinctly and particularly, some brief account of them 
may be necessary, to give a clearer view of the course of events 
during the period under consideration. 

2. Peter the great, of Russia, who died in 1,725, (see Sect. LXVI. 
§ 2.) was succeeded by his widow, Catherine I., wno survived him 
only two years, it is remarkable, that though Peter had taken par- 
ticular care to secure to the reigning monarch a power of naming 
his successor, he should himself neglect this precaution ; and for 
such an omission the law had made no provision. Catherine, how- 
ever, had little or no difliculty to take his place. She was a woman, 
if not of a superior, yet of rather an extraordinary character; had 
attended Peter in his travels and campaigns; been serviceable to him 
iri his greatest extremities ; often checked the violence of his pas- 
sions : and manifested a disposition, during her short reign, to encour- 
age a spirit of liberty amongst her subjects, and to promote, in every 
way she could, the progress of improvement and civilization. Her 
death was little expected, and excited some suspicions against the 
prince iMenzicoflf, who had just negociated a treaty with Austria, and 
entered into a stipulation to raise the sen of the unfortunate prince 
Alexis to the throne, upon the condition of his marrying his daughter. 

3. The empress died in 1,727, and was succeeded by Peter II., 
grandson of Peter I. Menzicoff, however, seemed to take into his 
own hands the reins of government, till he was supplanted by one 
of tbe Dolgorouk J family, and banished to Siberia, with his wile and 
children. The new favourite designed to marry his sister to the 
emperor; but on January 29, 1,73U, Peter died of the small-pox. 
In him the male issue of the line becoming extinct, Anne, duchess of 
Courland, was called to the throne through the influence of Dolgo- 
rouki, contrary to the order of succession established by Peter 1.. and 
in prejudice of her elder sister, the duchess of Mecklenburg. They 
were both of them the daughters of Iwan, the eldest brother of 
Peter. 

4. The reign of Anne was prosperous and glorious; she showed 
great sagacity and firmness in resisting the intrigues, and balancing 
the credit ot rival statesmen, counsellors, and generals, Russian and 
foreign ; maintaining her prerogatives against those who sought to 
invade them, to further their own ambition, particularly Dolgorouki. 
who, though he had placed her on the throne, was disgraced ana 
banished to Siberia. Ai»ne died in 1,740, leaving the crown, by het 
will, to her grand-nephew Iwan, son of her niece, Anne, princew of 



»b MODERN fllSTORY. 

Mecklenburg, married to the duke of Brunswick Bevem ; but she 
appointed her favourite, count Biren, whom she had brought with 
her iVom Courland, regent 

5. This last arrangement threw things into the utmost confusion. 
Biren was deservedly no favourite with the Russians, more tl»an 
2U,000 of whom he is said to have sent into banishment; he l)ad, 
besides, a powerful rival in count Munich, the conqueror of Ocza- 
kow, a German, and a man of singular bravery and resolution ; the 
lattt r succeeded in dispossessing the regent of his authority in favd^r 
of the mother of the emperor. Biren was sent to ISiberia; and the 
prmcess of Mecklenburg (duchess of Brunswick) assumed the reins 
of government ; but not attending sutficiently to the duties of hei 
high station, and appearing to give too great encouragement to 
Ibreigners, a new revolution was set on toot, to place on the throne 
the youngest daughter of Peter the great, the princess Elizabeth. 
This party, supported by French gold, and headed by Lestocq, a 
physiciaa, quickly becoming strong, seized upon the emperor Iwan 
and his parents, and proclaimed Elizabeth empress of all tne Russias. 
The life of the infant Iwan was preserved by the clemency and ex- 
press interposition of Elizabeth ; but only to undergo a harder tale. 
(See below, § 8.) Munich was banished ; and other foreign generals, 
who had favoured the former government, either shared the same- 
destiny, or contrived to escape from the Russian dominions. The 
people were well pleased to see the throne rescued trom the hands 
of foreigners in favour of so direct a claimant as the daughter ot 
Peter the great. This revolution took place in the month of No- 
vember, 1,741. 

6. Russia flourished under the sway of Elizabeth whose reign ex- 
ni'nited an uninterrupted career of glory and success ; her alliance 
was courtetl by some of the greatest powers in Europe. Before her 
death, which happened in 1 ,762, she took care to restore the natural 
order of succession in her family, by declaring the duke of Holslein 
Gottorp. her heir, son of her eldest sister, and who became emperor, 
on her demise, by the title of Peter 111. 

7. This untbrtunate prince was not sutTered to reign long ; he had 
married a princess of Anhalt-Zerbst; a woman of singular character, 
peculiarly titted to avail hei'self of any opportunities that might oiiei 
m so unsettled a country, to gratify her ambition, and give scope to 
her abilities. The prince had not behaved well to her, and many 
things concurred to render him unpopular, if not hateful to his sub- 
jects; particularly an enlhusiastic attachment to the king of Prussia, 
then at war >vith the Russians, and projected innovations, well-meant 
but ill-timed, some particularly affectit)g the clergy. He proposed to 
circumscribe i\lr^ power of the nobles, and seemed to prefer the 
Holstein troops to his Russian guanl. As these things rendered his 
removal probable, according to the onlinary course of proceedings in 
that semi-barbarous country, the sagacious Catherine willingly gave 
herself up to a party who had conspired against her husband. It is 
generally conjectured that she connived, not only at the deposition, 
but at the death of Peter, who survived his elevation to the imperial 
dignity not many months; while Catherine, by her superior addrest 
and intrepidity, not only succeeded in establishing hei-sell upon the 
vacant throne, but in emancipating herself from the domination of the 
party to whom she stood in<lel»te(l for it, (the Orlofls.) 

8. One competitor still seemed to stand in her way, — the unfortii 
nate Iwan, — wlio had been deposed by Elizabeth, and now langutBhed 



MODKKN HISTORY. 881 

in confinement, at the age of twenty-four. Soon after Catherine's 
accession he was slain in prison, on a pretence of his attempting to 
escape, but under circumstances so mysterious as to involve the em- 
press in suspicion. She reigned under the title of Catiierine II. for 
the long space of upwards of thirty-four years, continually occupied 
in advancing the glory of her people, m augmenting her dominions, 
and rewarding merit. She obtained many signal advantages over the 
Turks, and succeeded (1,784) in wresting from them the whole dis- 
trict of the Crimea ; but her designs extended much farther, even to 
the expulsion of the Ottomans, and restoration of a Grecian empire, 
having for its capital Athens or Constantinople : she contemplated, in 
short, the complete triumph of the Cross over the Crescent. An ex- 
pedition was even undertaken for the liberation of the Greeks, in 
the year 1,770; but it proved ineffectual, though it might have been 
otherwise, had the Russian commanders consented to follow the ad- 
vice of th-» Scotch admiral, Elphinstone, who commanded one of the 
divisions ot the fleet. 

9. Catherine bore a large share in the partition of Poland, and 
seems to have been restrained by no principles of justice, humanity, 
morality, or virtue, from furthering the purposes of her ambition and 
policy : her prodigality was great, her largesses enormous, and her 
love of magniticence little proportioned to the smallness of the im- 
perial revenue : her abilities and her resolution were remarkable, 
and she may be considered as having contributed largely to the im- 
provement and glory of the country over which she was permitted 
so long to bear unUmited rule. Her domestic regulations savouretl 
little of the despotism displayed in her foreign enterprises : she miti- 
gated the rigour of the penahlaws, abolished torture and slavery, 
protected the arts and sciences, and endeavoured to elevate the mid- 
dle class to a proper degree of importance. 

10. Catherine 11. was succeeded in 1,796 by her son Paul I., a 
strange character, unsettled in his principles, dissolute in his manners, 
jealous, vindictive, and, in his last days, scarcely in possession of his 
senses. On his first accession, however, he wisely endeavoured to 
provide against the evils arising from an unsettled inheritance, by 
*'nacting a law to secure the crown to his lineal and direct descen- 
dants, not absolutely excluding females, but admitting them only into 
the line of succession on a total failure of male heirs. 

1 V. The emperor appeared to be extremely eager to secure an 
entrance into the Mediterranean, and was highly gratitied with being 
chosen patron of the order of Malta, which he consented to take 
under his protection in the year 1,798. He had been induced to take 
a part in the war against the French, and succeeded, in conjunction 
with the Turks, in getting possession, for a short time, of the Ionian 
islands; a Russian army was also sent to co-operate with the Austri- 
ans, under the command of the celebrated Souwarow, (or SouvaroH",) 
who, after having achieved great victories in Lornbardy, seems to 
have been cruelly abandoned in Swisserland, and to have unjustly in- 
curred the displeasure of his capricious master. A misunderstanding 
between the English and Paul on the subject of Malta, entirely 
alienated the latter from the confederacy. In the mean while, his 
violent conduct had induced the great officers of stale and the nobility 
to conspire to dethrone him. He was slain in defending hims^»]f, 
during a conflict, in his own chamber, March 24, 1,801 ; and, gn^aily 
to the joy of his oppressed people, succeeded by his son Alexander, 



389 :vrODi:RN HI^n'ORY. 

the present emperor, of wha?e accession, and share in the continental 
war, an account has already been given. "^ 

J'i. Prussia, as a kingdom, is not older than the eighteenth centuryf 
and entirely belongs tliereture to the period under discussion. Its 
histor}', as connected with the electorate of Brandenburgh, ascends 
as high, perhaps, jls that of any sovereignty in Europe. Its present 
power may be s;tid to have taken its rise from the wisdom, judgment, 
and good sense of tlie elector Frederic- William, commonly called tli< 
CTeat elector, wlio had Ducal Prussia confirmed to him in 1,G57, and 
ny the convention of Waiau and Bromberg, rendered independent of 
the crown of Poland, of which, till then, it had been a fief. In the 
time of the great elector, advantage was taken of the unsettled state 
of Europe, to increase the population, and thereby advance the wealth 
and improvement of the country in every respect. The revocation of 
tiie edict of Nantes in France, l,f>S5, contributed largely to tliese 
ends, the Prussian states being freely set open to the refugees of all 
descriptions ; an act of mere policy, as tlie elector himself, though 
tolerant, was extremely devout and careful of the privileges, and even 
exemptions of tlie clergy. 

13. The elector, Frederic-William, died in 1,688, and was succeed- 
ed by his son Frederic, who, through the influence of the protestant 
states, and the good-will of the emperor Leopold, to whom he had 
been of service in his contest with France, but who seems to have 
taken such a step with little judgment or consideration, became kin^ 
in 1,701, and died in 1,713, at the very period when, by the treaty ot 
Utrecht, his regal title was confinned and generally acknowledged 
by the other states of Europe. Fr'^deric I. -"vas eenerous, but ficKle, 
Buperstitious, and vain ; he founoed the University of Hail, the Royal 
Society of Berlin, and the Academy of Nobles, but without taking much 
interest in their concerns, and chiefly at the instigation of his more 
.earned consort, the princess Charlotte of Hanover; he managed, liow- 
eve- .: augment, by many acquisitions, purchases, and exchanges, the 
extent of his dominions. "t 

14. ilis successor, Frederic- William II., is judged to have don«J* 
much more to r-iise tJie credit and character of his new kingdortt, bf^ 
excessive prudence, and good management, anri tJie utmost attention* 
to his army ; whereby he not only repaired the losses occasioned by 
his father's extravagances, but amassed great treasures, and laid the 
foundation for those stupendous military achievements, which, in 'the 
next reign, advanced Prussia to Uiat high state of glory and eminence 
which has given it such v.eight in tlio political scale of Europe. Fred*-' 
eric abolished, in 1,717, all the fiefs in his kingdom ; he invited colonieff' 
from all parts to settle in his dominions. Like his great predecessor" 
and namesake, he established military schools and hospitals, but he was 
no friend to literature ; unpolislied in his manners, and implacable in 
his resentment. He added to the dominions of Prussia, Stettin and the 
greater part of Swedish Pomerania. 

15. On the death of Frederic-William II., in 1,740, his son, (wh«v 
is sometimes called Frederic II., to djitinguish him from the Frederic-^' 
Williams, and sometimes Frederic III.,) came to the throne. Of this 
monarch so much is known, and so much has already been noticed 
and recorded in the other sections of this work, tliat we have little 
to say here, but that he managed to raise a scattered, ill-sorted, dis- 
jointed kingdom into the first rank of power and renown; that he 
applied himself incessantly to promote the welfare and improvemcn* 



MODERN HISI'OIIV. 383 

of his dominions, to augment the wealth and advance the civilization 
of hLs people, though, in many of his regulations and measures to 
this end, he erred occjisionally as his predecessors had done, for want 
of a due knowledge of some of the hrsi principles of political econ- 
omy, a science at that period little cultivated. Frederic died August, 
1,786, in the seventy tilth year of his age, and forty-seventh of his 
/eign, more admired than esteemed; more distinguished for bravery 
in the tield, wisdom in the cabinet, and literary attainments, than for 
any virtues or qualities of a nobler nature. He has had the reputa- 
tion of being the author of two very important measures, the parti- 
tion of Poland, and the armed neutrality. The credit of the tiisl 
mav probably be very iiiirly divided between himself anS Catherine 
of Russia ; the second, as a matter of self-defence, and a jealous re- 
gard for the liberty of the seas, reflects no dishonour on his character 
It is a point that should be better settled than it seems to be, by the 
Btrict rules of international and maritime law. 

16. I'Vederic was suceeeded by his nephew Frederic-William. Of 
the part taken by this monarch in support of the house of Orange, 
in 1,787, of his opposition to the French, in 1,792, and of the share 
he had in the two last partitions of Poland, in 1,79'3 and 1,795, by 
which he gained the territories, tirst of South Prussia, and, secondly 
jf South-eastern Prussia, an account has been given elsewhere. 
Frederic-William II. died in 1,797, aged fifty-three, leaving the crown 
to his son, the present king, Frederic 111., who, as he came to the 
throne at the moment that Buonaparte began his extraordinary ca- 
reer, in disturbance of the peace of the continent, was necessarily 
involved in all the difhculties and confusion of those times, as has 
been already shown : he joined the armed neutrality in 1,800, caused 
Hamburgh to be sliut against the English, and occupied the states of 
Hanover, 1,801, which being annexed by France to Prussia, in 1,805, 
in exchange for a part of the duchy of Cleves, ^nspach, Bareuth, 
T^eufchatel, and Valengin, provoked the resentment of England and 
Sweden. In 1,806, the king nishly engaged in war with France, and 
was nearly deprived of his kingdom : the losses he sustained by the 
treaty of Tilsit, have been mentioned. (Sect. XVI.) lu 1,812, tVed- 
eric was compelled by France to I'urnish an auxiliary force against 
Russia, but was afterwards, on the retreat of the French Worn Mos- 
cow, able to break through this engagement, and conclude a treaty 
of neutrality with Russia. From tiiis time to the abdication of Na- 
poleon, Prussia acted in close confcdenxcy with the allies, the king 
oeing constantly with his army till their cjitrance into Paris, March, 
1,814. On the return of Buonaparte, 1,815, the Prussians were the 
first to take the tield, under their celebrated general, prince Blucher, 
and in the battle of Waterloo, reaped the splendid glories of that di.y 
in conjunction with the Britisli. Since thai time, Prussia has enjoye'cl 
a state of peace, though not undisturbed as to her internal concerns. 

17. The crown of Sweden, on the demise of Charles XII., 1,718, 
(see Sect. LXVl. § 9. Part 11.) was conferred on his youngest sister, 
Ulrica Eleanora, by the free election of the states. On the death of 
Charles, whose strange proceedings had greatly exhausted the king- 
<lom, and occasioned the actual loss of" many provinces, an opportuni- 
ty was taken, once more, to limit the kinglj power, which had been 
rendered almost absolute in the reign oi Charles XL, and to make 
the crown elective. The new queen, who was married to the hered- 
itary prince of Hesse Cassel, and who had besn oflered the crown in 
prejudice of the son and representative ot her elder sister, the 



aai MODEKiN lilSTOKV. 

duche-s« of lloistein Goltorp, readily submitted lo the conditions pro- 
posed hy the states for limiting the royal authority, but soon aflei her 
accession resigned the ftovernmont to her royal consort, v'.o ^al 
.rowned by Ih.e title of Frederic I., 1,720. 

10. The new king ruled the nation with little dignity and less spir- 
it; subniitling to every thing imposetl on him by the states, idl the 
gover.ment became more renulifican than monarchical. The <.ve- 
dish territories were also much reduced during the early part of his 
reign. In the course of the yrai-s 1,719. 1,720, 1,721, Sweden ceded 
to rianover, Bremen, anJ Veiden; to Prussia, the town oi Stettin, 
and to Russia, Livonia, Esthonia, higria, Wiburg, a part of Carelia 
and several islands. 

19. It was during this reign that the rival fictions of the Hats and 
Cafji had their origin, and which caused great trouble ; the former 
reing generally under the influence of France, the latter of Russia. 
To deter the latter from assisting the queen of Hungary, in the war 
that took place on the death of Chailes VI., France made use of its 
•nlluence with the HatSy to involve Sweden in hostilities with Russia, 
for which she was ill-prepared, and Irom which she suffered consid- 
erably. Her losses were restored to her in some measure by the 
peace of Abo, 1,743, but upon the positive condition that Frederic 
should adopt as his heir and successor, at the instance of the czarina, 
Adolphus-Frcderic, bishop of Lubec. uncle to the duke of Holsteia 
Gottorp, presumptive heir to the throne of Russia, and nephew to 
the queen o{ Sweden, who would more willingly have had the latter 
for her successor. 

20. Adoiphus-Frederic came to the crown in 1,751. The same 
factions which had disturbed the former reign continued to give him 
trouble, and though he made some endeavours to get the better ot 
foreign influence, and recover his lost authority, all his efforts were 
vain. Nothing could exceed the anarchy and confusion that prevail- 
ed, encouraged and fomented both by Russia and France, to further 
their private ends. The king is supposed to have lidlen a sacrifice 
to these disturbances, dying wholly dispirited in the year 1,771. 

21. He was succeeded by his eldest son Gustavas III., twenty-five 
years old at the time of his accession ; a Swede by birth, and an ac 
tive and spirited prince, who was bent upon recovering whathh* 
predecessors had too tamely surrendered ol their rights and prerog- 
atives; in which, being supported by France, he had tne good fortune- 
to succeed. Having found means to conciliate the army, and to rec 
oncile the people to an attack upon the aristocrats, who were betray 
ing the interests of the country, he established a new constitutioa 
1,772, with such goo«l management and address, that the public tran 
quillity u as scarcely for a moment disturbed. This new arrangement 
threw great power into the hands cf the king, by leaving him the 
option of convening and dissolving tiie states, witli the entire disposal 
ol the army, navy, and all ptiblic appointments, civil, military, and 
ecclesiastical; some altenitions were made in 1,789, but nothing 
could reconcile the party whom he had superseded; at least it is 
probable that this was the occasion of the catastrophe which termi- 
nated the life of the unfortunate monarch. Toivards the commence- 
ment oi' the French revolution, in the year 1,792, when he was pre- 
paring to assist Lewis XVI., (an unpopular undertaking.) he was 
assassinated at a masquerade by a person encouraged, if not directlj 
employed, by the discontented partjr of 1,772. 

22. Guslavus III. wtis brave, polite, well-inlormed, and of a ready 



MODERN HISTORY. S85 

etoqueoce ; but profligate in his habits of life, and careless as to mat- 
ti!i's of religion. He promoted letters, agriculture, and commerce, 
as fai as his means would enable him to do so. His measures appear 
to have been more arbitrj^ry than his disposition. 

23. His son Gustavus IV. beinj^ only fourteen years old at the time 
of his father's death, the duke of Sudermania, brother of the deceas- 
ed king, became regent for a short time. No monarch in Europe 
manifested a greater zeal in the cause of the French royal family, 
or disgust at the arbitrary proceedings of Buonaparte, than Gustavus 
IV., but he was little able to give efiect to his wishes; his judgment 
()eing weak, and his forces inadequate to contend with the French, 
especially after the latter, by the treaty of Tilsit, (see Sect. XVI.) 
had found means to detach and conciliate the emperor Alexander. 
After this disastrous treaty, Gustavus became not only the object of 
French resentment, but of Russian rapacity. He was peremptorily 
forbTdden to admit the English into his ports, and Fmland was quickly 
wrested from him. The Danes also attacked him. In this dilemma, 
England would have assisted hin^. if she could have trusted him, but, 
'n truth, his rashness and incapacity were become too apparent to 
justify any such confidence. A revolution was almost necessary, nor 
was it long before a conspiracy was formed, which, in the year 1,809, 
succeeded so far as to induce him to abdicate His uncle, the duke 
of Sudennania, being appointed protector, and very soon afterwards 
king, by the title of Charles XIlL, the states carrying their resent- 
ment against Gustavus IV. so far, as to exclude his posterity also from 
the til rone. 

24. Charles XIII. submitted to new restrictions on the kingly an 
thority, and having no Issue, left it to the nation to nominate an heir 
t'j the crown. Their tirst choice fell upon the prince of Augusten- 
burg, a Danish subject, but his death happening soon afterwards, not 
xviihout suspicion of foul play, Bemadotte, one of Buonaparte's gen- 
erals, was, in a very extraordinary manner, nominated in his room by 
the king, and approved by the states. As crown prince of Sweden, 
tempted by the offer of Norway, he joined the confederacy against 
Buonaparte in 1,813, and wi«s present at the battle of Leipzig. (See 
Sect. XX.) On the death of Charles Xlll., 1,818, he succeeded to 
the crown, and still reigns, having, by the treaty of Vienna, 1,815, 
obtained Norway, and the island of Guadeloupe. 

25. The history of Denmark during the eighteenth century, and 
beginning of the nineteenth, is very uninteresting, in a political point 
of view. Incapable of taking any leading oj- conspicuous part in the 
affairs of Europe, all that we know concerning her relates rather to 
other countries, as Russia, Sweden, I russia, France, and England ; in 
u hose friendships and hostilities she has been compelled, by circum 
stances, to take a i)art, little advantageous, if not entirely detrimental, 
to her own interests. 

26. Five kings have occupied the throne since the close of the 
seventeenth century, but it will be necessary to say very little of 
them. Frederic IV., who came to ihe crown in 1,699, died in 1,73(», 
and was succeeded by Christian VI. ; a monarch who paid great at- 
tention to the welfare of his subjects, in lightening the taxes, and en- 
couraging trade and manufactures. He reigned sixteen years, and 
was succeeded by his son Frederic V., in the year 1,746. Frederic 
trod in the footsteps of his father, by promoting knowledge, encour- 
aging the manufactures, and extending the commerce of his country. 
Ife had nearly been embroiled with Russia during the six months' 

Kk 49 



flW MODEKK HISTORY. 

reign of the unfortunate Peter III., who, the moment he became em- 
peror, resolved to revene(? on the court of Denmark the iniuriea 
which had heen commiUeJ on his ancestors of the house of Holstein 
(ioiloip. In these allcmpts he war* to l)e ai^sisted hy the king of 
Prussia, The king of Denmark prepared to rer»ist the attacks with 
which he was threatened, hut the deposition and death of the em- 
peror fortunately rehevcd liiu) from all apprehensions, and he was 
al)le to compromise maltei-s with Catherine II., by a treaty that was 
not to take etfect till the grand duke Paul came of age. By this con- 
vention, the empress ceded to Denmark, in the name of her fon, the 
duchy of Sleswick, and so much of Holstein as appertained to the 
(jiottorp branch of that family, in exchange for the provinces of 01- 
4leid)ur^ and Dalmcvnliorst. 

27. hrederic V. died in 1,766, and was succeeded by his son Chris- 
tian VII., who, in 1,768, married the princess Caroline Matilda of 
England, sister to hi^ maje^^ty king George III. The principal event 
m this reign was one which involved the unhappy queen in inextric- 
able dilhculties, and probably hastened her death ; but w hich seems 
still to be envelopeil in considerable mystery. A German physician 
of the court, (Struensee,) who had risen from rather a low station in 
lite to be tirst minister, having ren<lered himself extremely obnoxious 
by a most extensive reform in all the public offices of state, civil and 
military, and which, had they succeeded, might have done him great 
credit as a statesman, was accused of intriguing with the young 
queeiuand by the violence of his enemies, headed and encouniged 
by Juliana ^^aria, the queeiwlowager, and her son prince Frederic, 
brought mosi ignominiously to the scjifl'old. The unfortunate queen 
Caroline, whose life was probably saved only by the spirited inter- 
position ot" the Briiish minister, quitted Denmark after the execution 
of Struensee and his coadjutor Brandt, and having retired to Zell in 
Germany, painfully separated iVom her children, there ended her 
days, May 10, 1.775, in the twenty-lburlh year ol" her age. 

28. During It^e latter part of his life, Christian \ 11., whose under- 
ijtanding had always been weak, fell into a >tate of mental derange- 
ment, and the government was carried on by the queen-dowager aiwl 
prince Frederio, as co-regents, with the aid of BarnstofT, an able and 
patriotic ministei. In 1,773, the cession of Ducal Holstein to Dei)- 
mark by Russia took place, according to the treaty above spoken of- 
this was a very important acquisition, as giving ner the command of 
the whole Cimbrian peninsula, and enabling her, by forming a canal 
from Kiel, to connect the Baltic with the German ocean. In the 
continental war-s of 1,788, 1793. Denmark remained r)euter, but by 
joining the armed neutrality in 1,8U0, she excited the suspicions an<l 
resentment of Great Britain, and, being supposed to favour not only 
Russia but France, became involved in a contest, which wa« attended 
with losses and vexations the most melancholy and deplorable. (See 
Sect. XX. § 9.) 

29. Chnsiian VII. died in 1,788, and was succeeded bv h'S son 
l-'redenc VI., the present monarch, who had, a few years before, on 
entering the seventeenth year of his age, been admitted to his proper 
share in the government, having with singular moderation and pru- 
dence succeeded in taking the administration of affairs out of the 
hands of the queen-tlowager and her party. Denmark appears tc 
have suffered greatly from the peculiarity of her situation during the 
slruggles arising cut of the French revolution, being continually 
forced into alliances contrary to her own interests, and made at last fo 



MODERN HISTORY. 387 

contribute more largely than almost any state, to the establishment 
of peace. The cession of Norway to Sweden, which had been held 
out by the allies as a boon to the latter power, to induce her to join 
the last confederacy against t ranee, being a severe loss to Denmark, 
and very ill requited by the transfer of Pomerania and the Isle of 
Kugen, which were all. that she received in exchange. 



SECTION XXIII. 

SOUTHERN STATES OF EUROPE, FROM THE CLOSE OF THE 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 

1. The southern states of Europe underwent such extraordinary 
revolutions during the preponderance of the French under Buona- 
parte, that what happened to them during the eighteenth century, 
preriously to these surprising events, seems comparatively of very 
little cons^equence ; of the changes and disturbances to which they 
were subject through the interference of the French, an account \9 
lo be found in the sections relating to France. 

2. SvvrrzERLAND at the beginning of the eighteenth century was in- 
volved in disputes between the protestants and catholics, which were 
attended with very unpleasant circumstances. These differences, 
however, were brought to an end by a convention in 1,717, which 
established an equality of religious rights. Things remained very 
quiet in most of the cantons from this time to the French revolution, 
with the exception of the towns of Geneva and Berne, and a few 
other places, where a disposition was manifested to limit and restrain 
tlie aristocratical governments, but which only led at that time lo 
such iudicious reforms, as were sufficient to appease the ardoiir of the 
peojple. These disputes, however, may be held to have contributed 
to the evils which befel the country afterwards. Though the states 
endeavoured to preserve their neutrality during the progress of the 
French revolution, it was not possible- while revolutionary principles 
were afloat, to keep the country so free from internal disputes and 
commotions, or so united, as to deter the French from interfering. 
Geneva had already been cajoled out of her independence, but the 
first decisive occasion afforded' to the French of taking an active part 
in the affairs of Swisserland, arose out of the disputes, in 1,798, rel- 
ative to the Pays de Vaud ; the gentry and citizens of which, no^ 
thinking themselves sufficiently favourccl by the rulers of Berne and 
Fribourg, began to be clamorous for a chtinge. The peasantry of 
Basle also, instigated by an emissary of the French directory, de 
manded a new constitution. These disputes opened the way tor the 
introduction of French troops, lirst under the orders of the directory, 
and afterwards under Buonaparte, as has been shown in our account 
of France ; and from that period to the conclusion of the war in 
1,815, Switzerland can scarcely be said to have known a year o( 
repose. 

3. Of the condition of V^enice during the eighteenth century, much 
may be collected trom the foregoing sections. She lost the Morea in 
1,718, but acquired in exchange some towns in Albania and Dalmatia. 
Some ecclesiastical reforms took place in the middle of the last cen- 
tury, at which period many convents were suppressed, and the Jesuits 
expelled. Venice endeavoured to remain neuter during the first 



S88 MOJ)EKN HISTORY. 

movementa of i\\e French revolufion, but wus soon drawn into the 
vortex \vhe!i l^uonaparte assumed the commiuul ol'the French ai*my. 
by tlit' treaiy of Canipo Formic, 1,7'J7, (see Sect. XV^) her doom 
was sealed, aud thi«* celehrated republic oulirely overthrown. 

4. In Home, since the close ot the eighteenth century, there has 
been a succession ot' many popes, though the last two have filled the 
papal chair longer than might be expected, i.n a sovereignty where 
the election is generally made from persons advaiM:ed in years. Lit- 
tle more than the ''' mag^ni numinis umbra'''' remained to the popes at 
the beginning of the eighteenth century, of that temporal power 
which at one time or other had shaken every throne in Europe. 
The clergy of France in particular had effectually asserted that kings 
and princes, in temporal concerns, were independent of the rcclesi- 
astical authority. Clement XI., who was of the family of the Albani, 
and assumed the tiara in the year 1,700, opposed the erection of 
Frussia into a kingdom; an extraordinary measure of interposition, 
and which had s/3 little weight as ahuost to expose his court to ridi- 
cule. He espoused ihe French interests in the contest concerning 
th.i Spanish succession, though in 1,708 he was compelU-d, by the 
vigorous proceedings of the emperor, to acknowledge Charles 111. 
king of Spain, From this nope the famous bull unigttiitus was ex- 
torted by the Jesuits, to the great disturbance of France, and the 
whole Romish church; and the consequences of which, indeed, may 
be traced even in the present state and circujnstances of Europe. 

5. Pope Clement XI. died in l,7*«il, and was succeeded by thi* car- 
ilinal Michael Angelo Conii, who took the natne of Innoceiit XIII., hut 
bein«j far advmiced in years, lived a very short lime, dyirifr on tlie 3il 
of IMarch, 1,724, and on the 2*Jth of May folio wiuij, cardinal Frsini, 
Benedict XII!., was chosen his successor. During hi? papacy, Com- 
machio, which had been iost to (he Roman see in tlie time of Clem- 
ent XI., \Tj\5 recovered; Renedict was zealous for the honour of the 
bull unigenitus, and in conjunction with cardinal Fleury, succeeded 
in procuring the cardinal de Noailles, one of the most respectable and 
zealous opposers of it in France, to subscribe it. He had a disposi 
tion to unite the Roman, Greek, Lutheran, and reformed churches, 
but could not succeed. He died 1,730, more admired Ibr ins virtues 
and talents, than praised for iiis wisdom in the management of affaire. 

6. Beneilict XllI. was succeeded by Clement XII., l^mrence Corsi- 
ni, a Florentine, whose public acts were of little importance. He 
had disputes with the king of Sardinia, the republic of Venice, »vith 
the empire and Spain ; but much of bis pontiticate was passed in 
tranquillity. He died on the 6th of February, 1,740. He made con- 
siderable and valuable additions to the Vatican library. On his 
death, a struggle arose between the Albani and Corsini families, and 
the conclave w;is much agitated. The former prevailed, and suc- 
ceeded in elevating cardinal Prosper Lambertini to the papal chair, 
who took the title of Benedict XIV'. His government ot the chinch 
was extremely mild, and he \yas regarded as no favourer of the 
Jesuits, who, during his pontiticate, fell into disrepute in Portugal- 
the first symptom of their decline and fall. This pope was a man of 
most amiable manner, a great writer, and possessea of considerable 
learning. He corrected several abuses, particularly snch as had 
arisen out of the privileges of asylum. He carefully endeavoured tc 
keep clear of disputes and contests, thinking the tinies unfavourable 
to the papal authority. He died in the year 1.758. 

7. 1 he cardinal Rezzonico succeeded Beneaict XIV., and took tbo 



MODERN HISTORY. 589 

title of Clement XIII. His pontificate is memorable for being the 
aeni of the expulsion of the ordrr of Jesuit*, (in some instanc*'s un- 
der circumstances of very unju^titiable precipitation.) from Portugal, 
France, Spain, Naples, Sicily. Parma, \ enice. and Corsica, notwith- 
standing the utmost efforts of the pope to uphold them ; many of 
them were actually landed from Spain. Portugal. Naples, and Sicily, 
on the pope's territories, as though it belonged to him lo maintain 
tbem when abandoned by the catholic sovereigns. The pope re- 
monstrated, but with little effect. The French seized upon Avignon, 
and the Neapolitans upon Benevento. to induce him to abandon the 
order, but he would not Clement XI 11. died suddenly, on Febniary 
2, 1,769, and was succeeded by the celeorated Ganganelli, who, in 
compliment to his predecessor and patron, took the litle of Clement 
XIV. This enlightened pontiff was sensible of the decline of the 
papal authority, and of the prudence of conciliating, if not of 
humouring, the sovereigns of Europe, against whom, he was accus- 
tomed to observe, the Alps and the Pyrenees were not sufficient pro- 
tection. It was in consequence of this leaning towards the temporal 
Erinces, that he secured their concurrence to his being made pope, 
is freedom of thought and mannei^ being otherwise obnoxious to 
the coMft of Rome. The conclave, by which he was elected, was 
tumultuous : but at length the cardinal de Bernis succe^jded in pro- 
curing him to be chosen pope, May, 1,769. It is well known that 
this accomplished pontiff, in the year 1,773. at'ter much deliberation, 
suppressed th'i order of Jesuits; and, dying in the next year, suspi- 
cions were raised that he had been poisoned, but, on ojiening his 
body, in the presence of the French and Spanish ministers, enemies 
to the Jesuits, it was pronounced otherwise. There is little doubt 
but that he legretied, as head ot' the church, the step he had been 
compelled to tike : it procured for him. indeed, the restitution of 
Avignon and Benevento. which had been taken from his predecessor; 
but in consenting to the dissolution of an order so essential to the 
papal dominion, he must, in all probability, have yielded to the power 
of irresistible circumstances. He was of an amiable disposition, 
much given to literature, indefatigable in business, and highly re- 
spected by foreign nations, plain and simple in his manners, and very 
disinterested. 

8. Farly in the year 1.775. Angiolo BraschU a descendant of the 
noble faniily of Cesena. was chosen to till the chair vacate»l by the 
death of Ganganelli. The new pope took the title of Pius VI. He 
is sail tr> have been elected contrary to the wishes and intentions of 
most of the members of the conclave, a circumstance not unlikely to 
happen amidst such a contrariety of interests, and the complicated 
forms of proceeding. As he had thus risen to supreme power, he 
acted afterwards more independently of the cardmals, than any of 
his pi*edecessors. 

9. He had taken the name of Pius VI.. in acknowledged detiance 
of a prevailing sup>erstition, expressed in the following verses, and 
applied to Alexander VI. particularly, if not to others. 

" Sextus Tarquinias, Sextus Nero, sextus et iste 
Semper sub sextis, perdita Roma fv't."''' 

He is known to have, in his troubles, reflected on this rather s:n- 
gnlar circumstance, with sorrow and dismay. Certainly no pope had 
greater indignities to sustain, nor could any have greater cause to 
K k 2 



390 MODEKN HISTORY. 

appiT lo themselyea the ominous presages conveyed in the lines just 
ciletj; for in the Tear 1,798 his :;ovemmt'nl was overthrown, niid 
Konie lost. The Vrench took possession ot' it and proclaimed the 
resttM-.Uion of the Kuman republic. 

10. The pope's ln)ubles began in 1,796, when he was compelled 
to cede to buonaparte the cities of Bologna, I'rbino, Kerrara, and 
Ancona, to |>iiy tvventj-one millions of francs, and deliver to the 
French commissioners, sent lor the purposes, pictures, busts, statues, 
and vases, to a large amount. He alterwards endeavoured to raise 
an army to recover what he had lost ; but he had ibrmed a very 
wrong estimate of the power of his opponent. He was soon conv 
pelled, February 12, 1,797, to sue for peace, and submit to further 
sjicritices at the will of Buonaparte, whom he had certainly very in- 
cautiously provoked. By the peace of Tolentino, he renounced all 
right to Avignon and the Vanaissin, Bologna, Ferrara, and the Komag- 
na. On the entrance of the French in 1,798, the Vatican and Q.uii 
inal palaces, and private mansions of the obnoxious amongst the 
nobility, were stripped of all their oriiaments and riches. The peo- 
ple w no had invited the French, fancied themselves free, but had 
very Ultle cause to thank their deliverers. The pope was I'orcibly 
removed from Rome, at the age of eighty, and, by order of the 
French directory, transferred from place to place, as the course of 
events dictated, from Rome to Florence, from Florence to Bnancon, 
and from Bri-incon to \ alence. Another removal to J^ijon is s<iid to 
have been in contemplation, had not the decline of his health become 
too visible to render it necessary. He died at tfie latter place on the 
29th of August, 1.799, in the eighty-second year of his age, and 
twenty -lourth of his poniiticate. 

' I. Pius VI. was correct in his manners, and a patron of genius, 
particularly of the fine arts. He spent much money on buildings, 
notwithstanding the distressed state of the finances, and devoted large 
sums lo the draining of the Pontine marshes, in which almost im- 
practicable undertaking, he partly succeeded. He endeavoured lo 
correct the abuses of sanctuary, which had been carried so far as to 
give impunity to hired assassins, much to the disgrace of those who 
protected them. It deserves to be recorded of him, that he display- 
ed great magnanimity, as well as pious resignation, when dragged 
f. om his tlominions ; and though he felt severely the wrongs that had 
leen comrriilted against him by the French and the inlaluated Ro- 
mans, he died tranquilly and serenely. 

lii. It is remarkable that he had scarcely been dead a month, when 
R(Miie was delivered from the hands of its oppressors, and given up 
to th'^ British, whose t^eet, under commodore 1 rowbridge, had block- 
ed lip the port of Civita V'ecchia. Those who had favoured the re- 
publican cause were permitted to retire, and the French garrison 
marched out with the honours of war. 

lb. In the month of March, 1,800, a conclave of cardmals, under 
the protection of the emperor and other catholic powers, met at 
Venice to elect a successor to Pius VI., and was not long in fixing 
upon the cardinal Chiaic nonte, bishop of TivoU, the present pope 
Pius VII. In a few weeks after his eiecuon, he set out for his new 
domuiions, aiid arrived at Rome on the ifth of Jidy. In the montr* 
of September, 1,801, he had the satisfaction of concluding a coTicor- 
datum with the French republic, by which, under the auspices of 
Buonaparte, then first consul, the Roman catholic religion was re- 
established there. Not only heresy, but infidelity and atheism, bad 



MODERN HlSTORy. 891 

been §o openly eocouraged and avowed by the Freoch rerolotionista, 
that Pioa appears to have thought no concessions too great to ac- 
complish this end : for the temis of ihe agreement untlouhtedly sub- 
jected the Gallican church entirely to the civil govemment, Ciiuoiii- 
Ciil institution being almost the only privilege reserved to the po|^, 
and every possible encounigement being, at the same lime, given to 
the proteslant churches, Lutheran and Calvinislic. 

13. It was verj- soon discovered, that the new head of the Koman 
church, was to be made to bow as low to the authority ol" Buonaparte 
as his predecessor, in 1.804 Pius VIl. was summoned to Paris to 
ofl&ciate at the coronation of the French emoeror; and though In 
the year following he declined attending a similar ceremony al 
Milan, as has been already shown, it seems only to have exposed him 
to greater sacrifices. In 1,8U8 be was deprived ot L'rbino, Ancona, 
Alitcerr-ta, and Camerino, and soon aner bis temporal sovereignty 
wiis formally dissolved, and the papal terrilones annexed to France. 
Rome, was declared to be a free and impenal city : the court of ii>- 
quisilion, the temporal jurisdiction of ine clergy, 'he right of asylum, 
and other privileges were aboUshed, and the title of kiug of Home ap- 
propriated to the heir of the French empire. Pius was conveyed 
tirst to Grenoble, afterwards to Savona. and rinaily. in 1,812, to hon- 
taJnebleau, where, tor reasons unknown, he was once more ackr.owl- 
edged as a sovereign, till the advance ot the allies upon Paris, at l:i.st, 

Erocured him bis Uberly; and in 1,814 ne was reinstated; he m?de 
is solemn entrance into Home on the ii4th of Mav ; and in 1,81 o, 
by the arrarigements of the congress ot V lenna, his forfeited e?tate< 
were re-annexed to the papal dominions. HLs restoration of the 
order jf Jesuits and of the court of inquisition, on bis return, orca- 
Bione^ some concern to the greater part of Europe : but his holiness 
has generally had the credit of being a man ol sense, prudence, and 
moderation. 



SECTIOX XXIV. 
OF INDIA, OR HIXDOOSTAN. 

1. Im)u or Hindoostan having largely engaged the attention of 
Europe since the close of the seventeenth centurv, may deserve 
some distinct notice, though Uttle is to be added to what has alreadj 
been related in former sections, of the pohticai events and tr.iasac- 
tions which have occurred in that remote region oi ine globe, during 
the period alluded to. 

2. The celebrated Aurungzebe, who occupied the throne of Del- 
hi, at the commencement of the eighteenth century, lived to the 
year 1,707. In him the spirit of the great Timur. trom whom he 
was the eleventh in descent, seemed to revive. He was brave, bul 
cnieL He attained to a great age, being nearly a hundred years 
old when he died, having succeeded in rendering almost tlie whole 
of the peninsula subject to his sway, trom the tenth to the thirty-tilth 
degree of latitude, and nearly as much in longitude:. 

3. But if Aurungzebe thus raised in his own person the credit of 
the mogul throne, its glory also perished with him. A sad scene of 
confusion ensued upon his death. He nad himself, indeed, wh led to 
the throne through the blood of his own kindred. Alter deposing 
his father, two of his brothers were slain in contending for ;he ciowo. 



^- 



398 MODERN HISTORY. 

But such was the nature, generally, of the political revolutions of 
tJiose countriea, that had not this been the case, the life of Aurungze- 
he liimselt might probably have U'cn J^acriticeil to similar views and 
purposes. He is said to have bitterly repented of his misdoings be- 
lore he died. 

4. No sooner, however, was he dead, than the most violent con- 
tests arose between his own sons, two of whom, Azem and Kaum 
Buksh, perished in their opposition to their elder brother, who be- 
came emperor, under the title of Bahader Shah. The throne, in- 
deed, was such an object of contention, that, in the small space of 
eleven years, tive princes, who attained to the throne, and six, who 
were candidates for it, successively fell victims to the lusts and pas- 
sions of their semi-barbarous competitors. It \vas in the reign of 
Feroksere, who was deposed in 1,717, that the English East India 
Company obtiiined the famous tirman or grant, by which their goods 
of export and impoit were exempfed from duties, and which has been 
regarded as their commercial charter in India; no other European 
companies being similarly indulged. 

5. In the time of Mahmud or xMuhammed Shah, who came to the 
throne in the year 1,718, and who was engaged in disputes with some 
of his most powerful neighbours and dependents, the celebrated 
usurper of the Persian throne. Nadir Shah, encouraged, or even in- 
vited, as it has been said, by some of the discontented princes, particu- 
larly the subahdar of the Deckan, invaded the dominions ol the Mo- 
gul, and with such success, as in the year 1,739, to seize upon Delhi, 
the capital, with all its treasures, and compel the unhappy sultan, to 
BurrendoF, with tlie utmost ignominy, his crown and sceptre. He 
was, indeed, afterwards restored, but w ilh the loss of all his domin- 
ions west of the Indus, together with jewels an<t treasures to an in- 
calculable amount ; some indiscreet insult, offered to the Persians, 
having been the alleged provocation for delivering the city up to 
plunder, and the inhabitants to the sword, with every cruelly and in- 
dignity attendant upon such misfortunes. This miserable capital 
afterwards underwent a second visitation of the same description, 
from one of the followers of Nadir Shah, Abdallah, who had indeed, 
been forced into his service, but found means to take advantage ot 
his master's victories, by seizing upon the territories west of the In- 
dus, ceded to Nadir by the unfortunate mogul, and erecting a sove- 
reignty for himself at Candahar. Nadir Shah was assiissinated in his 
tent, in 1,747. 

6. By the invasion of the Persians, the power and glory of the 
moguls may be said to have been brought to an end. From that 
period the subordinate states, princes, and viceroys, began to aspire 
to a degree of independence, and to acquire a consequence lufoie 
unknown ; the mogul himself becoming a mere nominal sovereign. 
Those who were most raised at this time by the depression of the 
suitanic authority, appear to have been — 

The Nizam or Subahdar, of the Deckan ; the Nabot of Arcot, oi 
•he Camatic ; the Subahdar of Rengal ; the Nabob of Oude ; the 
llajahpoote Princes of Agimere ; the iMahrattas; the Seiks; the 
Ilohillas, and the Jats. 

The disputes and differences that took place between these several 
jwwers, alter they had shaken off the yoke of the mogul, opened 
the door tor the interference of the Etiropean settlers, towards the 
middle of the eighteenth century. (St,*e Sect. VI, § 2.) The French 
itfBt, and ai\erwards the English, contrived to take advantage of the 



MODERN HISTORY 398 

FivaJ cftims set up by the different native powers, and by rendering 
thena assistance againsi each other, J*nd it is to be feared greatly fo- 
meniins their quarrels, soon became acquainted with the manifest 
superionty of their own tactics, and the influence this must give them 
ia such contests. Th<^ French went farther, and first hit upon the 
expedieui of training the natives in the European manner, and in- 
corporating them with their own armies; these were called Sepoys. 

7. It was not long before the French and English, who had at first 
only taken the field as auxilaries, became opposed to each other as 
principuls ; in which conflicts the English succeeded beyond all ex- 
peclaiion, and instead of beingdriven out of the peninsula themselves, 
which was evidently in the view of the French under Dupleix, ia 
the year 1,751 and 1,752, found means to establish themselves there, 
through the victories of Clive, to the exclusion of all other European 
nations, except for purposes purely commercial. 

8. Ciive has justly been regarded as the founder of the British em- 
pire in India ; he was the first to procure for the company grants of 
territory and assignments of revenue, which totally changed the char- 
acter of our connexion with that country, and rendered the native 
princes, even the mogul hira'self subservient to our purposes. The 
English had received great provocation from the subahdar of Bengal, 
in an attack upon Calcutta, and Clive was selected by admiral Wat- 
son to recover from Sourajud Dowlah the town and fort, which had 
been surrendered to him. At the battle of Plassey, 1,757, he not on- 
ly succeeded in the recovety of Calcutta, but in the deposition of the 
subahdar, and having appointed his general in his room, obtained a 
grant of all the effects and factories of the French in Bengal. Bahar, 
and Orissa, and money contributions to the immense amount of 
;£2,750,000 sterling, exclusive of private gratuities. 

9. It would have been well if these advantages could have been 
acquired with less loss of credit to the nation than was actually the 
case ; but there was too much in these first steps towards a territorial 
establishment, to feed the ambition and cupidity of those intrusted 
with the management of affairs, to render it probable that they would 
keep clear of abuses. The opportunities that occurred of intermed- 
dling with the native powers, were eagerly seized upon as occasions 
for enriching the serva-nts of the company, (drawn from home in ex- 
pectation of making rapid fortunes,) at the expense of the company 
itself, whose affairs were in danger, not only of becoming more em- 
barrassed by the extraordinary expenses of such interference, but by 
the alien-^tion of the minds of the natives, under circumstances little 
short of the most determined plunder and persecution. In the man- 
agement of the new-acquired territories and inland trade, it is no 
longer to be do-jbted that the natives suffered in every possible man- 
ner, from the most unreasonable monopolies, exorbitant duties im- 
posed on articles of general consumption, abuses in regard to leases, 
and fiscal oppressions; so that the British name became dishonored, 
and it was found to be absolutely expedient that some change should 
take place in the admistration of affairs so remote from the seat of 
all rule and direction, and which, from simply commercial, were now 
clearly become political and military. 

10. The charter of the company being subject to periodical re- 
newals, afforded opportunities for the interfer-enre of the legislature, 
nor was the company itself backward under any pressure of pecu- 
niary embarrassments, to apply to government for assistance. On 
one of these occasions, the great change that had taken place in the 



3<M MODERN HISTORY. 

*late of things in India, induced the government at home to claim fof 
the crown all revenues arising from any now acqui^ition8 made b^ 
military force, and in order to r«?press Ihf itu)rdinalc proceedings of 
the company's servants, ot" which the natives l'»e public at liome 
and tlve company itself, had but too muclj reason to complain, gov 
emment also insister' upon taking 'nto its own hands the poiilica) 
jurisdiction of India 

1 1. Tliese claims and regulation? were fii-st proposed in parliament, 
November, 1,77'2, and may be said to liave laid the ft»unda(ion foi 
tliat enlarged system of administration and control which has prevail- 
ed since, ttiough under different modifications, from lord North's bill 
in 1,773 to Mr. Pitt's in 1,784. By this latter bill, a board of control, 
composed of certain commissioners of tlie rank of privy counsellors, 
was established, the members of which were to be appointed by the 
king, and removable at his pleasure. This board was authorized to 
check, superintend, and control the civil and military government 
and revenue of the company ; a high tribunal also, for the trial of 
Indian delinquents, was proposed at the s;»me time. The manage- 
ment of their commercial concerns was lelt in the hands of the com 
pany ; the political and civil authority only transferred to the crown 
In 1,78G, some alterations were made in the bill; the offices of com 
mander-in-chief and governor-general were for the future to be unit- 
ed in the same pei"son, and a power given to the governor-general to 
decide in opposition to the majority of the council. The uresidenciea 
of Madras and Bombay had been previously, by lord North's bill, 
olaced under the superintendency of the governor and council ol 
Beng;d, but by this bill that point also was contijmed. 

1^2. When this bill was passed, it appeared from the preamble, tc 
be decidedly the opinion ol parliament, of government, as well as of 
the court ol directors, whose orders had for some time breathod the 
same spirit, that " to pursue schemes of conquest and extension of 
dominion in India, were measures repugnant to the wish, the honour 
and the policy of the nation." It IukT previously been resolved b^ 
the house, '* that the maintenance of an inviolable character loi 
moderation, good faith, and scrupulous regard to treaty, ought to 
have been the simple grounds on which the British government 
should have endeavoured to establish an influence superior to othei 
Europeans, over the minds of the native powers in India ; and that the 
danger and discredit arising from the forfeiture of this pre-eminence 
could not be compensated by the temporary success of any plan ot 
violence and injustice." 

13. Such uas the tenor of the resolutions of the house of commons 
in 1,78^;, recognised as the principle of the bill of 1,784, and farther 
confirmed by an act passed in 1,793. In all we perceive an evident 
allusion to those mal-practices of the company's servants, which will 
for ever, it is to be feared, remain on record, in tarnish the lustre of 
our first victories and territorial acquisitions in India, and to tletracl 
from the reputation of persons, whose names njight otherwise ha\c 
justly stood high on the list of those, from whose pre-en)inent talents 
and abilities, the nation has derived both glory and advanta5e. 

1 4. The English system of jurisprudence had been extended to 
India by lord North's bill of 1,773, but under disadvi.ntages extreme- 
ly embarrassing. The difference of manners, habits, customs; the 
Jifficulty, if not impossibility, of mingling two codes, so very dissimi- 
lar as those of Britain and Hindoosian; the forms and technicalities 
of the English law totally unknown to the native courts • the ap- 



MODEKIs HISTORY. 595 

IKirent Injustice el* subjecting n people to Inws to which they wore 
no p«irties, and to which, of course, they hsul given no sunction; 
these, and other difficulties have l.een acknowledged \.y those who 
have had to administer the laws under the new system, in hidia, 
as having prevented those happy etiects taking place, which might 
otherwise have been expected from the introduction of the English 
jurisprudence. Since the passing of Mr. Pitt's bill, however, much 
benefit htis certainly been derived from the residence and superin- 
tendence of noblemen of the highest rank and abilities, as governors, 
general, and of judges the most enlightened, to preside in the Indian 
courts. The tii-st retbrms that were attempted under the new system, 
though not so successful as might be «vished, proceeded l^om those 
two most amiable and highly respected pcisonages, the marquis 
Cornwallis, and sir William Jones. 

15. From the conduct of lord Corriwallis, and his successors lord 
Teignmouth, and lord JMornington, now marquis Wellesley, it is ex- 
tremely evident that the system of neutrality and forbearance pre- 
scribed' by the resolutions of parliament, and pieamtjle of the act of 
1,784, would have been scrupulously adheied to had it been possible, 
consistently with the security of our settlements; but towards the 
close of the eighteenth century, the English were compelled to de- 
fend themselves from the most formidable designs of the celebrated 
Hyder Ally and his son Tippoo Saib, nho unquestionably had it m 
view to exterminate the l^ritish, and probably all other Europeans, 
fiom the peninsula of India. 

16. The result of these conllicts, which took place in Mysore, and 
the Camatic, was the total overthrow of a Mahomedan dynasty of 
onh two sovereigns, commencing with a mere adventurer of most 
singular character, wlio having waded through crimes to his object, 
succeeded in placing himself and his son on one of the most brilliant 
thrones of the east, and in a condition to give very considerable 
trouble to the English government there. 

17. Hyder Ally, the lather of Tippoo, was bom in 1,722. and died 
in 1,782. Tippoo was born in 1,753, and lost his life in the celebrat- 
ed assault ol the capital of his new dominions, Seringapatam, inl,799i 
They were very different men, having been differently edrcated. 
The former had strong natural powers, which compensated for his 
wan4 of acq-jired knowledge ; the latter was vain ol his scanty pro- 
ficiency in Persian literature, and a few otherattainments, toa degree 
of absurdity ; fancying himself the greatest philosopher of the age, 
the wisest, bravest, and handsomest of men. Hyder was tolerant in 
religious concerns to a degree of indifference ; Tippoo, a big'^ted 
mussulman, to the utmost pitch of intolerance and persecution. The 
former meddled little with religion. The latter contemplated changes 
in Islamism, as in every thing else, having, as a prehminary, substi- 
tuted a new em in his coins, dating from the birth instead of the flight 
of Mahomet. Both father and soli Vrcre devoid oi' principle, but the 
former was much the greatest man. 

18. It was owing to the vigilance and prompt measures of lord 
Wellesley, that Tippoo was so opportunely overthrown; though his 
proceedings were weak, they were carried on with much duplicity 
and deceit, and upon principles of alliance which in other circum- 
stances might have become very alarming. Under the most positive 
and repeated assurances of peace and amity, he had intrigued with 
France, Turkey, the king of Candahar, (a descendant of the cele- 
Drated Afllghan chief Abdallah,) the Nizam of the Deckao, and the 



S90 MODERN HISTORY. 

Mahrattas^ for the express object of forming a strong confederacy to 
«xtirpal3 the English ; in his negotiations with the courts of Canda- 
har and Constiijilinople, indeed, he had declared vengeance against 
the infidels generally, whence it has been reasonably concluded that 
nis schemes of destruction embniced all the European powers, the 
French not excepted, had his projects but been successful. Fortu- 
nately, lord VVeliesley detected all his plots, and when it became 
impossible to treat farther with him on any fair grounds, by the 
most decisive measures, and nipid movemenLs, effectually avert- 
e«l the blow that had been decidedly aimed at the British empire in 
India. 

19. On the fall of Seringapatam, the Mysorean dominions were, 
by allotments to the allies, the British, the iS^izjim,and the Mahrattas, 
nearly reduced to the limits by which they were bounded before the 
usurpation of Hyder, and, a surviving representative of the Hindoo 
dynasty, a child only live years old, placed on the throne, with an 
acknowledged dependency on the British government. The de- 
scendants of Tippoo being, however, liberally provided for. and 
settled in the Camatic, disturbances in the northern and north-western 
parts of the peninsula, among the Mahratla chieftains, occupied the 
attention of tne English army, in the early part of the present cen- 
tury, when a fresh opportunity was afforded of triumphing over the 
intrigues of the French, who headed the adverse tbrces, and endeav- 
oured to procure for that government a cession of the dlstiicts in- 
trusted to their care ; hut the issue of the contest was entirely in 
favour of the British. From this time the ascendancy of the British 
in the peninsula has continued so decidedlv established, as to render 
it needless to say any thinj^ of the other European settlements. 

JO. The acquisition ot territory in hidia, together with the new 
system of government and control, by rendering it necessary for peu- 
soiiS of learning and talent to reside there, have had the effect of im- 
pr<>ving our knowledge of those remote countries, and opened to ua 
a lield of inquiry and research, peculiarly interesting and curious.- 
Among those who may be considered as having most particularly 
contributed to these ends, we may reckon Mr. WiikiHsand sir William 
Jones: the former by having fii"st, with any real success, pursued the 
stuJy of the Sanscrit language, the root of all the vernacular dialects 
of the peninsula, and tliereby opened to the contemplation of the 
hi-itorian, the antiquarian, the ^)hilosopher, and the poet, whatever is 
interesting in the literature ot all the nations east of the Indus; and 
the latter, by instituting the tirst philosophical society in those pails, 
Btu\ inviting the learned, in all quarters of the globe, to propose que 
ric^ in every branch of Asiatic history, natural and civil, on the phi 
losophy, mathematics, antiquities, and polite liteniture of Asia, and 
on eastern arts, both liberal and mechanic, as guides to the invesliga 
tio'is of the persons resident in the peninsula, qualified to pursue 
such inquiries on the spot, and communicate to the world in general 
the results of their discoveries. 

21. To this learned society, first established in Bengal, under the 
presidency of sir William Jones, we are indebted tbr all those curious 
papers preserved in the several volumes of the Asiatic Researches 
and the Indian Annual Register, and which have so largely contrib- 
ule«l to enlarge the boundaries of oriental literature. To the names 
already mentioned, as having taken the lead in this curious branch of 
«cif uce, we may add those of our countrymen, Halhed, Vansittart, 
Shore, (lord TeigDmouth, the second president, on the death of sir 



MODERN HISTORY. 397 

William, 1.794,^ l>avie,Colebrook, Wiirord,RennelUHunt€i, Pentley, 
51arsden, Onne, Carey, Buchanan. Barlow, Harrington, Edraonstoii*, 
Kiikpatrick, ice. 

22. At the commencement of the present century, it became ob- 
vious to the marqujs of Wellesley, then governor-general, that the 
state of the British empire in India absolutely required, that the per- 
sons sent out to discharge the important functions of magistrates, judgesi 
ambassadors, and governors of provinces, should have some better 
means of qualifying themselves for such high stations and complicated 
duties, tlian were then in existence. His lordship's view of these 
matters, as recorded in the minute of council, dated August 18, 1,800, 

s nighly deserving of consideration, and his plan for forming and en- 
dowing a college for these purposes at Calcutta, reflect the highest 
credit on his wisdom and discernment, though the latter has not been 
carried into execution in the way his lordship proposed, for want of 
t'unds. The East India College, since establislied in Hertfordshire, 
may be considered as entirely owing to the adoption by the company 
of the enlightened principles contained in the minute alluded to. A 
system of oriental education is now effectually established, which, 
though on a much more contracted scale, and in a great measure con- 
fined to England, bids fair, it is to be hoped, to accomplish most of 
the ends contemplated by his lordship in his original design of founding 
a college at Fort William, in Bengal, namely, ^ to perpetuate the im 
mense advantages derived to the company from their possessions in 
India, and to establish the British empire in India on the solid founda 
tions of ability, integrity, virtue, and religion." 

23. Of the studies to be pursued, according to lord Wellesley's 
plan, a competent notion may be formed from the following list of 
professorships and lectures : — Arabic, Persian, Sanscrit, Hindostanee, 
Bengal, Telinga, Mahralta, Tamula, and Canara, languages ; Mahom- 
ed m law ; Hindoo law ; Ethics, civil jurisprudence, and the law of 
nations ; English law ; political economy, commercial institutions and 
interests of the East India Company, geugiaphy and mathematics; 
modem languages of Europe ; Greek, Latin, and English classics . 
^'•neral history, ancient and modern ; the history and antiquities o^ 
Hindoostan and the Deckan ; natural history ; botany, chemistry, and 
astronomy. 

24. Though the company saw reason to withhold its counterxance 
from the original institutioq, the studies above chalked out have been, 
in a great measure, adopted in the Hertfordshire college, and its g«;n- 
eral success hitherto has been pronounced answerable to the expecta- 
tions of those who were most solicitous in effecting its establishment 
The education of the young men, destined to fill the civil offices in 
India, is now therefore partlj^ European and partly Asiatic ; for so 
much of the collegiate establishment in India may be said to remain, 
that there the students, who have been taught in England the elemenis 
of Asiatic languages, are enabled to advance to perfection, and lo be- 
come masters of the several dialects prevailing tfirough the peninsula. 
Though the original plan of the noble founder of the college of Fort 
V\ illiam has not yet been adopted by the East India Company, yet to 
apply the words of one of the most distinguished of our orientalists, 
" Good has l>een done, which cannot be undone ; sources of uset'ul 
knowledge, moral instruction, and political utility, have been opened 
to the natives of India, which can never be closed." In 1,814, an 
ecclesiastical establishment, under the immediate auspices of govern, 
ment, was formed for India, the right reverend Dr. Thomas Faiisliaw 

LI 



808 MODERN HISTORY. 

Middletmi beinp: consecrated at the archiepiscopal palace, at Lambeih, 
Ihe first bu>n()i< ol Calculla. 

it must sjrpnse the English reader to be told, that the population 
of tlie British empire in India has been lately estimated at 90,000,000 . 



STATE OK ARTS, SCIENCES, RELIGION, LAWS, GOVERN- 
MENT, &c. 

1. The historical events of the eighteenth century have, we must 
confess, been found lo be of such magnitude and importance, as to 
occupy rather too large a space in a work professing to be merely 
elementary , but we should ue compelled in a still greater degree to 
exceed the limits assigned to us, if we werr; to attempt to enter into 
(he details of the very extraordinary progress that has taken place 
during the same period, in arts, sciences, and literature ; some changes, 
indeed, have occurred, and more been contemplated, in religion, laws, 
and government, but in regard to the former, almost all things have 
become new : we liave new arts and new sciences ; and in literature, 
such an overtlowin^ of books upon every subject that could possibly 
occupy or interest tne mind of man, that the most diligent compiler of 
catalogues would fail in endeavouring barely to enumerate them. 

2. It is somewhat extiaordinary, indeed, that this great and rapid 
advancement of knowledge has after all been confined to only a smaH 
portion of the globe. The great contiiirnt of Africa, though better 
known than in past times, has made no advances in civilization. Asia, 
though many parts have been diligently explored during the last centu- 
ry, and a large portion of it actually occupied by Europeans, remains, 
as to the natives, in its original state. The vast empire of China has 
made no progress at all. Japan has effectually shut the door agiinst 
all improvement. South America, indeed, though labouring under 
difficulties unfriendly to the progress of knowledge, is yet reported to 
be making no inconsiderable advances, particularly in Mexico, where 
both the art* and sciences are cultivated with credit and effect. In 
North America, also, the arts and sciences and literature may certainly 
be said to be in a progressive state, but under circumstances of rather 
slow and pa"tial improvement.* 

3. Civilized Europe is the only part of the world that can claim the 
credit of almost all that has been done towards the advancement of 
knowledge since the commencement of the eighteenth century, and 
only a few parts after all of civilized Europe itself. Turkey has stood 
still, as well as her Grecian dependencies, tiJI very lately. Spain, 
Portugal, and even the greater part of Italy, have laboured under dil- 
ficulties and restrictions exceedingly inimical to their advancement, 
and which have greatly arrested their progress in the career of letters 
and philosophy. The north anJ north-eastern parts of Europe have 
produced many learned men, have been diligently explored, and ma- 
terials at least collected for great improvements ; other parts are also 
upon the advance : but England, France, and Germany, are undoubl- 

[• rhe writer must be under a mistake, [s it not acknowledged through- 
out Europe, that the United States of North America are not only farther 
advanced, but faster advancing, in the discoveries of science, and that 
their progress in literature is more rapid, than any other uationof the new 
wurld ?J 



MODERN HISTORY. 309 

edly the principal countries to which we must look for the most strik- 
ing progress in every branch of human knowledge. In these three 
countries, in particular, discoveries; have now certainly been madf , and 
pnnciples established, which can never be lost again, and which must, 
as far as they may extend, be constantly operating to the lasting im- 
provement of the world at large. 

4. It would be quite unnecessary to go back to the origin, or former 
state, either of the arts or sciences, now known and cultivated in Eu- 
rope. It is pretty generally understood, that, comparative/y with th^ 
age of the world, they have been only very recently submitted to sucb 
processes as bid fair to bring them to the highest slate of perfection 
One art has helped another, and new s^ijnces otcn brought to light, 
that have greatfy promoted the advancement of those before unaer- 
slood and cultivated. Galvanism has assisted electricity ; and gal- 
vanism and electricity together been exceedingly serviceable to 
chemistry ; chemistry to mineralogy'', and so forth : new systems and 
arrangements, and new nomenclatures, have contributed greatly to 
render every step that has been taken more accurate and certain, and 
to place every object of attention or i#iquiry more exactly in the rank 
and order it should occupy in the general circle of arts and sciences ; 
but the thing of most importance of all, in regard to the improvemenis 
that have taken place since the beginning or middle of the eighteenth 
century, is, that every thing has been conducted exactly upon those 
principles, which the great lord Bacon so strongly recommended, and 
has, therefore, been found conducive to all those great ends, the neg- 
lect of which, in his own and preceding ages, he so much deplored : 
every thing has had a tendency to augment the powers, diniin.ih the 
pains, or increase the happiness of mankind. 

5. Amongst the sciences so cultivated and advanced, since the sev- 
enteenth century, as justly to be regarded as new, we may rank chem- 
istry, botany, electricity, galvanism, mineralogy, geology, and in many 
respects, geography : every one of these sciences has been placed on so 
very different a tooting, by the recent manner of treating them, and by 
new iliscoveiies, that it is better, perhaps, at once to consider them as 
new sciences, than to sfdvert to former systems, founded on totally er- 
roneous principles, and which have bejen, on that account, very rea- 
sonably exploded. 

6. Chemistry, however, even in the course of the period before us, 
has undergone very essential changes ; it is now not only a very differ- 
ent science from the chemistry that prevailed antecedent to the eigh- 
teenth century ; but the eighteenth centuiy itself has witnessed a re- 
jiarkable revolution in its leading principles : some, indeed, of the 
most important changes approach nearer to the nineteenth than the 
seventeenth century, if they do not actually belong to the former ; at 
all events, it was not till towards the close of the eighteenth century 
that chemical experiments had been pushed so far as to displace two 
of the elements of the old philosophy, and totally supersede the pre- 
vailing theory of heat, light, and combustion ; a theoiy wnich was 
itself not much more than half a centuiy old. Stahl, the celebrated 
disciple of Becher, born in 1,660, but who lived to 1,734, has the credit 
of being the author of the phlogistic system, which began to be attack- 
ed late in the last century, and seems now to be totally exploded. 
Whether the rival theory will ultimately maintain its ground in all 
points, may, perhaps, appear still doubtful to some : the French claim 
to be the authors of the new theory ; but though the experiments they 
very ably conducted were highly conducive to the establishment of it, 



400 MODERN HISTOKV. 

the way seems to have been more opened to tlieiii by others than they 
are willing^ to acknowledge, particularly by Eir^lish observers. The 
phlogistic system was a plausible theory in ^-ertain rt^spects, but io 
others totally indefensible ; and, perhaps, a better pitx^f of the (itility 
of repeated t*xj)eriments could not be produced, than that which a.*- 
certanied, that, in>tead of the extrication of a particular substance by 
combustion, something was undoubtedly added to, or imbibed by, the 
combustible l)ody, in order to the separation of its parts ; that, in f:ict, 
in the actual process of combustion, affinity produces a double decoin- 
i>o8it:on, and that a certain portion of the atmosphere enterinir into 
union with the combustible body produces all those appea:: rces 
which, under the fonier sv«:»->ni had been attributed to the ex-' 
trication of an unknown pnnciple of inflammability, denominated 
phlogiston. 

7. The very curious experiments, made to confirm and establish the 
latter system, have been of the greatest importance in regard to othei 
matters, particularly to that branch of the new chemistry which has 
been denominated the pnmmatic sjstem. The discoveries in this line 
of experiment, which has the air lor its subject, exceed, perhaps, all 
others in importance and interest : the analysis of the common atmos- 
phere has opened to our view a series of physical operations constant- 
ly going on, the most wonderful and delicate that can possibly be con- 
ceived : the respiration of animals is of this description. The atmos 
phere is now known to be a most curioas compound of tAvo sorts ol 
air, or gases, (as they have been named of late,) the one capable ot 
supporting life and Hame, the other destructive of both : in combus- 
tion, calc'nation of metals, and respiration, the process is the same,— 
a decomposition of the atmosphere : the pure part is imbibed, and the 
impure part left subject to further contamination, by what is given 
out by the combustible, calcining, or T«?^iring bodies during the ope- 
ration ; for, as it was before said, tlie decomposition in all instances is 
a double one ; the pro[>ortion of the two parts of the atmosphere has 
been ascertained to be in a hundred, twenty-two of pure or vitalj and 
seventy -eight of impure or azotic gas. 

8. The discovery of ihc vital air is acknowledged by M. Lavoisier 
to have been common to himself.with two other eminent chemists. Dr. 
Priestly and the celebrated Scheele. Dr. Priestly discovered it in 
1,774, Scheele in 1,777, M. Lavoisier in 1,775 : tlie former seems un 
doubtedly to have the best claim to the discoveiy. M. Lavoisier, at 
first, called it " highly respirable air ;" afterwards, as entirely essen- 
tial to the support otlife, "vital air:" Dr. Prie:*tly, wIk) lived and 
died an advocate for the phlogistic system. " dephlogisfcicated air :" 
and Scheele called it " empyreal air." It at last obtained another 
name, from its being sxtjjposed to be the cause of acidity, viz. " oxy- 
gen gas." 

9. Who is justly to be accotmted the father of (he pneumatic cnem- 
Istr}', it would, perhaps, be hazardous to say : Dr. Black of EdinburgJ 
ha> had the credit of being so, from his experiments on the carbonic 
acid. It has been claimed for Dr. Priestley, Scheele, and M. Lavoi 
sier : the discoveries in this line ceitainly constitute a gi-and era ii 
chemistry. The many various kinds o\ gases that have been now 
discovered ; the very curi(njs experiments made to ascertain iheii 
piTjperties : the instruments invented to render such experiments cer- 
tain , the new compounds that have been detected by ihfir means 
at»d their operation and elTecls in alm<»'^t every liranch of physics, i 
would far exceed our limits to descrilje but it is impossible not te 



MODERN HISTORY. 401 

notice the extraordinary discover^' of the decomposition of watery 
which belongs entirely to pneumatic chemistry. 

1.0. Till within less than hali a century ago, rvater was esteemed to 
be so certainly an elementary principle, that but tew ever dreamed of 
its being oJierwise ; and it was almost by acciden-t that it was at lasl 
found to be a compound. In the course of certain pneumatic experi- 
ments, it was ascertained by Mr. Cavendish, that -avater was produced 
by a combination of two particular gases : both analysis and syntiiesis 
were resorted to, to render this curious discoveiy more certain, and it 
was at length ascertained, not only that those two gases were constant- 
ly produced in certain pro^(3rtions from the decomposition of water, 
but that water was as constantly the result of a judicious mixture of 
those two gases : the gases thus constituting the proper principles of 
tvater, were the vital and inflammable airs ol the first chemical nomen- 
clature ol" modern days, better known now by the names of oxygen 
gas and hydrogen gas ; the latter evidently so called from its im- 
portance, as a constituent base or radical of water ; we owe the dis- 
covery of it to our countryman, Mr. Cavendish. The proportion be- 
tween the two gases in these curious experiments has been lound to be 
eighty-five of oxygen to fifteen of hydrogen : both oxygen and hydro- 
gen being combustible, their combination for experimental purpose^ 
is brought about by inflammation, through the means of tlie electric 
spark. 

11. Having given this short account of the leading discoveries m 
pneumatic chemistry ; discoveries which have opened to us totally 
new views, of certain physical operations of the first importance, and 
greatly extended our knowledge of chemical substances and their prop- 
er^.ies, simple and compound, visible and invisible, confine-able and 
unconfineable : we shall be compelled to be mucn more brief in what 
further relates to modem chemistry. 

12. Of late years almost all the .substances in nature have been ex 
amined ; and probably almost all the combinations of them, exhausted : 
new metals to a large amount, new earths, and new acids have been 
discovered ; the fixed allialis decomposed, and their nature ascertain- 
ed ; the whole range of chemical affinities and attractions nicely ar- 
ranged and determined, as far as experiment can reach ; and many 
elastic aeriform fluids brought to light, distinguished from each olhei 
by their different bases, which were totally unkno\Mi before to natural 
philosophers, under the forms in which they are now obtained ; and 
which have been thought deserving of being tbrmed into s. fourth ctass 
or kingdom^ amongst the productions of nature : the proper distinction 
of the.se elastic fluids, or gases, as tliey have been denominated, (after 
a term adopted by Vanhelmont, signifying a spirit or incoercible 
vapour,) being that of some base, saturated with the cause of heat or 
expansion, called in the new nomenclature caloric ; by means of some 
of these gases, so combined with caloric, a power has been obtained 
of fiising the most refrafctory substances in nature. 

13. To render the nice and delicate experiments necessary in this 
new branch of chemical science more accuiate, numerous instruments 
have been invented, of veiy curious construction ; such as the eudiom- 
eter, to measure the purity of any given portion of air ; the gazoniiler 
to measure the quantities, v'vc. of gases; the calorimeter, for measures 
of heat ; to which we maj add various descriptions of thermom<t\;rt 
and />i/romefer5, particularly the dijferential thermometer, invented by 
Mr. Leslie, of Edinburgh, and its accompaniments ; the pyroscope, 
or measure of radiant heat ; the photometer, to ascertain the intensity 

LI2 ^ « 



409 MODEKN HISTORY. 

of liftht; very curious and delicate balances^ some that are said to b*^ 
cap.inle of ascertaining: a weig^ht down to the seven milliontli part 
de>erve to be mentioned, as extrat)rdin;My instances jjI skillnl N\oik- 
inansliip ; many dillpient sorts ot hygrometers also ha>e been con- 
structed, particularly one by the >ame ingenious experimentalisi 
ali-eady mentioned. Mr. Leslie, calculated to render more correct the 
examination of all processes dependant upon e>aporation: but ii 
would be endless to attempt to describe the many instruments and con- 
trivances rendered necessary by the extreme delicacy and minutene.>> 
of modern chemical and pneumato-chemicai experiments; it is ^ulli- 
cient to state, hi a history of the progress of arts and sciences, th.in 
in all instances^ invention appeals tohaveicept pace with experiment; 
and that the world has been almost as much enriched by the new-in- 
vented means of discovery, as by the discoveries to which they have 
conduced ; while the skill and judgment requisite to construct tlu 
expensive aini complicated instrun>ents indispensably necessaiy foj 
asctrtainmg the analysi- and synthesis of bodies, with such exquisite 
precision, as to quantity and proportion, have conspired greatly i(. 
advance the several arts connected with f^uch machinery, as well as lu 
quichen the intelligence and ingenuity of the artists themsehes ; in 
this line, perhaps, nobody has acquiied greater ceiebritj than tlie late 
Mr. Kan^sden, the maker of the bahiHce of the lto3'al rSociety, who.se 
extraordinaiy powers have been alluc'a.tl to above. 

14. Among those who ha\e principally distirjguished themselves in 
the impr(>vement and adv;incement of chemical science, since tfie 
commencement of the eighteenth centuiy, we may justly mention the 
names of Stahl, Fourcroy, Macquer, Lavoisier, Guvtonnu>rveau, 
Berthollet, Klaproth, Vauquelin, Chaptal, Gay-Lussac, fcirwan, Ten- 
nant, VVollasto.i, Priestley, Cavendish, Black, Invine, Cra\^ford, 
Leslie, Hall, Thompson, Hrande, and Davy. To the last of whom, 
our illustrious countryman, we stand indebted for some of the most 
remarkable discoveries, and most laborious analyses of compound 
substances, which have takt.n place under the new system ; nor has 
he been deficient in applying his scientific attainments to practical 
purposes, in his elements ot chemical agricu'tu'-e, and above all, the 
najety-lmnp, whereby he may possibly, in combating the fatal effect? 
ot the fire damp in coal mines, have contributed to preserve the lives 
of thousands and thousands of his fellow creatures ; this discovery 
was the fruit of many most laborious, difficult, and even dangerous ex- 
periments. 

15. When we consider the many uses of chemistiy, and the im- 
mense advantages to be derived from every improvement of it in a 
variety of manufactures, in medicine, in metallui"gy, in the arts (»f 
dying, painting, brewing, distilling, tanning, making glass, enamels, 
porceli.m, and many others, we may easily conceive that the pmgre>« 
Hiid advancement of this one branch of science alone, during the last 
an(i present century, must have contributed larerclv to the improve- 
ment of many things, on which all the comforts ana conveniences, the 
happiness, ihe security, the well-being, the prosperity, and even the 
lives of men, depei d. 



BOTANY. 

\. BoTAfTY IS another ot the scieiKes, wliich, from the changes 
M has undergone, and the (j^reat prq^res* it has made since Ihe 



MODERN HISTORY. 403 

commencement of the eighteenth century, may justly be regarded as 
new. 

2. Already were the names of Kay, Rivinus, and Tonrnefort, well 
known to the lovers of this interesting^ study, forming as it were a new 
era in the history of botany, and imparting a iustre to the close of the 
seventeenth centuiy, for which it will ever be memorable. Their at- 
tempts at arrangement may be justly considered as the commencemeni 
of a career which wa.^ destinea to acquire its full degree (^f develope- 
ment during the eighteenth century, under the happy auspices of I'.e 
most celebrated botanist the world ever saw ; the great and illustricjs 
Linna?us. 

3. Tin's extraordfnary man was bom at Rashult, in the province of 
Smaland, in Sweden, on the 24th of May, 1,707, and before he was 
twenty -one years of age, had made himself so thoroughly acquainted 
with the study of plants, as well as with the merits and defects of his 
predecessors in that line, as to conceive the idea of remodelling the 
whole fabric of systematic botany, and of placing it on a new founda- 
tion, namely, the sexuality of vegetables. This bold and enterprising 
undertaking he not only projected, but accomplished with a rapidity 
and success that excited the wonder and astonishment both of iiis 
friends and enemies. 

4. His first work was published in 1,730, being a brief exposil ion of 
the new principle on which his system was to he foundecl; and tJie 
method may be said to have been completed in 1,737, when he pub- 
lished his Genera Plantarum^ which contained a description and ar- 
rangement of nearly one thousand genera, comprising upwards of 
eight thousand species, and constituting what has been since known by 
the name of the sexual system. 

5. At first it was eitlier opposed as a fanciful innovation, or received 
with doubt and distrust ; but its fame soon began to spread, and ic 
bear down before it all opposition, till it ultimately met with the 
almost universal reception of botanists in every country' in Europe. 

6. In 1,742, Linnaeus was chosen professor of botany at Upsal, and 
in 1,753 he published his Species Plantarurn. His authority was now 
supreme, and the impulse he communicated to the study of vegetables 
unprecedented in the annals of botany ; hence the various voyages 
that were undertaken by hfs immediate disciples, Kalm, Laepling, 
Hasselquist, and others, or which have been since undertaken by their 
successors, aided by the munificence of princes, or the zeal of private 
individuals, as well as the various societies that were sooner or later 
instituted, with a view to the advancement of botanical knowledge ; 
amongst which the Linnasan society of London, founded in 1,788, stands 
pre-eminent, under the presidency of sir James Edward Smith, one 
of the most distinguished of the followers of Linnaeus, and the pos- 
sessor of his herbarium, library, and manuscripts. 

7. The acquisitions thus made to the mass of botanical knowledge, 
are altogether astonishing. Botanists are now said to be acquainted 
with upw^ards of forty thousand species of plants ; and still there are 
regions of the earth unexplored, and flowers w^ithout a name, (" et sunt 
sine nomine Jioresy^ 

8. We cannot, however, refuse to acknowledge that botany has also 
derived the most important advantages from such cultivators of the 
science ac cannot be ranked amongst the disciples of Linna»us, though 
they have equally contributed to the advancement of the knowledge of 
plants, at least in tlie department of the study of their natural affini- 
ties ; the grand and ultimate end of botany, which Linnaeus himself 



itm MODERN HISTORY. 

knew well how to appreciate, and even to improve, as may be seen in 

his prelections publisiied by Giseke, and in his Frafftnents of a .Xatu- 
rod Method. But it was left for the ilhistrious Jussien, the most ac- 
complished bofanist ot' the present :\%o, to <^ive to that me'hod (he 
conjparative perfection which it has actually obtained, and to ei-ecf 
the noble superstructure o( his Genera Plantarum ; a work exhibiting 
the most philoso])hical arrang^ement of plants, as well as the most 
complete view of their natural affinities, that was ever presented to 
the contemplation of man. 

9. This work was published at Paris in 1,789, and the natural 
method of Jussieu, which may be rcj^arded as having at all times 
st«x>d ir. opposition to the artificial method of Linnwus, seems now to 
be advancing to a more direct rivalship than ever. Even in the 
works of such botanists as profess to be the disciples of Linnseus, tliere 
seems to be a leanirig to the method of Jussieu ; but whether the 
natural method of the latter will be suffered ultimately to prevail, or 
the artificial method of the former, time only can sht)w. 

10. Great, however, as the progress of systematic botany has un- 
doubtedly been, during the course c»f the last and beginning of the 
present century, the progress of physiological botany has perhai)s 
been still greater. In proof of this, it will be sutTicient to mention the 
names of Hales, Bonnet, Du Hamel, Hedwig, Snallanzani, Gaertner, 
Knight, Keith, and Mirbel ; each of whom has distinguished him.self 
in the held of phytological investigation, and eminently contributed to 
the advancement of the science. Above all, we must not fail to men- 
tion the name of Priestley, as being the first who introduced into the 
study of phytology the aid of pneumatic chemistry, which, under the 
nappy auspices of Ingeiihouz, Senebier, Saussure, Ellis, and Dan', 
and lastly of Gaj'-Lussac and Kenard, has done more to elucidate the 
phenomena of vegetation, than all other means of investigation, and 
nas furnished as the foundation of the physirlogj' of plants a body of 
the most curious and undoubted facts. 

11. Before we dismiss this part of our surject, it is not unfit that we 
should notice the extraordinary progress that has been made at the 
same time in distinct branches of the science, as well as in the appli- 
cation of the arts of drawing, engraving, and colouring, for the pur- 
poses of illustration, and tor exhibiting to the eye, at all times, in al" 
places, and at all seasons, the beautiful and interesting productions or 
the vegetable kingdom, in such perfection, as, iri seme degree, to su- 
persede the necessity of living specimens ; sometime? so raie and in- 
accessible as to be out of the reach of the most scientific. There is 
no branch of knowledge which has turnished more splendid and elabo- 
rate works of this nature, than that of botany, or in which the arts have 
been carried to a greater degree of perfectic^n and delicacy ; ami as a 
study so elegant and agreeable cannot well be rendered tof) general, 
it is pleasing to observe, that throucrh ttie improvements that have thus 
taken place, and the facilities afforded to such publications, rujt a 
month passes in this kingdom without lai^e additions being made to 
the general stock of botanical knowleflge, in work^ of singular beauty 
and correctness ; though far from costly, considering the pains bestow- 
ed upon them. 

12. The lovers of botany stand greatly indebted also, to those 
leanvid persons who have made it thrir particular business to collect, 
examine, and describe the plants of countries ani"i districts, and tc 
supply them with distinct Flora", both foreign and domestic, as the 
Flora Britannica of Smith, the Flora Anglica of Hudson, the Flora 



MODERN HISTOKY. 40b 

Scotica of Lightfoot, the Flora Cantabrigiensis of Relhan, the Flora 
Oxoniensis of Sibthorpe, the Flora Londinensis of Curtis, the Flora 
Graica, the Flora Peruviana, the Flora Danica, the Flore Francoise, 
and others much too numerous to mention ; in the same class may be 
reckoned those works which are still further confined to the descrip- 
tion or illustration of particular genera of plants, as in our own country, 
the Carices, by Goodenough ; the Grasses, by Still ingtleet ; the 
Menthae Britannicae, by Sole ; the Pines, by Lambert ; the Fuci, by 
Turner ; and various others. 



ELECTRICITY. 

1. Though the property of excitation existing m amber, (elekfr>m,) 
appears to have been known to Thales six hundred, and to Theophras- 
lus three hundred years before Christ, yet electricity (which takes its 
name from this circumstance) and galvanism, as it is still called, may 
decidedly be regarded as sciences which have sprung up during the 
period to which our present inquiries belong. It was not, indeed, till 
towards the middle of the eighteenth century that experiments in 
electricity were pursued with any degree of ardojr,. success, or ad- 
vantage. Mr. Hawksbee wrote learnedly upon the subject in 1.709. 
but it was not till twenty years afterwards that .Mr. Grey and M. du 
Faye at Paris, engaged in some experiments whicli contributed to 
throw light upon the subject. Mr. Grey, rho resumed his expern 
ments in 1,734, saw enough to ead him to suppose that the electric 
fluid and lightning were the same, which was not, however, effectually 
proved till the year 1,752, when the celebrated Dr. Franklin, tif 
America, with g^reat ingenuity, and no small degree of courage, ascer- 
tamed the lact by decisive experiments ; a discovery which he soon 
applied to practical purposes, by the invention of metallic conductors 
for the security ot buildings, ships, &:c.. during storms. 

2. As experiments couici not be profitably undertaken till a sm'table 
apparatus was provided, it is equally evident, that the improvement 
01 such apparatus must greatly have depended on the progress of the 
science. The Leyden phial for the accumulation of the electrical 
power in glass, was invented about 1,745, and the general apparatus 
praduallylmproved by Van Marum, Cuna^us, Dr. Noo^h, Mr. Nairr»e, 
Dr. Priestley, Messrs. Read, Lane, and Adams. To professor Volta, 
of Como, we stand indebted for two very useful and important electri- 
cal instruments, the electrophorus, and condenser of electricity. Man}' 
sorts of electrometers for measuring the quantity and quality of elec- 
tricity in an electrified body, have also been invented. 

3. In 1,747 electricity began to be used for medical purposes, and 
was supposed to be of efficacy in cases of rheumatism, deafness, palsy, 
scrofula, cancers, abscesses, gout, &ic. ; but the progress of medical 
electricity has not been great, while the want of an apparatus, and the 
knowledge and skill requisite to apply it properly, must always pie- 
vent its becoming any very common remedy. 

4. Galvanism, which may be said to have been engrafted on elec- 
tricity in 1,791, was the discovery of the celebrated Galvani of 
Bologna; it has been called animal electricity ; his first experiments 
having been Tm.de on animals, and tending manifestly to prove the 
identity of the nenous and electric fluids, though this was for some 
time doubled. M. Galvani discovered that, without any artificial 
electricity, and by merely presenting some conducting substance to 



400 MODERN HISTORY ^ 

different parts of the nenes or muscles of a dissected frog, violent 
motions were produced, exactly similar to those which were excited 
by a discharge of the electrical machine. 

5. The discovery of M. Galvaiii has since led to veiT important 
ends, ihmugh the g^reat care and attention of M. Volta, wno, improv- 
ing upon his discovery of the powei: of conductors, has been enabled 
to -supply the philosophical world v.ith an instrument of very extraor- 
dinary powers, especially for purposes of chemical decomposition. 
At first M. Volta was led to suppos(? that it required only a set of dif- 
ferent conductors, two metals and a fluid, to collect and distribute the 
electrical matter ; he considered that, upon these principles, he had 
produced an artificial imitation ot the electrical powers exhibited by 
the torpedo, the gymnotus, silurus, and tetrodon electricus ; but further 
disco>eries demonstrated that there was a chemical agency going for- 
ward all the time, and that much depended on the action of the fluids 
on the metals, which are all naturally excellent conductors, but become 
non-conductors when oxydated, some being more easily oxydated than 
others. The voltaic pile is a simple galvanic coml)ip'ition ; a serie? 
of them forms a batter}'. The most pert'ect galvanic combination is 
held to consist in such an arrangement of metals, exposed to the action 
of an oxydating fluid, as are liable to very difierent changes ; the 
a^reatest and the least. In every simple galvanic combination, water 
IS decomposed, die oxygen entering into union with the metal, and the 
hydrc^en Ijeing evolved. 

6. Since this discoveiy, many have engaged m electro-chemical re- 
searches, of the utmost importance, particularly our own country-man. 
sir Humphrey Davy. His experiments on the alkalis and earths, ana 
discovery ot their me allic nature, being in themselves suflicient to 
show how wide a range of inquirj' is opened to the experimentalist, 
by this powerful agent ; it being reasonable to suppose, that there is 
scarcely any Substance in nature, either above or below the surface of 
the earth, that is not subject, more or less, to the chemical agencies 
of electricity. Heretofore tlie observations of the philosopher were 
chiefly, if not entirely, confined to those sudden and violent changes 
which take place through any powerlul concentration of the electric 
fluid. These new discoveries seem to afford him a fair chance and 
opportunity of tracing some at least of those manifold changes which 
may be brought about in a more quiet, tranquil, and insensible man- 
ner \ and which, in all probability, are incessantly operating effects, 
hitherto little known and little suspected. It is obvious that medicine, 
chemistry, physiology, mineralogy', and gcok^y, may all be greatly 
a.ssisted by a more perfect knowledge of such curious and hitherto 
hidden processes of nature Before the galvanic method of excitirig 
electricity had been discovered, many very curious experiments had 
been made, to prove the influence of electricity on tne atmosphere, 
magnetism, vegetation, muscular motion ; in earthq^uakcs, volcaiioes, 
and other natural appearances and operations ; all ol which are likely 
to become better known, and further illustrated, by the application of 
the electro-chemical apparatus, which, since its first invention, has been 
already greatly improved. It may not be amiss to observe, that meteo- 
rology", as a particular branch of knowledge, has been great 'y aided 
by all the improvements spoken of above in chemistry and electricity, 
and in the invention ot many instruments, veiy simpfe, but chiefly tc 
be referred to the eighteenth cer.tur}' ; as the barometer, the thermom- 
eter, the hydrometer, the pluviameter, or rain-gauge, the anemometer 
and electrometer already mentioned. Amongst the most emment of 



A10D£HN HISTOKV. MTs 

Uiose who have applied themselves lo this study ,^ we may reckon 
Messrs. Bou^wer, Saussure, De Luc, Gay-Lu5sac, Van-Marurn, Fer- 
giisoii, Cavailo, ic. ; Drs. Franklin, Blagdeu. and Piiestley ; MesBre. 
Lanton and Beccaria. 



MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 

1. Mineralogy and geology are reasonably to be reg-arded as new 
►ciences since the close ot ihe seventeenth century, having been cul- 
tivated from that time in a nianner totally new, and greatly advanced 
by the progress made in other sciences, and the improvement of many 
arts. They are both, however, still so much in their inlancy, that a 
very brief account of what has taken place during the last ana pieseot 
century is tiie utmost that we can attempt. 

2. It was not till towards the middle of the last century, that the 
modern scientific arrangements of minerals began to occupy the atten- 
tion of naturalists. That indefatigable observer. Linnaeus, did not 
overlook this branch of natural history, but introduced into the tweltth 
edition of his " Systema Xaturce," published in 1,768, a systematic 
view of " The Regnum Lapideum," which he divided into three 
classes, jjetrcEy minerc^, znd fossil ice, many orders, and fifty-four gene- 
ra. In 1.793, Gmelin i^published the "'' Systema Naturae" ofLin- 
tiaeus, with alterations and improvements. 

3. Linnaeus did not take the lead in such arrangements : in his own 
Tvork he notices the preceding systems of Bromelius, who published 
in 1,730 • Wallerius, in 1.747': Woltersdorf, in 1.748 ; Curtheuser, in 
I 775 : Justi, in 1,757 : Cronstedt, in 1.758 ; and \ ogel. in 1,762, 
Limiaes.js, however, has the credit of having first reduced the science 
of minerp.logy into classes and orders, and Wallerius and himself un- 
dertook the arduous and hazardous task of fixing the specific characters 
of minerals. Wallerius's second system appeared in 1 ,772. In 1 ,781 , 
VeUheim published his system at Brunswick, and in 1,782, Berga- 
man's made its first appearance at Leipsic. 

4. Before this time the celebrated Werner, profes-wrof mineralogy 
at Freyburg, in Saxony, had published a Meatise on the classification 
of minerals, according to their external characters, which was more 
ully illustrated in hisnotes to a translation of Cronstedt, which ai>- 

peared in 1,780. Werner has obtained a name amongst mineralo£;ists 
and geologists, which stands deservedly high; though he seems only 
to have prepared the Avay for the obser\.?tions and experinients of 
others, by an accumulation and description of facts and appearances, 
extremely curious and valuable. Tlie fiindamental princifjle in Wer- 
ners mineralogical arrangement, is the natural alTinity of ibssils, of 
which he enumerates three kinds : the chemical, the orvctogiKDStical. 
and the geosrnostic. ^ir. Kinvin first introduced the Wenierian sys- 
tem into Britain, in his treatise on mineralogy. 1.784. 

5. In 1,773, the stud}- of the regular or crs'stalline forms ot minerafe 
seemed to give a new turn to mineralog}'. 't'he first work of emim nee 
in this line. was the Crystallc^raphie of the celebrated Rome de F hie, 
which was made the basis ot' the system of Mauy, published in 1,»<01 
All mineral bodies are supposed by this system to be reducible by 
mechanical division to an integrant molecule. From the form and 
-onpnnent parts, it has been proposed to deduce the specific charac- 
ter- The forms of the integrant molecule are tound to be three ; the 
letraoedrrHi, the triangular prism, and the parallelapiped. Much 



40U MODERN HISTORY. 

attention has heen paid to this system, ami it must he acknowledged 
that it the tt'>»s jnopuMMl wi-re erisily to ho applied, and chemistry 
had pix,ceeded so laras thoroij<:Chly to enahle iis to distinguish hetween 
the accidental and essential in;i;redients ot mnierals, as has been done 
in some remarkahle instances with nmch etiect, more direct meaas of 
distingui-liinij: minerals could scarc(;ly he devised : but as things stand 
at piisent, tliere seems to he too fnuch geometiy and chemistry ne- 
cessary to render such a system generally uselul. In l,fiO0, however. 
M. Chevenix, in the Annales de Chymie, gave great support to the 
>-:ystem ol' Hauy, to the disparagement of that of Werner, to whom, 
nevertheless, he is careful to give due praise. Crystallization wil 
long renjain, pmbably, a subject of most curious research and inquiry 
among geologists as well as mineralogists; the appearances of it in 
prnnitive rocks, leading immediately to the grand question concerning 
tht; operations (^f tire and water, which have <iivided the cultivators of 
this branch of study into the two \r.\rUits o( Platonists, who contend foi 
the ig^neous origin o' those rocks, and the Keptunists^ who refer tliem to 
an aqueous origin: of the latter of which, was the celebrated Werner. 

6. Many other systems, more or less connected w ilh Werne^-'s, have 
been made public, as Brochart's, Schmeisser's, 1,795; Babington's, 
1,796 ; Bn/gniart's, (a very useful and valuable one,) Kidd's, 1,809 ; 
Clarke's, 1,811 ; one b}-^ Mr. Arthur Aikin ; and, lastly, that of Ber- 
zelius, a Swedish chemist, who has lately attempted to establish a 
pui-e scientific system of mineralogy, oy the application of the electro- 
chemical theory and the chemical proportions : as this system is 
closely connected with the latest discoveries and improvements that 
have Leen made in chemisliy and electricity', we shall here close our 
remarks on mineralogy, as a science by no means perfected, but open 
to further experiments and observations, though very materially ad- 
vanced since the close of the seventeenth centuiy 

7. Geology has arisen out of mineralogy ; and though no new 
science as to name, is entirely so according to the principles upon 
which it is now conducted. Werner was for giving a new name at 
once to the new science, which was a judicious step to take, though it 
has not been generally adopted ; he called it Geog^nosie : it is tit, in- 
deed, that it should be distinguished from the geology of old, which 
only engendered a parcel of iancitul theories of the earth, unfounded 
on facts. How the globe was formed, is a very different inquir)' from 
that of "what has happened to it since it was I'ormed : modern 
geology is chielly conversant with the latter ; to examine the interior 
of the earth, as I'ar as it can be examined, in order to understand the 
course of the revolutions and changes that have t^kcn place, and of 
which we perceive the most manifi'st proofs already very extraf»rdi- 
nary circumstances Fiave been discovered, indicative ot successive 
changes, both before and after any oiganic beings existed, and there- 
fore both before as well as after the globe became strictly habitable; 
among tlie most curious effects plainly to be traced, may be reckoned 
the extensive operations of fire and water, Hie extinction of many 
species of vegetables ami animals, and the very extraordinary preser- 
vation of some of the latter, bespeaking a state of congelation, at the 
moment of the catastrophe by which tliey appear to have been over- 
.vhelmed ; remains of animals in places where they no longer exists 
and the extraordinary absc^nce of human reliquiae. The science of 
(x>mparative anatomy has been of git^it use in these researches, in 

vhich nobody has distinguished hiiiiself so much as M- Cuvier, secre- 
tary of the French Institute. 



MODERN HJS'J'OKY. 409 

8. Many ecological societies are forming, or have been alread3r 
formed, in different parts of Europe and in America, and professor- 
ships founded in our universities ; but it will be long, perhaps, before 
the severa^ observatior^ and discoveries makino: in all |>art= of the 
world, can be so compared, classed, and methodized, as to bring out 
Mich results as may be admitted for certain and indisputable truths, in 
ngard to the history of the earth and of man. In the mean while, we 
nlould consider that geologists have always a field to work in, abound- 
ing in materials so applicable to every useful art as to promise con- 
tinual accessions of knowledge, not merely scientific, but of real 
piactical utility. 

We ouffht not, perhaps, to dismiss this part of our subject, without 
noticing the very curious geological map of England, published by 
our countryman, Mr. Smitn, in 1,815, a work of great merit -end 
orij»maJity. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

1 We have mentioned geography^ also, as among those sciences 
whir!\ may be regarded as almost new, not only because it is since the 
mid ii 8 of the last century that we have acquired a more correct knowl- 
edge 3f the figure of the earth, but from the extraordinary manner in 
which the whole terraqueous globe has been explored of late, and the 
additnns consequently made to our former knowledge of its parts: 
the discoveries that have taken place since the close of the seventeenth 
centuif, have, according to tlie French sreographers, presented to it. 
(wo m w quarters of the world, and which have been denominated 
Austrci^AXsia and Polynesia. The following account may serve to ex- 
plain t lese additions to modem geography : 

2. Ihe former is held to contain, 1. New Holland, and all the 
islands bet^veen twenty degrees west, and between twenty and thirty 
degree*, east oi" it. 2. New Guinea and the islands adjacent. 3. New 
Britain New Ireland, and the Solomon Isles. 4. New Caledonia and 
the Neu Hebrides. 5. New Zealand. 6. Van Dieman's Land, which 
]s sepa. aled from New Holland by Basse's strait or channel, and is 
about tl irty leagues wide. 

3. Tlie division cSiWed Polynesia, consists of, 1. The Pelew Islands 
2. The Ladrone or 3Iarian Islands. 3. The Carolines. 4. The 
Sandwich Islands. 5. The Marquesas, which are very numerous. 
6. The Society Islands, about sixty or seventy in numSer. 7. The 
Friendlj Islands. 8. The Navigators' Islands. The lai^est island 
in this division is Owhyhee. one of the Sandwich Islands, and tlie 
place where the celebrated circumnavigator, Cook, lost his life. 

4. Thf voyages and travels conducive to these discoveries are too 
enerally known to be much dwelt upon in such a work ss the present 
t will be sutticient merely to mention the names of those who, since 

the years 1,735 and 1,736. (when the Spanish and French mathemati- 
cians und«^rtcK)k their celebrated missions to measure a degree of the 
meridian under the pole and at the equator,) have been employed by 
the different powers of Europe on voyages of discovery. 

5. Of the English we may enumerate : 

Byron, 1.764—1,766. Mr. Harrison's time-piece applied to the 
discovery of the longitude. 

Wallis and Carteret, 1,766. Sailed together, but soon sepantsd; 
Otaheite and other islands discjovered. 



f, 



!!• MOrKKN TriSTORY. 

Cook, three voya^» : — 

First voyage, 1,768—1,771. i li*> Jl.(l)^it ot \'(.niis observed at 
M.jtn\ni, in OtalieltP, June. 1,769. New Holland, and New Z»:alnnd 

Soci»i-.d voyage, 1,772 — 1,775, in search of a southern continent. 

Tliini M)\-.vp:4', 1,776 — l,7no, to <li>c()ver a nortliern passage; fatal 
lo Ciii'tain C»)<>k, ulio wri^ killfd .it 0>vliyhee. 

Porlloch and Dixon, 1,783 — 1,7CC ; principally to establish the fur 
irode, ai Noolka Sound. 

Vancouver, 1,790 — 1,795, to explore tlie northern passage. Uasuc- 
Be«%l'ul. 

Phipp.s (lord Mulgrave,) north pole, 1,773. 

lA)rd Mocartney, China, 1,792. 

Lord Amherst, ditto. 1,016, 1,017. 

Of the t'rfcnch ue may reckon, 

Bougainville, 1,766— 1,7'!- S. 

La Peyroube, l,7i<6 — 1,788, supposed to have perished. 

D'Entricaisteuy, in search of La Peyrouse. 

iMarchand, 1,790 — 1,792. 

The Spaniards appear to have employed Malaspina, an Italian, 
f.790, lo explore di slant seas and countries; but his voyao;e was not 
publislied. The^e were all of them voyages, not merely devoted tc 
geographical discoveries, but in which competent pei-soiis, in almost 
evpiA' branch of hcitnce, were concerned, to take account of whaf<-\er 
should offer itself Jo their notice, or be likely to contriltute, in any 
•umner whatsoever, to the general advancement of human kno^Aledge; 
astronomy, botany, zoology, meteorology, physiology, mineralogy, 
md geology. Trade and commerce, navigation and the arts, were 
constantly in the way of receiving illustration or improvement, during 
ihes, bold attempts to advance the geography of the world, and soh c 
•J.e difficulties which still seemed to hang about that interesting and 
important science. The names of Banks, Solander, Green, Sparrman, 
Forster, and Anderson, will descend to the remotest posterity, with 
that of Cook. 

6. War often, indeed, interrupted these pursuits, but tne eighteenth 
cenluty has the cred t of affording the following strong marks of the 
progress of civiiizatitn and liberal ideas. It was during a cr>nlir.ental 
vvar, thc<( a com])inj tion of learnr;d and scientific pei-sons, Engli^^b, 
French. Russians, Danes, and Swedes, in the year 1,761, laying aside 
dieir animosities, und( rtook the arduous task of ob>erving, for astro- 
nomical and geograpl.ical purposes, a transit tif Venus over the sun. 
It was in the midst of war, that France, in a ver}' public and formal 
inMiner, susj)en(led al bosiilitie.s that could in am' manner affect the 
pi< gress or safe return of our English navigator. Cook ; and both the 
Fn nch and English, in the course of their voyages of discovery, are 
km wn to have evinced a spirit of philanthropy and humanity veiy 
opposite to what had passed on such occasions in former ages. The 
improvement of every barbarous and savage people they might visit, 
\\H.. among the first thoughts of those who were engaged in these new 
adAentures. Some remarkable directions to this effect, given by 
Lo.iis X\'I. himself to La Peyrouse, will A)r ever do hoiu.ur lo the 
nv mory of that benign but ill-lated monarch. The English cii-cuin- 
II? v'igators were not less attentive to th»'se things, but continually S()ught 
the amelioration of the savage contlition of the people they \i3ited: 
too often, however, quite in vajn, or without any fasting effect. 

7. It would be utterly out of our power lo enter into any details o/ 



MODERN HISTORY. 411 

tfie numerous researches that have been made in all parts of the globe, 
since the spirit of discovery was first excited, which has so remarkably 
distiii^ished the period o( which we are treating. In the north and 
south, east and west, of both hemispheres, almost every region has 
been explored, and every information obtained that can throw light on 
the history either of the earth or of man. The two peninsulas o* 
India, Persia, Aiabia, Egypt, and Abyssinia, the northern and the 
southern, and, in some instances, the interior parts of Africa ; Syria, 
Greece, and Turkey ; Norwaj", Lapland, Siberia, and even the wilds 
of Tartary and Kamschatka ; New Spain ; the back settlements of 
North America, and North America itself ; Iceland, Greenland, &:c., 
have a!l been visited by persons of science and learning, and are almost 
as well known now, as the most frequented and civilized parts ot' Eu- 
rope ; all that can be ascertained of their history ; all that the re- 
mains of antiquity could unfold to fhe eye of curiosity ; all the animals, 
plants, minerals, they produce ; have been so amply exam.ined, de- 
scribed, classed, and methodized, that it may reasonably be supposed, 
that in very many instances, all that can be known is known. Among 
the travels enumerated, the scholar, in particular, has been in no or- 
dinary degree gratified by the visits that have been recently paid to 
modern Greece, and by the able, classical, and scientific descriptions 
which have been given of that very interesting portion of the conti- 
nent, by lord Byron, Mr. Hobhouse, major Leake, Dr. HoiJand, sir 
William Drummond, Dr. Clark, lord Aberdeen, sir VVilliam Gell, and 
others of our o^vn countrymen : and by M. Pouqueville, who having 
accompanied Buonaparte to Egypt, at the close of the last century 
was among the first to explore those celebrated regions. 

8. The new means of inquiry and investigation, have so kept i>ac 
with the wide field lately opened to the world, that even individuah 
have been found competent to bring home with them from the most 
remote countries, ample 'nformation upon all the great points that can 
possibly interest the curiosity of man ; a greater instance of this, could 
not, perhaps, be produced, than in the case of a living traveller and 
author, the celebrated M. Humboldt, of Prussia, whose multifarious 
researches, at a very early age, in almost all parts of the globe, have 
added more to the general stock of knowledge in the compass of a veiy 
few years, than could have been attained by ages of inquiry in times 
at all distant. In speaking of this very celebrated traveller, whose 
accounts of Spanish America in particular have lately excited so much 
att'-ntion, it is fit also to notice the removal of many restraints and im- 
pediments in the way of such researches, through the more liberal 
pulicy of the mother country ; so far from expressing, as would have 
been the case in former times, any jealousy of such a visit to her colo- 
nies, M. Humboldt obtained the express approbation and concurreirce 
of the Spanish court. The removal of the court of Portugal to th»' 
Brazils in the year 1,807, has also proved favourable in no small de- 
gree to the prosecution of such inquiries ; the king having, with coiv 
siderable liberality, patronised such undertakings. 

9. The sovereigns of Russia, from the time of Peter the great, 
through a natural desire of acquiring a correct knowledge of their very 
extended dominions, buried, at the close of the seventeenth centur}', 
in profound ignorance and obscurity, were careful to employ proper 
persons to make such discoveries, who so ably dischai^ed theii com- 
missions, that before the end of the eighteenth centuiy, a very cele- 
brated German professor declared that tiiey had amassed such a quan- 
tity of materials, entirely new, for the histoiy of the three kingdoms 



IK 



4it MODERN HISTORY. 

of nature, for the theory of the earth, for rural economy, and for an 
infjrjity of other olnecU? relative to the arts and sciences, as would ein- 
pI(>V many le.'«rned nun tor^e\eral ye;<i>>, in fl)eir proper arranjjt inenl 
ana tiassitication. Tlu- iiMnies ot Bt*crin'^ and Spangberg, Pa)U<s. 
GnieUn, MulU-r, Chappe D'Auleroche, (jleor^i, Leptchin, are well 
known, a*- among those who have most distinguish^'d thenjgelves in 
these northern and noith-easten) expeditions. Amoii^ the improve- 
ments connected with the science ol' get>g:raphy, and its prt){iress, we 
should he ^lad if we could do justice to tlve veiy learned and eminenl 
person* who have, in a manner unkiiown before, devoted their time lo 
the more coirect delineation of the face of the plobe, in tlie cou-tHJC* 
tion of maps and charts, which seem to be advancing rapidly lo the 
highest degree of perfection. M. d'Anville, whose labours in ilii» 
way are so well known, may be justly considered uerhaps as ha\irj^ 
given tlie first stimulus in this line of stud}', to Ine geographers ol 
modern times. 

10. As the science of astronomy is in many instances connected with 
geography, we. may here notice the changes that have taken place ic 
regard lo the former, during the last and present centuries ; which, 
however, beii^ only in the way of addition upon the established prin- 
ciples of the Copernican and Newtonian systems, are not such as can 
be said lo have altered the character of the science ilself ; and, indeed, 
the additions that have been made are veiy easily enumerated, though 
they nmst have cost much pains, and are the results of very curious 
obser\atioiiS and intricate calculations, on the part of those to whom 
we stand indebted for them. 

11. We have added five planets to those formerly known as belong 
Ing to our solar system. The Georgium Sidus, or Uranus, discovered 

y the celebrated sir W. Heischel, 1,781, and its satellites, 1,787, 
Ceres, by M. Piazzi, at Palermo, 1,801 ; Pallas, by Dr. 01 hers, at 
Bremen, 1,802; Juno, by M. Harding of Lilienthal, in 1,804; and 
Vesta, by Dr. Olbers, 1,807. To the fomier of these celebrated ob- 
servers we owe a most cnlarf::ed knowledge of the celestial regions, 
oarticularly of the nebulous parts, Irom the application of his new 

elescopes of most extraordinary' powers, which iiave enabled us to 
ascertain that the milky-way, and other similar appearances in the 
neavens, are a congeries of fixed stars, in strata, prodigiously numer- 
ous, and exhibiting ver>- curi(Tus phenomena. Of the immense amount 
o( these stars, which may still have beyond them an unfathomable and 
jnexph^rable abyss of the same kind, we may form some conjecture 
•rom the following statement of sir Willii^m himself, who found by his 
gauges, in the year 1,792, that in the small space of forty-one minutes, 
no Ifss than 238,000 stars, in the via Ittctea, had passed through the 
field of view in his telescope. Sir William places our own system in 
the via lactea. lie has discovered, be>ides many new stars, double 
and trinle stars, and what he calls changing stars. 

12. We have learned to coirect our ideas concerning tlie substance 
of the body of the sun, Ixretofore considered as entirely of an igneous 
nature. Though its rays contribut*' largely to die prouucti(>n of heat 
oil the earth's surface, many veiy obvious appearances ought sooner 
to have convinced us of what now seems clearly to be understood, that 
the sun is not a body of fire. 

13. The science of astronomy has been much promoted during the 
time of vhich we have been treating, by the improvement or invention 
ol many curious and necessary i.istruinents, and the building and 
establishment of regular observatories ; and practical astronomy has 



MODERN HISTORY. 413 

been carried to a veiy high pitch, by the talents and ingenuity of many 
veiy eminent persons in France, Britain, Germany, Italy, &z.c. ; as ^f. 
Clairault, d'Alembert, De la Caiile. La Place, La Grange, Bailly, De 
la Lande, &-c. ; Bradley, Maskelyn, Hcr.schel, Hutton, Roi)ison, 
Ferguson, Vince, cslc. ; Euler, Mayer, Boda, Bianchini, Boscovich, 
Frisi, Piozzi, &:c. 

14. We have spoken elsewhere of the travels, expressly undertaken 
in 1,753, to measure in the northern and southern parts of the world, a 
degree of the meridian, by which the figure of the earth was ascertain- 
ed to be an oblate spheroid, according to the conjectures of sir Isaac 
Newton, and contrary to the assertions of the Cassinis and Bernouilli, 
who had for some time insisted that the polar diameter was longer 
than the equatorial : all the experiments seemed to concur in proving 
the reverse. The steps that were taken, m the years 1,761 and 1,769, 
to determine the parallax of the sun, by observing the transit of Venus, 
aflbrd another strong proof of the extraordinary zeal and resolution 
with which science was cultivated during the period of which we have 
been treating. On the recommendation of Dr. Hallej, who had ob- 
served a transit of Mercury at St. Helena, but w^ho did not expect to 
live to see a transit of Venus, and who m fact died in 1,742, mathema- 
ticians and astronomers were sent out in the years before mentioned, 
both from France and England. 

15. Among the modern inventions appertaining to astronomy, be- 
sides the instruments absolutely necessary to correcl observation, \vt: 
may reckon those curious and elegant machines, exhibiting the motions 
and phenomena of our solar system and its several pai-ts ; our orreries 
pianetariums, tellurians, lunariums, &.C., all of which may be consider 
ed as extremely interesting and ingenious contrivances. 



1. It would be useless to attempt to give any circumstantial account 
of the progress that has been made in other sciences, during the period 
of which we have been treating, and vain to seek, by a mere enume 
ration of names, to do justice to the many eminent and illustrious per 
sons who have distinguished themselves in various parts of the world, 
in every branch of learning, useful and ornamental, since the com- 
mencement of the eighteenth century. The numerous biographical 
works, chronological charts, critical and philosophical journals, which 
have from time to time been published during tnis period, may supply 
information much more full and copious than would be at all consistent 
with the limits of this work, already extended beyond their original 
design. As, however, the surprising burst of intellect, investigation, 
and enterprise which has so marked and distinguished the last and 
present century, aippears to have been in a great degree connected 
with the history of Europe during the same period, we shall t?ke a 
brief view of the latter; beginning with England and Frctiice ; the 
two countries which seem in several respects to have had the most 
considerable share in the changes that have taken place. 

2. At the period of the deaths of queen Anne and Lewis XIV. 
(see Sect. LXIV.) England and France appear to have stood in siiua- 
tions diametrically opposite. England had just obtained all that she 
wanted from a revolution ; France had scarcely begun to feel that she 
stood in need of one. Endand had succeeded in placing her civil and 
religious rights on a sure footing ; France was as yet but little sensible 
that hers had been greatly violated. England was recovering from a 

Mm2 



Ai MODERN HISTORY. 

state of mifrule imd licentiousness , France was declininf^ more Uuii 
ever into such a condition. In Knflr^nri, Newton had estal/li'.bed hU 
new system of pliilo.«oj^)hy, and Locke inii>tratrd the principles (fa 
-we government ; in France, Descort(\s still held tl^- niindsof men in 
a state of fascination and encljanlinent, and the ptrple knew not what 
it was to be tree. 

3. The French poveniment, by too ^reat st verity in political and 
reliVious niattei-s, had compelled many of her subjects to lake refuge 
in forfig-n countries, wlu-re they we.e at liberty to make their own re- 
tlections, to print and to publish their thoue:hts upon the comparative 
despotism of ttie countiy from which they had been driven, and the 
df lusinns to which the stihjects of the latter were exposed. 

4. AiiKMMS: tlu)se who had been thus banished, or compelled to retire, 
no om- could Iiji\ e done more to unsettle the minds of his countrymen, 
in reg-aid both to relig:ion and pt>litics, than the celebrated nayle. 
His o})ject appears, however, to have been merely to ttnsetlle them : 
for his whole work is a tissue of doubts and dilTiculties, which he had 
no disposition to resolve, but to leave to ever}' man's own judgment to 
dctennine, after havir^ verj' impartially stated all the arguments and 
all the facts he could possibly collect, on both sides of eveiy question. 

5. The French had been so long used to submission, tliat merely to 
teach th«m to doubt was a grand step towards a revolution in tlieir 
opinions ; but Rayle did not live to see the seeds he had been sowing 
come to any perfection. It was not. according to the account of the 
French themselves, till Voltaire, partly in a slate .<f exile, had visiled 
England, that they bt^an to ripen. In England, Voltaire became ac- 
quainted with the philosophy of Newton and Locke, and saw some ol 
the best political principles of t!ie latter established and in action 
bu 'oieing the guest of Holingbioke, his deislical principles, which 
\>ere verj' eailj^ made known by a passage in his tragedy of Qt^dipus, 
underwent no change, or were probably more deeply nxed and con- 
finned. 



6. Though Shat'tesburr, Wolston. Collins, Toland, Tindal, and 

elation, and either openly or insidiously 

to imbue the n\'nh of the English with their deislical principles ; the 



others, had attacked re elation, and either openly or insidiously sought 



public ir? general were litHe alfecled by their writings. Men of supe- 
rior talents, superior credit, and very superior learning, had lived, oi 
were living, capable ol' givmg a different tone to the feelings of the 
people. Newton, Locke, Addison, Steele, Clarke, Swift, ice, were 
amply sufficient to support the cause of religion ; and not only to de- 
ft-nd th(; ver)' outworks of Christianity, but to avert the shafts of ridi- 
cule, and set at naught the sarcasms ol infidelity. In those admirable 
periodical papers, the Spectator, the Guardian, the Tattler, &:c., we 
may trace a direct and most benevolent design of rescuing the rising 
generation fr«m the contagion of bad examples, and the influence ot 
false principles. 

7. In France it was otherwise : deism, though weak against the 

f>'ain evidences of Christianity, was strong against the fanaticism ol a 
j'goted, and the superstition of a corrupted church. The banter of 
Voltaire sckmi began to take effect, when aiired at things and persons 
s^^ vulnerable as the monastic orders, and the controverted points in 
dispute between the Jesuits and Jansf nists. The defence of religion 
also, in conseguence of these disgraceful and puerile conflicts, and the 
p ausibiiily or the altacks that were mndc upon it, which struck hard 
al its abuses, fell into hands little capable of wielding ihe weapons so 
effectitallj employed in England. The dread of derision too aoon 



MODERN HISTORY. 416 

damped the spirit of pulpit eloquence, which had cast such a lustre 
on the names ofSaurin, Massillon, &:c. ; and converted even the chris- 
tian preacher into a philosopher of the modern school. Amoiicr those 
who Hrst appeared in defence of revealed relio:ion ao:ain.sl the* cleisls, 
the French themselves have particularly mentioned the younsfer Ka- 
cine, the cardinal de Polignac, and M. Le Franc de Pomnigimn. 
The first wrote a heavy poem, which few read ; the second a long 

f)hiIosophical poem in Latin, which not many could read ; and the 
a5t published some sacred odes, of which Voltaire found nK)m to say, 
with his usual wit, *' Sncres Us sont^ car personne rCy touched Though 
Voltaire might have imbibed his deism in part from Bolinghroke, it 
was plainly not a plant of English g:rowth ; but it proved to be sadly 
.congenial at that time to the soil ot France. 

8. The regency had wrought a great change in the principles and 
manners of that lively people. The profligate habits of the duke of 
Oi leans opened a wide field to libertines and freethinkers, and natu- 
rally encouraged them to speak their minds more freely u]^on all sub- 
jects than would otherwise have been consistent with the spirit of the 
government. Religion and morals, indeed, could not have received a 
greater blow than from the extraordinary elevation of the infamous 
Dubois to the rank of cardinal, and to the archbishopric of Cambray, 
so lateiy filled by the amiable and virtuous Fenelon. 

9. VVhile the morals of the French were thus becoming daily more 
depraved, the manners of the English were evidently much improved. 
The grave and austere character of William III., tne correct deport- 
ment of Mary, and her sister, queen Anne, had effectually checked 
the licentiousness of the two preceding reigns, and given encourage- 
ment to a set of writers peculiarly capable of amending the age, ot 
mculcating true piety and sound morality, ana giving a oetter tone to 
the amusements of the public. Instead of the gross indelicacies which 
had disgraced the Avritings and degraded the talents, of Vanburgh, 
Behn, Congreve, and even Dryden, the taste and manners of the nation 
derived great improvement and advantages from the more chaste and 
correct performances of Addison, Steele, Rowe, Prior, Pope, Thomson, 
Akenside, he. The stage underwent a wholesome reformation, and 
in every department of literature there appeared a manifest leaning 
towards whatever could conduce to purity oi sentiment and delicacy 
of feeling. 

10. Had Voltaire carried back with him from our shores, as he 
might have done, a purer form of Christianity, and a better system of 
morals, as well as a more correct philosophy, and sounder principle*? of 
government, he might have conferred a lasting benefit on his country ; 
a benefit the more timely and critical, as it would possibly have pre- 
vented some of the worst evils which befel that unhappy nation in her 
subsequent struggles for liberty. Bayle had taught the French to 
doubt ; Voltaire, having taken a near, though imperfect view of Er^- 
land, taught them to think and to inquire ; while a greater man than 
himself was contributing, though more sloAvly and quietly, to the 
same end. 

11. Almost at the very time that Voltaire was in England, Montes- 
quieu visited the same country' ; but appears principalFy to havtr con- 
fined his views to the great object of his researches, the spirit of hei 
laws, and the leading principles of her admirable constitution. There 
he learned to admire, in its purest form, a liniited monarchy, and a 
system of jurisprudence, equally adverse to tyranny and licentiousness; 
equally friendly to the wholesome authority of the magistrate, and the 



IIG MODERN fllSTORY. 

iusl rights of the people. Montesquieu, houever, (though in his INer- 

>iafi Letters lie had betrayed a leaning towards deism,) moved in A 
line distinct from that j^eneraliy taken by the philosophers of the day 
While Voltaire very soon manifested a dtsiie of taking the lead of all 
the wits and freethinkers, however different tlu ir talents, their cimrac 
tei-s, or their principles, I\lontesquieu was not displeased to be Ifft to 
himself, and to leave his great work to make its own impressions, how- 
ever slowly, on sensible and ingenuous minds. Its first effects of any 
importance may, perhaps, be traced in the remonstrances of the. par- 
liaments, who began to take a higher tone after the publication of 
L'eiprit des Lots, and to conoider themselves more in the light of rep- 
resentatives of the people. 

12. A number ot very extraordinary men were beginning at the 
same time to draw upon themselves the attention of the world, and to 
employ their talents in different lines, and often upon very different 
principles, to enlighten the world, and emancipate it from the thral- 
dom ol ancient prejudices and inveterate abuses. Among these, how- 
ever, none were more extravagantly eccentric than J. J. Rousseau. 
This extraordinaiT man was decidedly for new modelling the whole 
system of political society, and reducirig it to principles >vnich existed 
only in his own imagination. Not having ever seen a race of savages, 
he fancied they must be the more perlect the nearer they were to a 
state of nature ; and being tormented with the restraints of civilized 
;jOcietT, he concluded civilization itself to be an evil. These sophisms 
serA'ed to render him the idol of the equalizing and destroying dema- 
gogues of the revolution. It was impossible to resist the impressions 
made by the captivating pictures he drew ; but th( y seldom had iny 
belter effect than that of rendering his votaries as dissatisfied w ith the 
world as he himself was, and bewildering their imaginations with 
ioubts and difficulties innumerable. He knew how to appreciate the 
o'jblime moral'ty of the gospel, though he could not regulate his own 
actions by it ; and having found in the bible, as in all other cases, 
something that dissatisfied his restless and irritable mind, and i-eviling 
what he could not approve, or did not sufficiently understand, he cer- 
tainly did as much mischief to the cause of revealed religion, calling 
himself a christian all the while, as the worst of his deistical contem- 
poraries. His opinions and his actions, as exhibited in his own 
writings, will yfor ever render him an object of admiration mingled 
with pity, if not in some in?tarK:es with abhorrence ! 

13. But it was, in no long course of time, discovered that the free 
opinions that were afloat, and which were as various as the persons 
who entertained them, and who had as yet no common bond of union, 
as Voltaire, Rousseau, Button, Diderot, D'Alembert, Duclos, Helve- 
tius, Marmontel, Condillac, Raynal, Volney, (to name but a fcw,"^ 
should by some means or other be embodied and consolidated, that 
the whole of their several thoughts and observations on different sub- 
jects might be presented to the world in a mass. This was the origin 
of that gi*eat and voluminous undrrtakinc:, the Encyclf)pedie, spoken 
of before, planned by Diderot aiid D'Alembert ; and which, to say 
the least of it, seemed to be a treasure of univei-sal science, far more 
comprehensive, at least, than any thing of the kind before attempted, 
being not confined t> what might strictly be called the arts and 
sciences, but extending to eveiy question of government, civil econo- 
my, and finance, 

14. The Dictionnaire ''.ncyclonediq'ic, amidst many faults and ex 
tiavagances, contained ui>!oubtealy much impoctant matter, written k* 



MODERN HISTORY. 417 

to ai^eab e a style, as to be admirably fitted to excite and promote 
a thirst after gem ral knowledge, universal inquiry and investigation, 
a confidence in private judgment, and a prejudice against every thing 
that appeared to have no other support tlian custom and authority. 
^Vheat might be torn up with the tares, and tares often sown instead- 
of corn : but it must be acknowledged that we stand indebted to the 
projectors of this work for the detection and extirpation of many 
errors, and the powerful stimulus given by their movements to the 
spirit of free inquiry and useful research. 
^ 15. The persons engaged in it have been so generally called philos- 
^ ophers, and hav^ been styled such in so many histories of the French 
. revolution, that it is almost necessary to observe that the greater par 
of them bore little resemblance to those who had heretofgre been dig- 
nified with that title. The regent, duke of Orleans, though dissolute 
in his habits of life, was a man of taste, talent, and information ; so 
that the savans of France, who had heretofore been a retired order of 
men, became about this period the life of society, and the ornaments 
of the highest circles in the metropolis. Some tew, indeed, still kei)t 
at a distance from the court, but, generally speaking, such was the 
state i.f things during the regency ; and afterwards, when Lewis XV. 
fell into that disgraceful course of life, which clouded his latter days, 
and subjected him and his mistresses to the censure of the clei^, 
^, even Voltaire, whom the king personally disliked, and the Encycio- 
.j^, paedists, as enemies to the clergy, w^ere taken into favour. They 
were often indeed dismissed agam, but never entirely driven fro'ii 
court. 

16. This change ot public opinion, even in the highest circles, in- 
troduced the learned into places where they never appeared before, 
and gave them a new character. While the influence which the men 
of letters thus began to acquire in society, obliged the noblesse to 
change their habits also, and to mingle with those who before formed 
a distinct class ; it obliged them also to cultivate learning themselves, 
and even the females found it necessary to become more or less 
philosophical. 

17. In the mean while some of these modern philosophers had other 
European courts set open to them, particularly in the northern parti 
of Europe, where a greater degree of liberty in the article of opinion 
already prevailed, very different from the bigoted and Machiavelian 
principles of Rome and Italy, which had hitherto borne sway. Cath- 
erine II. of Russii, and Frederic of Prussia, through a laudable desire 
probably of improving and enlightening their semi-barbarous domin- 
ions, invited thither some of the most busy of the French literati ; but 
with little judgment or discrimination. Frederic, besides Voltaire, 
D'Alembert, and Maupertius, gave free admission, and even encour- 
agement, to the atheist La Methrie, the marquis D'Argens,and the abbt 
de Prades ; and Catherine received, and greatly patronised in his 
latter years, the celebrated Diderot. Thus, with the knowledge and 
learning which the new philosophers: really possessed, scepticism and 
infidelity were spread far and wide, and there was a sad mixture of 
darkness and illumination in all they taught. 

18. The French revolution has been attributed to the literati, or 
philosophers of those days ; but we should greatly err, if we were to 
suppose that they contemplated generally such a dissolution of things 
as aftenvards took place ; many, indeed, were dead before the revo- 
lution comnenced. Neither Voltaire nor Montesquieu were repub- 
licans : the former had a supreme contempt for the populace ; and 

63 



419 MODERN HISTORY. 

by his flattery of Catherine II. and llie marchioness de FcmpadouT. 
would seem to have had little of the republican spirit in him. Indeed 
It has been asserted of him, that " he loved kiii^s." Ka^^na! is said 
to have shuddered when he saw liis own vioK-jit miprccations on des- 
potism and tyranny brought into action. Some, however, undoubted- 
ly threw aside all restraints, openly declared thejnselves deists, atheists, 
iLc, and to their abominable blasphemy and infidelity we may rea- 
sonably impute many ot'the evils which marked those dreadful times : 
but, in truth, the fiistor)'' of opinions ceases to be connected after a 
short time with the Frencli revolution. It very soon became a strug- 
gle of passions and private interests, and at length terminated in a 
catastrophe as fatal to the literati as to the throne and the altar. That 
fatal instrument, the guillotine, so much spoken of at that lime, was 
stained with the bl(K)d of some of those very persons who had con- 
tributed most to the advancement of knowledge, and the propagation 
of liberal ideas. 

19. The impulse, however, ^vas now given to two of the most curi- 
ous, ingenious, and inquisitive nations of Europe, and nothing could 
possibly CAceed the rapidity with w hich every branch of science has 
since been cultivated ; in Britain, constantly with more steadiness, 
gravity, and judgment, than in France, though not with more zeal and 
activity. The Germans, in the mean while, in the northem parts 
more particularly, seem to have devoted their time to studies of 
rather a different description, being known chiefly for ^vorks of in- 
tense research and most profound learning. Experimental philosophy, 
natural history, and chemistry, have indeed been also cultivated by 
them with considerable success ; but in works of fancy, wit, and 
h jmour, they have not acquired so much credit as their neighbours. 
A singuhr disposition to indulge in tales of wonder, chivalr}', and 
knight-errantry, has been manifested in most of their works of imagi- 
nition ; and in metaphysics, they have produced systems, which, while 
they betray an extraoidinaiy talent for the investigation of such ab- 
struse subjects, are certainly more to be admired for their ingenuity 
tlian thftir utility. 

20. No country in Europe, perhaps, can have undergone greater 
improvements, during the period of which we have been treating, than 
Russia ; but her improvement has not been so much prc^rescive as 
sudden. The mighty genius of Peter the great determined him lo 
introduce his own extensive empire at once into the commonwealth of 
Europe ; and, instead of waiting to give his subjects a capacity for 
improving themselves, as other nations had done, ne eagerly adopted 
all that had been discovered elsew here, and converted his rude people 
into a civilized nation, just as far as such methods could reach. He 
taught them to adopt and imitate what they were as yet m ik) condi- 
tion to i.ivent, or even improve, and left it to his successors to fill up 
tin gaps that might remain ufiprovided lor at ihe ti?iie of his death. 
His subjects, or rather slaves, obeyed his dictates, and have continued 
since to learn from their neigliboiii-s, till they have attained to such 
proficiency in the arts of life, as to be no longer regarded as a rude oi 
Ignorant pe(»ple, though all the other countries of Europe had the start 
oi them till the very close of the seventeenth century. 

21. Peter the great had, in a small compass ol time, some very 
weak ami 'some very wise successors. The former have not been 
3ii!rered to stand long in the way of the latter, and though their re- 
moval has savoured little of the civilization and improvement of which 
we have been speaking, it cannot be denied that Russia has been pre- 



MODERN HISTORY. 419 

■ ■•■ hi 

'.vented by many sir^lar occurrences from relapsing into her former 
"state of rjden'jss and barbarity. The fxiremes vA magnificence and 
rudeness, indeed, are too oftei; fountl to meet ; and Ibc middle class 
has by no mean.3 yet acquired tliat i iiportnnce in society which is s<. 
essential to everj^ well-regulated government. The state of minffb 
still exhibits too much of the old narrow line of distinction, of hifOs 
and vassals ; nevertheless, Russia has obtained much, and advanced 
considerably. Where, little more than a century ago, wolves fed and 
sought their prey, an immense and magnificent city and mctmpolis 
no^^ stands, thronged with mhabitants from ail parts of the globe : but 
perhaps it would oe well if she would consent to step back and give a 
solid and more natural base to her acquirements. The system of 
adoption and imitation has brought her to a state rather of superficial 
than of real greatness. She has had her universities bemre her 
schools ; but it could not well be otherwise in so sudden an improve- 
ment : much remains to be done before the nation at large, in its sev- 
eral relations, social and political, can be said to be really and.eflectu- 
ally civilized. 

22. Sweden, during the eighteenth centuiy, produced many eminent 
men, and contributed largely to the advancement of science. I^ may 
be sufficient to mention, in proof of this, the names of Linnaeus, Wal- 
lerius, Cronsladt, Bergman, Scheele, Thunbeig, and Sparrman. 

23. The Danes have not been idle, but have encouraged in many 
ways the promotion of literature and philosophy ; mathematics and 
astronomy, zoology, botany, and other sciences, have been cultivated 
with good «uccess'; and many splendid works are extant, that reflect 
rreat credit on the spirit and ardour of the government, as well as c^ 
individuals, and tlie learned societies instituted and established there. 



DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 

1. Many new discoveries and inventions of lasting benefit to man- 
kind, as well as many most essential improvements of old inventions 
and discoveries, have marked the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries ; 
some of the most remarkable of which it will he sufficient merel3' ^'^ 
name, as they are already become too common and familiar to nted 
explanation ; such as inoculation, and much more recently, vaccina' 
tion ; steam-engines and steam-boats ; printing of linen and cotton 
cloths ; ;;ajt>er for rooms ; figured silks and carpets; spinning ma- 
chines ; stereotype printing, and lithographic engrcrving ; musioil 
types; porcelain and pottery; particu'aHy tVelch and iron-stone china ; 
lightning conductors ; time-pieces ; pneumatic, electrical, and galvanic 
apparatus ; life-boats and hje-preservers ; the speaking-trumpet, sajk- 
ty-lamp, telesraphs, gas-hghts, panoramas, balloons, reflecting and 
achromatic telescopes, concave mirrors, with various other optical and 
astronomical instruments. 

2. Laws and governments have been advancing towards a greatei 
degree of perfection, though in many countries very slowly, and 
manifestly under difficulties and impediments which time only can 
remove. The French revolution opened people's eyes to ancient 
abuses ; but by inducing all the evils and horrors of anarchy, did by 
no means accomplish so much for real liberty, as might have been 
wished and expected ; like other tumultuaiy revolutions, it teriniiiated 
in a military despotism, and its effects on the continent of Europe 
have been hitherto partial, and apparently of nuich less importance an 



420 MODERN HISTOKV. 

to the actual amelioration of things than many persons expected. Still 
we may justly enumerate an:ong the cljan«^e.s conducive to the fi (ure 
benefit, comfort, and happiness of mankind, the steps takir^ in sev- 
eral states to restore or establish the representative system of govern- 
ment ; the dissolution of many monastic institutions, and feudal priv- 
ileges ; the check that has been ^iven to arbitrary imprisonnient, 
torture, tlie horrors of the inquisition, and the African slave-trade , 
the improvements that have taken place, principally through the in- 
terposition of our benevolent countryman, Mr. Ho\N'ard, in the man- 
agement of prisons, and tlie extraordinary steps lately taken, especial- 
ly in the British dominions, for the better education of the poor and 
their instruction in religion. 

3. It would be vain indeed to attempt to enumerate the astonishirig 
additions that have been made within these few years, to the public 
establishments for the promotion of knowlevJ'ge, the advancement ot 
professional skill, and the relief of the necessities of mankind. Phil- 
osophical societies of all descriptions have been formed in various 
parts, under the most favojarable circumstances of support and encour- 
agement. The propagation of Christianity has been attended to, and 
promoted with extraordinary zeal, not only by individuals, but by 
missionary and Bible-societies, far too numerous to mention. Every 
description of medical, chirurgical, and other assistance, has been 
furnished to the poor, by a most extraordinary increase of hospitals 
and infirmaries, dispensaries, asylums, and charity-schools. The 
naval and military professions have had the benefit conferred on them 
of new and distinct academies, including a charitable provision for the 
children of those who have perished in either service. The irrproved 
«tate of chemistr>' and meclianica:' skill, has advanced many arts to a 
Tery high degree of perfection, and much assisted both the manufac- 
turing and agricultural industry ; nor should we omit to mention, as 
among the improvements of latter years, by which our own country iu 
particular has been benefited in the highest degree, the amendment 
of the public roads, the increased means and facilities of public con- 
reyance and communication, and the advancement of inland navigation. 



RELIGION. 

1. In regard to religion, from the close of the seventeenth centui^ 
to the year 1,820, we may remark that paganism continues to prevail 
over the greater part of Asia, Africa, and the new discovered jslands, 
as well as among the Indians of America, North and So«ith, (in the 
settlements of the Spaniards and Portuguese, the Roman Catholic re- 
ligion has been introduced of course.) Mahomclanism prevails in 
<?ome parts of India, in Persia, Arabia, Egypt, the States of Barbary, 
Syria, and Turkey. The Jews continue dispers<:d over every part ot 
the world, but in a state and condition far better than was formerly 
the case ; in Europe they are no longer exposed to cruel and wanton 
acts of oppression and persecution, and in some countries they have 
obtained important privileges. In Abyssinia the majority of the 
people are said to be christians, and throughout the whole of the Eu- 
ropean settlements of North America, Christianity js the received re- 
li 




MODERN HISTORY. 421 

• mists, Moravians, Tunkers, Mennonisis, Universalists, STredenboi 
aiis. and Shakers. 

S. In regard lo lelig^ion or Christianity, on the continent of Europe 
has been already shown what rude attacks it had to sustain, dunng 
ne course and progress of the French revolution. Deism and even 
theism were opemy avowed in their national assemblies ; the im- 
mortality of the soul and resurrection of the body scouted at, and 
death pronounced to be an eternal sleep. Paganism was in some de- 
gree revived, llie tree of liberty substituted lur the cross, and tlie 
eoddess of reason elevated above the God of Christians. During the 
directorial and consular governments, however, Catholicism was re- 
aiored, but unaer rery altered circumstances ; without its accompani- 
ments of monasteries and nunneries, and very much detached from 
the sway and authority of the papal see. 

3. The protestanl churches, ol all sects and denominations, have 
done much, as was before obsened, by missions in every direction, to 
sp'^ad tlie knowledge of Christianity', but seldom with that cordiality 
and unanimity that might have been wished, and which could iK)t 
have failed to have given greater effect to their exertions. Among 
those who have appeared most zealous, though not most discreet, we 
may reckon the Sloravians and MelhodisU ; two sects or parties, 
whose most avowed object it has been to stem the torrent of vice and 
corruption, prevailing amongst professed christians. The methodists 
have generally called themselves of the church of England, though in 
many material respects they appear to have deviated from it, both io 
doctrine and discipline, and have for some time been divided amongst 
themselves into two great parties, one espousing the Calvinistic, me 
other the Arminian, tenets. It is common to refer the origin of 
Methodism to the year 1,729, when the two brothers, John and Charles 
Wci-ay. took the lead of those who adhered to the Arminian doctrines, 
Mr. George Whitedeld, who joined them in 1,733, became, in 1,741, 
the head of the Calvinistic divbion. 

4. The modem Moravians take their date from the year 1,723, 
when they first settled at Hernhut, in Upper Lusatia, on the estates 
of Nicholas Le\vis, count of Zinzendorf, who, in 1,735, became their 
bishop. They profess to receive the Augsburg conlession ; are meek 
and quiet in their habits and principles, but have at times adopted a 
strar^e phraseolc^y, which was thought to affect their moral character, 
and procured them many enemies. As missionaries they have been 
extremely active, particularly in the West Indies and America : they 
profess to be the remains of the Hussites. 

5. The emperor Joseph II. relieved his protestant subjects of all 
denominations trom many galling restrictions, and greatly abric^ed 
tiie power of the p>ope. Many catholic princes, even the ecclesiasti- 
cal states, followed his example in various particulars. In favouring 
however, an unlimited freedom of opinion at such a moment, he open- 
ed the door to the mtroduction of deistical principles, and facilitated 
the formation of a sect of illuminati, which, during the course and 
progress of the French revolution, taught and disseminated doctrines 
adverse in the highest degree to the onier of civil society, ♦he rights 
of property, and the christian faith. 

6. The papal authority, durii^ the latter years of the period under 
discussion, has been greatly abridged in all' countries heretolore sub- 
ject to it ; even in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Sicily ; nor is it likely 
to be recovered, notwithstanding the attempts lately made to restore 
r^artially the order of Jesuits ami the inquisition. Of the ind^n 



4H MODERN HISTORY. 

offered to the la.«t and proseni pope Ijy the French we have spokon 
elsewhere. At ore time they soentiix^ly look tlie rcMns of £ovenmient 
»t Rome into their own hands, tliat the pope and cardinals werA 
obliged to take flight, in which situation Pius VI. died. His suc- 
cessor, Pius VII., since the final overthrow of Buonaparte, has lived 
in peace and quietness, in his capital, exercising, notwithstanding hi? 
recall of the Jesuits, a very tolerant and inoflensive sway. It is, Low- 
ever, to be lamented, that, in the instance of the pope, as well as of 
the kii^ of Naples, and olhei-s, their i-esentment ol the French usur- 
pations on their return to their dominions has been carried so far as to 
abrogate every ordinance of the French Empei-or, however wise or 
salutaiy, and even to undo what had been begun, manifestly tending 
to the improvement of their respective countries. 



HISTORY, POLITE LITERATURE, FINE ARTS. &c. 

1. Wfi feel ourselves rather at a loss to give any satisfactory account 
of the progress that ha* been made in the branches of knowledge 
pointed out by the title of this section : it would far exceed our limits 
to attempt to enumerate the many historical works that have been pub- 
lished during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, or to go into any 
regular discussion ot the particular merits of the several poets, paint- 
ers, musicians, philosophers, philok^ists, &c. ^'c, who may be said to 
have distinguished themselves in the period of which we have been 
treating. To do this with any degree of justice, wc should be cblig- 
ed, perhapi, to divide them into many classes, and assign to the sev- 
eral individuals of the long list that might be produced, their respec- 
tive ranks and stations, from the highest degree of perfection to medi- 
ocrity, or lower ; we should have to draw a comparison between them 
and their predecessors, and consider, in various points of view, every 
advance they had made in their different callings, studies, and pur- 
?uits : but such a discussion would be Quite unsuitable to a work like 
the present. Many of those, indeed, who have contributed to enlarge 
the ooundaries of knowledge during the eighteenth and fiinettenlh 
centuries, have been already mentioned ; but there are -still .some 
names which almost demand our notice, belbre we entirely close this 
volume. It should, however, be observed, that many very eminent 
persons, who li\'ed till long- after the commencement of the eighteenth 
i-entury, belong to a different period, having been the ornaments of 
what is called the age of Louis XIV. It may be best, perhaps, to 
arrange tlie lew we feel bound to select from the great mass of au- 
thors, artists, &:c., according to their countries. 

2. In Germany the following may be said to have acquired a high 
reputation: Miscov, Mosheim, Pteffel, Herder, Muller, in //ji^ory; 
Schiller in History ?nd Tragedy; Klop.«tock, Gesner, Wieland 
Kotzebue, Goethe, in Poetry aua Dramatic rvritmg ; in Painting 
Mengs ; Ingenhouz in Chemistry, and Bode in Astronomy ^ Handel, 
Gluck, Haydn, and Mozart, in Music ; I^-ivater in the fancilul science 
of Physiognomy. Even the names of Mesmer, Mainaduc, Gall, and 
Spurzneim, may require to be mentioned, as having for some time, in 
an extraordinary manner, amazed the ignorant, and deceived the 
credulous, by their strange systems of Animal Magnetism and 
Craniology. 

3. In France, Camlet, Montfaucon, the Count de Caylus, Rollin- 
Vertot, Rapin, Gogiiet, Millot, Raynal, Mably, and the Abbe Bar- 



MODERN HISTORY. 423 

thele?ny, part cularly distinguished themselves in the line of History 
and Jlntianiiies ; to whom we may now add, perhaps with reason ancJ 
justice, Mad. de Stael, and M. La Cre telle M.hailiy, one of the 
victims of the Revolution, rendeied himself conspicuous by his very 
curious History of Astronomy, and other works. Many of his con- 
temporaries, who applied themselves to other branches of science, 
have been already mentioned. Some ot them also fell by the hands 
of the public executioner, during the dreadful period of the Revolu- 
tion. Their most celebrated painter, however, David, escaped, Hut 
with more reputation as an artist than as a man ; for his own proceed- 
ings, as a revolutionist, were base and sanguinaiy. 

4. In Great Britain, we have to boast, in the fine of History, of the 
names of Robertson, Watson, Hume, Gibbon, Lyttelton, Goldsmith, 
Roscoe, Russell, Gillies, Ferguson, Stuart, Mittord ; in Law, of Sir 
William Blackstone, whose Commentaries, for elegance and perspi- 
cuity of diction, stand unrivalled. Bolingbroke and Swift are justly 
held to have improved the English language, in the two main articles 
of eneigy and beauty. The style of Dr. Johnson is less chaste, 
though, perhaps, equally forcible. The name of Adam Smith will 
probably descend to the latest posterity, for his masterly work on the 
wealth of nations, a subject iii which he seems almost to have taken 
the lead, as an original writer. In Painting, the names of Hogarth, 
Reynolds, and West, stand high for originality, taste, conception, and 
expression ; in Metaphysics, Hume, Hartley, Berkeley, Reid, Baxter, 
and Priestley, have distinguished themselves. To the Poets already 
mentioned we must add Gay, Young, Shenstone, Collins, Gray, Ma- 
son, Cowper, Crabbe, Scott. Byron ; as JVbue/?>is, Richardson, Smol- 
lett, Fielding, Burney, Edgevvorth, &c. Garr^ck and Siddona have 
conferred immortal honour on the English Stage. 

5. Italy, though labouring under great disadvantages, has been by 
no means deficient in learned and scientific persons, since the close of 
the seventeenth century. In history and antiquities, in poetry, dra- 
matk: works, natural history, drawing, engraving, and sculpture, the 
following names richly deserve to be delivered down to posterity: 
Baronius, Giannone, Muratori, Maffei, Metastasio, Goldoni, Algarotti, 
Gozzi, Tiraboschi,Beccaria, Spallanzani, Alfieri, Baitolozzi, Cipriani, 
Canova. France and Italy seem to have a joint claim to a living 
author of considerable fame, M. Simondes de Sismondi. 



TREATY OF VIENNA, 1,815. 

1. As Europe, generally speaking, may be said to continue at this 
moment in the state in w^hich it was left % the above treaty, we shall 
conclude with a brief sketch of the changes that took place at that 
memorable period. The duchy of Warsaw was given to the emperor 
of Russia, with permission to assume the titles of czar and king of 
Poland, some parts, tiowever, being secured to Prussia, under the title 
of grand Duchy of Posen. The town of Cracow, in Little Po'and, 
on the banks of the Vistula, was declared to be for ever a free, in- 
dependent, and strictly neutral city, under the protection of Austria, 
Russia, and Prussia. The king of Saxony was confirmed in his regal 
titles, but at the price of many important cessions to Pnissia, princi- 

Cthat of the duchy of Saxony. Prussia, beside?, recovered 
zic, Qjuedlinbu^, and many other places ; yielding, however, to 
the king of Great Britain, now become king of Hanover also, many 



#«t4 UNITED STATES. 

lordships and principalities, in othnr parts ot Germany. A new Ger 
manic confederation was established, the members of which were 
declared to be cquai in their rights, and bound to render to each other 
mutual assistance. Their afFairs to be confided, first to a lederative 
diet, amounting to seventeen votes ; and, 2dly, to a general assembly, 
forming sixty-nine votes ; wliu are to decide upon all regulations 
touching the fundamental laws of the confederation. The diet to 
assemble at Franklort on the Maine, and Austria to preside. The 
three important fortresses of Landau, Mentz, and Luxembourg, being 
assigned over to the confederation. 

2. The united provinces of the Netherlands, late the Belgic states, 
were formed into a kingdom, jointly with those of Holland, in favour 

, of the house of Orange Nassau, late stadtholders ; and to the same 
T- sovereign was granted the duchy of Luxembourg, with the title of 
g-rand duke. 

3. The integrity of the nineteen cantons of Switzerland was ac- 
knowledged, and guarantied ; and Geneva, for the first time, consti- 
tuted a canton oi the Helvetic confederacy. The states oi Genoa 
were annexe^ tr> the kingdom of Sardinia, in the place of many re- 
nunciations on the part of the latter power, principally in favour of 
Geneva. The grand duchy of Tuscany was settled on the archduke 
Ferdinand of Austria ; ana kino; Ferdinand the IVth was restored to 
the sovereignty of the Two Sicilies. 



PART FOURTH. 
UNITED STATES 



SECTION L 

DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 

1. It was somewhat natural that the distinguished author of the 
Elements of History should almost exclusively confine himself to the 
great events of the old world. It will be observed that the discovery 
of America b}' Columbus embraces only a short space, (see Section 
XLi.) and that North America, the first settlement of the United 
States, the revolution and severance of those stales from the crown of 
Great Britain, and the more recent dispute of the States with Great 
Britain, are dismis6ed by both authors in a few words. (See Section 
XLI I., and Sections Vlfl. and XX. of the Continuation.) This con- 
sideration will suggest the propriety of a more particular narration of 
tlie events which relate to the United States, for wjiose particular use 
the present edition of this work is intended. ,c>*-iw »• 5, 



UNITED STATES. 425 

2. The honour of accomplisKing an exploit so sublime as that of the 
discovery of this western hemisphere, was gained by Christopher 
Columbus. This great man, a native oi' Genoa, descended from a 
respectable family, was well qualitied by nature and education to be- 
come distinguished on the ocean. Ardently inclined towards that 
element, he went to sea at the aee of fourteen. After a variety ot 
adventures serving to enlarge his knowledge more than to increase hia 
fortune, he went to Lisbon. Here, having married the daughter ot 
Perestrello, a Portuguese navigator of much celebrity, his favourite 
passion of making discoveries was rendered more irresistible by read- 
ing the journals of his father-in-law, which had fallen into his hands. 

3. The attention of the Portuguese was at that time directed to the 
finding a passage by water to the East Indies ; and they intended to 
accomplish this purpose by passing to the south until they reached the 
southern extremity of Africa, and then taking an easterly course. 
The spherical figure of the earth was then known, and its magnitude 
had been ascertained with some good degree of accuracy ; and the 
active mind of Columbus, after having attentively compared the 
observations of modern navigators with the coirjectures of the ancients, 
at last came to the conclusion, that, by sailing directly to the west, 
new countries, wliich it was likely formed a part of the great continent 
of Asia, must be discovered. His opinion was strengthened by the 
aiscovery, after a long course of westerly wind, of pieces of carved 
wood, trees, and canes, and dead bodies, the natives of another clime, 
di'iven on the shores of the Madeira isles and the Azores. 

4. Fully satisfied with the truth of his system, Columbus was im- 
patient to bring it to the test of experiment. He first made applica- 
tion to the senate of Genoa for patronage, desirous that his native 
countiy should reap the fruits of his labour and ingenuity ; but here 
his proposals were rejected as the dream of a chimerical projector. 
Not discouraged by ttis repulse, he laid his plans before John king 
of Portugal, who basely attempted a fraud on him, by despatching a 
vessel in pursuit of the discovery, after drawing from Columbus aJI 
the information which treacheiy could devise. The pilot selected foi 
this purpose, being no less deficient in courage than were his em- 
ployers in dignity and justice, returned to Lisbon without making anj 
discovery. 

5. Disgusted with the treachery, Columbus instantly went to Spain 
and lakl his plan before Ferdinand and Isabella, at the samp tinie thai 
he sent his brother Bartholomew to En2:land, for the purpose of nego- 
tiating for the patronage of Henry VII., reported to be one of the 
most sagacious and opulent princes of llie age. Accident deprived 
England of the renown of this^ discovery ; the brother of Columbus 
on his way being captured by pirates, and detained in captivity many 
years : although arriving in England in great indigence, Henry re- 
ceived the oveftuies ol Columbus more favourably than any other 
monarch, and invited him to that country. But it was too late. The 
great discoverer, «fter combating many and sore disappointments, 
succeeded at length in securing the Spanish court,vaided oy two rich, 
generous, and vigilant patrons, Q,uintanella an4 Santangel. Ferdinand 
was still restrained by his characteristic caution and reserve ; but 
Isabella, alive t«i the glory which must accrue from the accomplish- 
ment of so grand an enterprise, declared her resolution to einploY 
Columbu's ; aixi, in the low state of her finances, consequent on a long 
and serious contest with the Moors, who had then but just been ex- 
pelled from Spain, offered to pledge her jewels in order to complete 

N n 2 54 



«e UNITED STATES. 

the preparations of the voyage : Santaugcl however relieved the diffi- 
culty, by advancii^ Gx)m his private purse tlie necessnn» 8um. 

6. April 17, 1,4^2, nioie ih.iii h.mh ^lais aAer the dale of hh first 
api)lication, an ag:i»rcim'nt wilh Coliiinlju> was concluded. T lie ex- 
pedition was filled out at Palos, a j-niall town ol' ihe Province of 
Andalusia ; but it vaj> badly suited to the sei\ ice for >\Lich it ^\an 
intended. It consisted of ihree vessels, the Santa Alaria. ihe Pinla, 
and the Nigna — the first of inconsiderable burthen commanded by 
Columbus as admiral ; and the two hist, not sijperior in size to laiyc 
boats, b^' two brothers, Martin and \'incent Pi'izon: tlie whole p;o 
vided with nineU' men, and victualled for tutlve months. 

7. August 3, Columbus set sail. He touched at the Canaiy islands, 
where ^ refitted his crazy vessels, and departed from Gomera» 
SepL 6 Here he '.ook Ids course due west, leaving the track of all 
former navigators, and strctclud boldly into sea.s unknown. Veiy 
sooii his sailors, alarmed at the distance they haa proceeded without 
finding the expected land, began to mutiny, and placed Columbus in a 
situation in which any other man woiild have yielded to iheii entreaties 
to return. Feitilc i/i expedients, possessing a tliorough knoAvledgc ot 
mankind, an insinuating address, and a hippy talent at governing, he 
succeeded day al'tcr day in beguiling the discontented seamen far 
beyond their own determinations, until every succeeding hour present- 
ed stronger and stronger indications that land could be at no great 
distance. For some days the sounding line had reached the boliom : 
the flocks of birds increased, and some of them of a k«nd supposed to 
fl^' not far from shore ; the clouds around the sun assumed a new 
appearance; the air was more mild, and, during the night, the wind 
became unequal and variable. On the evening of Oct. 11, he ordered 
the ships to lie to, in the fear of running ashore. That night Colum- 
bus observed a light, which seemed to be carried about from place to 
place ; and a littla after midnight, was heard from the Pinla the joyful 
eiy of Land ! 

8. \A'hen the morning dawned, an island was seen about two leagues 
to the north : its verdant fields were well stored with wood, presenting 
the aspect of a delightful countr}'. All the boats were immediately 
manned and armed. The Spaniards rowed towards the shore with 
their colours displayed. As they approached the beach, they saw it 
covered with a multitude of people, whose attitudes and gestures dis- 
covered wonder and amazement. Cohnnbus was the first who set foot 
on this new world wliich he had discovered. His men followed; and 
all kneeling, kissed the ground that they had long desired, but nevei 
expected to behold : here he erected a ciucifix, returned thanks to 
God, and with the usual formalities took possession of the country. 
To this island, called by the natives -Guanahana, Columbus gave the 
name of St. Salvador : it b one of the large cluster called the Baha- 
mas, more than three thousand miles west, but only lour degrees south 
of Gomeia, the port of the Canaries which he last left. 

9. After discovering several other islands, amongst which were 
Cuba and Hayti ; and using (jvery- precaution to secure the benefit of 
a first discover^', by erecting a fort and leaving a party of men on the 
island of Havti ; on the 4th of January, 1,493, Coluinbus set sajl for 
Europe. The shattered condition of his vessels would have rendered 
the voyage at any time unsafe ; but a succession of storms had well 
nigh comn-.itled to the bosom of tin; deep, and with it thi secret of 
his discovery, his little flotilla. 'J'he whole, however, arrived. 

10. At 6rst it was generally supposed, from a similarity in tl»c 



ONITED STATES. 427 

productions, that th« discovered country was a part of those vast re- 
gions of Asia, comprehciidt^d under the general name of India. The 
name of India was g:iven to it b}^ Feidinaiid and Isabella ; and, after 
the error which ^ave rise to ihe opinion was detected, the name ot 
West Indies has remained, and the aboriajines are called liidians. 
• 11. In 1,498, Columbus, on his third voyage, reached the continent, 
and landed in several places in the provmces of Paria and Cumana. 
But he was deprived of the honour of associating his name with this 
vast portion of the earth, being supplanted by Amerigo Vespucci, a 
native of Florence, who, in 1;499, went on a voyage to America, and 
who published an account oi his adventures so ingeniously framed a« 
to make it appear that he had the glory of first discovering the conti- 
nent of the new world. 

12. On the 20th of November, 1,497, Vasco de Gama, employed by 
the king of Portugal, first doubled the Cape of Good Hope, which 
o[>ened a passage to the East Indies; and twenty-three years aflei 
the first discovery of America by Columbus, Magellan, a native of 
Port'igal, in the service of Spain, penetrated into the Pacific ocean, 
by the strait which bears his name, situated at the southern extremity 
of the American continent. 



SECTION II. 
DISCOVERIES BY THE ENGLISH. SETTLEiMENT OF VIRGINIA. 

1. The English were the second people that discovered the new 
world, and the first that discovered the continent of America. On the 
24th ot June, 1,497, Giovanni Caboto, (or Cabot,) and his son Sebas- 
tian, who were commissioned by Henry VIII. to sail in quest of new 
countries, discovered a large island, to which they gave the name of 
Prima Vesta, or first seen ; now called Newfoundland From this, 
tliey steered to the north, in search of a passage to India ; but finding 
no appearance of a passage, they tacked about, and ran as far as 
Florida, the island of Cuba, as he relates, being on his left. 

2. On the accession of Elizabeth to the cro^vn of Engiand, a period 
commenced, highly auspicious tc mercantile extension. The coast of 
Labrador was explored by Martin Frobisher, under her auspices, in 
the years l,576-'7-'8 ; and sir Francis Drake, about this time, accom- 
plished his celebrated voyage around the globe. 

3. In 1,584, sir Walter Kaleigh, a favourite at that time of the 
queen, despatched two small vessels, under the command of Philip 
Amidas and Arthur Barlow, which reached the coast of North Carolina 
on the 4th of July, making their passage in sixty-seven days by way 
of the Canary islands and the West Indies. On their return Amidas 
and Barlow gave a splendid description of the country ; of its beauty, 
fertility, mildness oi climate, and serenity of atmosphere ; and Eliz- 
abeth gave to the country the name of Vii-ginia, as a memorial Ibat 
this happy land was discovered under a maiden queen. 

4. In 1,585, sir Walter Raleigh fitted out a squadron of seven small 
vessels, with one hundred and eighty adventurers, which sailed from 
Plymouth, under the command of sir Richard Greenville. This 
coiuny was left on the island of Roanoke, under the care of captaia 
Lane ; but through bad management, turning all their attention to ttie 



4tt UNITED STATEa 

iiearch for pold aiid silrer, they were soon assailed by a two-fold 

calrmiity, the hostility of the fiativt-.-. inH the i»ro?pect offamine. SSr 
Francis Drake, on his return from tl e We*t liidie^s at the unanimous 
request of the colonists, earned them back to En^huid, and thus ended 
the ill-conducted experiment, altera trial of nine months. 

5. Early in the following year, ihree njore vessels arrived at the 
same ^pot, with one hundred and fifty settlei-s. In about one month 
after, the daughter of captain White, who commanded the expedition, 
and the wife o( Ananius Dare, one of his assistants, gave birth to the 
first English female child, which was named Virginia. Misfortune 
pursued this infant settlement. The threatencil Spanish armada 
engrossing the attention of the parent country, the colony receiveil no 
supplies, and the inhabitants perished miserably by famme, or by the 
hands of t he 'r surrounding enemies. 

6. Sir Walter Kaleigh being engaged in other ambitious under- 
takings, so vast and various as were beycnd his poAver to accomplish, 
and becoming cold to the unprofitable scheme of effecting settlements 
in America, assigneil his interest in that country to sir Thomas Smith 
and a company of merchants in London, in 1,696. These were satis- 
fied for the present to pursue a petty traffic with the natives, and made 
no attempt to take possession oi the soil. 

7. But in the succeeding reign of .Tames, who havir^ concluded an 
amicable treaty with Spain, and terminated a tedious war, the period 
was more auspiciou« for settlements in America. The attention of »he 
monarch was called to this subject by the efforts of distinguished 
geographers and men of science. James divided into districts of 
nearly equal extent, that portion of North America which stretcnej 
from the :34th to the 45th degree of north latitude, excepting the 
territory of any other christian prince or people already occupied , 
one called the First, or South Colony, the other the Second, or North 
Colony of Virginia. In 1,606. he authorized certain gentlemen, most- 
ly residents of London, to settle in a limited district of the former ; 
an equal extent of the latter he allotted to several gentlemen of 
Bristol, Plymouth, and other parts of the west of England. These 
grants laid the first foundation of states which in a few centuries were 
destined to become rivals to the mother country in wealth, in science, 
and in power. The supreme government of the colonies was vested 
in a council resident in England, to be nominated by the king ; the 
subordinate jurisdiction in a council which was to reside in America, 
and also to be named by ♦he crown, and act conformably to its in- 
structions. Whatever was requi">;d for their sustenance, or for the 
support of commerce, he permitted to be shipped from England free 
of auty, during the space of seven yeai-s ; and as an incitement to in- 
dustry, granted them the liberty of trading with other nations, appro- 
priating the duties to be laid on foicign traffic for twenty-one years, as 
a fund tor their exclusive benefit. 

8. A vessel of one hundred tons, anrl two barks, under the command 
fX>{ captain Newport, sailed with one hundred and five meu, destined 
" to rf'main in the countr)' : amon?; these was a Mr. Percy, brother of the 

earl of Northumberland, and several officers who had served with rep- 
utation in the pieceding reiirn. The first land that was discovered was 
a promontory, the southern bouiid.ny of the Chesapeake, April, 1,607 : 
this was named cape Henr}', m ho'uuir of the prince of Wales. The 
spacious inlet was entered, and the expedition coasted tiie southern 
snore, and up a river sixty miles, called by the natives Powhatan, to 
which the English gave the name of Jamei river, in honour of tneir 



UNITED STATES, 429 

lovereien. Here a site was fixed for tlie infant settlement, which was 
named James Town. 

9. Imprudent in their conduct towards the natives, this feeble socic' 
ty was early involved in war. Scarcity of provisions introduced dis- 
eases ; and in a few months half their original number was swept away, 
and the remainder left sickly and dejected. 

10. The government soon devolved on captain John Smith, who 
was orie^inally one of the council appointed by the king, but who had 
unjustly been deprived of his authority by the colonists. This gentle- 
man, who was emphatically the father of V^irginia, \yas a native of 
Lincolnshire : he had distinguished himself in feats of courage and 
chivalry, particularly while engaged in the Hungarian army against 
the Turks. His undaunted temper, deeply tinctured with the ro- 
mantic spirit of the times, was happily adapted to the present trying 
situation of the colony. Soon after he had been called as their leader, 
while hunting in the woods, he was attacked by two hundred Indians, 
who poured in upon him a continued flight of arrows. After perform- 
ing wonderful feats, he sunk in the unequal contest, and was made a 
prisoner. Channed by his arts and his valour, they released him 
from captivity. Afterwards he was beset by three hundred more of 
these ferocious people, pursued into a marsh, and, after he had thrown 
away his arms, which he could no longer use by reason of the cold, he 
was taken and carried in triumph to rowhatan, the principal chieftain 
of Vii^inia. Here the doom ot deatn was pronounced upon him, and 
he was abo«t to receive the fatal blow, when the favourite daughter of 
Powhatan, interposed in his behalf. This amiable child (not then 
thirteen years of age) not only prevented the execution of Smith by 
her entreaties and tears, but caused him to be set at liberty, and sent 
him, from lime to time, seasonable presents of provisions. 

11. The colony was now reduced to thirty-eight persons. Soon 
after, however, succours arrived from England, and an addition of one 
hundred new planters was added to their number. But the culture of 
the land, and other useful employments, were neglected, in the futile 
idea that ^old had been discovered issuing from a small stream which 
emptied into James river. The effects of the delusion were soon 
severely felt in the prospect of approaching famine. In the hope of 
obtaining relief. Smith, in a small open boat, and with a feeble crew, 
went in search of aid from the Indians. In two different excursions, 
that occupied upwards of four months, he visited all the countries on 
the eastern and western shores of the Chesapeake bay, entering the 
principal creeks, and tracing the rivers as far as their falls, and ob- 
tained a supply of food for the suffering colony. In these tours, he 
sailed upwards of three Uiousand miles, amidst almost incredible 
hardships, and brought back with him an account of that large tract of 
country, now comprehended in the two states of Vii^inia and Maiy- 
land, so full and correct, that his map is the original from which all 
subsequent delineations have been formed until lately. 

12. About this period, the old charter being found inconvenient and 
oppressive, a new charter was granted by James, by which the boun- 
daries of the colony were enlai^ed ; the council in Virginia was abolish- 
ed, and the government vested entirely in one residing in London, the 
members of which were to be chosen by the proprietors, and these to 
nominate a governor, who was to reside in Virginia and cany their 
orders into execution. Lord Delaware was at first appointed'to this 
office ; but as this nobleman could not immediately leave England, 
\he power was vested in sir Thomas Gates and sir Geoi^ge Somers, 



•• UM'J'ED states! 

who were despatched from Ene:lan(l with five hundred planters. A 
▼iolenl hurricane separated the fleet on their way ; and the ships With- 
out tlie oflicei-s only arrived at Jamets Town. Presently eveiy llunc 
was reduceii to a state of anarcny ; captain Snnth, at once the sliiela 
and the swoid of the colofiy, heing disabled by an accidental explosion 
of gun-powder, the wretchedness which followed is beyond descrip- 
tion ; and the arrival of Gates and Vomers, who had be»»n cast away 
on one of the Bermuda islands, although it saved the wretched sur- 
vivors at James Town from immediate death, was unable to preserve 
them Hntil the autumn. Nothing remained but to seek immediate 
assistance ; and with only sixteen days' provision, the colony set sail* 
in hopes of reaching the banks of Newtbundland, and getting relief. 
But before they had arrived at the mouth of the river, they met lord 
Delaware, who brought a laige suj)ply of sustenance, new settlers, 
and evejy thing requisite either for cultivation or defence. Under 
the skillul administration of this nobleman, the colony began, once 
more, to assume a promising appearance. He was succeeded by sir 
Thomas Dale, who concluded a treaty of friendship with the Powha- 
lans, one of the most powerful and warlike tribes of Virginia. 

13. Pocahontas, the amiable female who had preserved the life of 
captain Smith, Ireouently visited the English settlements ; and during 
this intercourse, she was betrayed on board a vessel, and there im- 
prisoned. Her father, who loved her with the most ardent aftection, 
was obliged to discontinue hostilities on such conditions as were dic- 
tated by his treacherous enemy. She was afterwards solicited bv 
Mr. Roife, a respectable planter", in marriage. Powhatan consented, 
and the marriage was celebrated with extraordinary '^omp. P'ritm 
this time, the most friendly intercourse subsisted oetween the colonists 
and the hidians. Rolfe and his wife went to Ei^land, where, by the 
introduction of captain Smith, Pocahontas was received by •he court 
with the respect due to her birth ; she was instructed in the christian 
religion, and publicly baptized. About returning to America, Poca- 
hontas died at Gravesend ; lea^•ing one son, from whom are sprung 
some of the most respectable families of Viiginia. 

14. Hitherto no individual right of property in lands was establi*!)- 
ed : all was holden and dealt out in common. But the governor, in 
1,616, divided a considerable extent of land into small lots, and grant- 
ed one of these for ever to each individual ; from which period the 
colony rapidly extended. The culture of tobacco, since become the 
great staple of Virginia, was introduced ; but the eager demand for 
the article in England caused for some time a scarcity of lood in the 
colony. 

15. About this time, a Dutch ship trom the coast of Guinea, having 
sailed up James river, sold to the phuiters a part of her negrcjes ; 
which race has been augmented in Vii-ginia bv successive importations 
nnd by natural increase, till it fonns more than one third part of the 
population. 

16. In 1,619, sir George Yeardley, the governor, impefled by that 
popular spirit of freedom which has ever been the characteristic of 
Americans, called the first general assembly which was held in Vir- 
ginia. At this lime eleven corporations sent representatives to the con- 
vention, which was permitted to aasun- legislative power, the natural 
privilege of man. The supreme authority was lodged partly in the 
governor, partly in a council of state appointed by the company, and 
in a general assembly, composed of lepi-eaentatives cf the people. A 
natuml efiect of \e happy change i>'ac ?n increase of agriculture, 



UNITED STATES. 4St 

The company extended the trade cf the colony to Holland and othei 
countries. This measure produced the first difference of sentiment 
Del ween the colony and the parent state. Jealous ai seeing a com- 
modity, (tobacco,) lor which the demand was daily increasing, con- 
ducted to foreign ports beyond its control, thereby causing a vliminu- 
tion of revenuerthe latter endeavoured to check this colonial entei prise, 
without considering that the restraint was a breach of the sacred prin- 
ciples of justice. 

17. The suspicion of the monarch James was soon roused, and the 
charter, by decision of the kind's bench, was declared forfeit, and the 
company dissolved. Charles I. adopted all his father's maxims in 
respect to Virginia, which during a great part of his reign knew no 
other law than the royal will. Hut the colonists resisting. Charles 
yielded to the popular voice : he recalled Harvey, the obnoxious 
governor, and appointed sir William Berkeley, a man of great abili- 
ties, prudent, virtuous, and popular ; whose influence was directed in 
finally restoriiig to the people much the same share in the goverrment 
as they had enjoyed previously to the revocation of the charter. 

18. After the execution of the king, and ihe establishment c{ the 
commijnwealth under Cromwell, through the injkience of the govr rnor, 
the colonists continued to adhere to their loyalty to the king. In 1 ,651, 
the English commonwealth took vigorous measures to reduce the Vir- 
ginians to obedience. A numerous squadron, w^ith land forces, was 
despatched lor this purpose. Berkeley resisted, but was una! le to 
maintain an unequal contest, and was soon defeated. The p« ople 
were, however, allowed to retain the privileges of citizens; but 
Berkeley retired as a private citizen, (/romwell's parliament framed 
acts prohibiting all intercourse between the colonies and foreign states, 
and allowing no trade but in English ships. On the death of Mathews, 
the last governor appointed by Cromwell, the Virginians burst out in 
new violence. They called sir A\' illiam Berkeley from his retirement, 
boldly erected the royal standard, and proclaimed Charles II., son or 
their late monarch, to be their lawful sovereign. Charles was, how- 
ever, soon placed on the throne, and the Virginians were thus saved 
from the chastisement to which they were exposed by their previous 
declaration in his favour. But the new king and parliament rewarded 
their fidelity by increasing the restraints upon colonial commerce ! 

13. The "number of inhabitants in Virginia in 1,608, exceeded sixty 
thousand, and its population in the previous twenty-eight years was 
doubled. In 1,691, the college of William and Maiy was founded. 
To aid in its erection and support, the sovereigns whose name it 
bears, gave nearly two thousand pounds out of their private purse, and 
granted twenty thousand acres of land, and a duly on tobacco, for i!s 
Further encouragement. 

SECTION III. 

SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS, RHODE ISLAND, CON- 
NECTICUT, NEW HAMPSHIRE, MAINE, MARYLAND, NORTH 
AND SOUTH CAROLINA, NEW YORK, NEW JERSEY, PENN- 
SYLVANIA, DELAWARE, AND GEORGIA. 

1. The partition of the great territory of Virginia into North and 
South colonies has already been mentioned. Still more feeble were 



4at UM'J'ED bTATF^S. 

the operations of the Plymouth company, to wliom was assigned the 
corKliirt i)( the northern <li virion, ah!joup:lj animated by the zeal of sir 
John Popliani, chief jii>tice of En«rland, sir Fcrdinando Goi^e*, and 
other public spirited j^entlenien of the >\e>t. 

2. In the year 1,607, the same in nhich James Town was founded, 
) small s>ottlement was comn:<nced on the river Sagadahoc, now called 
ilie Kennebec ; but this was soon abat)doned. Some fishing vessels 
visited Cape Cod several times ; amonp; them, one commanded hy 
captain Smith, who returned uith a high-wrought description of llie 
coast and country : exhibiting a map of the bays, harbours, &:c., on 
which he inscribed " New England ;'* the prince of Wales, delighted 
♦vilh the representations of Smith, immediately confirmed the name. ' 

li. To the operations of religion, rather than to the desire of pecu- 
niary emolument, are the various settlements of New England indebt- 
ed lor their origin. The sacred rights of conscience and of private 
judgment were not then properl}- understood ; nor was the charity 
and mutual forbearance taught christians by their divine master prac- 
tised in any countiy, Eveiy church employed the hand of power in 
supporting its own doctrints, and opposing the tenets of anotner. In 
reforming the rituals and exterior symbols of the church of England, 
Elizabeth, lest by too wide a departure from the Romish church shs 
might alarm the populace, had allowed many of the ancient ceremonies 
to remain unaltered. With several of these a large number of her 
subjects being dissatisllcd, they wished to address ;heir Creator ac- 
cording to their own opinions, but were subjected to very rigorous 
penalties. Those who dissented from the established churcn obtained 
the general name of Puritans, a tenn applied (o them because they 
wished for a purer form of discipline and worship. Airor^ the most 
popular and strenuous declaimers against the established church were 
tl)e Brownists, a sect formed about 1,581, by Robert Brown, who after- 
wards renounced his principles of seoaration, and took orders in the 
church against which he had so loudJy declaimed. The Rev. John 
Robinson, the father of the first settlement of New England, is said to 
have been a follower of Brown, but aftenvards renounced the principles 
of the Brownists, and became the founder of a new sect, denominated 
Independenta.*^ Mr. Robinson aflirmed that all christian congregations 
were so many independent religious societies, that had a ri^ht to b*» 
governed by their own laws, independent of any foreign jurisdiction. 
Being persecuted in England, he, with many others embracing his 
opinions, removed to Holland, where they formed churches upon their 
own principles. Remaining there some years, the society were de- 
sirous to remove to some other place : they turned their thoughts to 
America, and applied to James, who though he refused to give them 
any positive assurance of toleration, seems to have intimated some 
promise of passive indulgence. 

• By several respectable historian! of this country, the Independents 
have been connected with the Brownists, between the opinions and prac- 
tices of whom was a wide difrerence. The Independents excelled the 
Brownists in the moderation of their sentiments, and in the order of their 
discipline. They possessed candour and charity, believing that true re- 
ligion and solid piety might flourish in those communities under the juris- 
diction of bisho|>f>, or tho ni)venimcnt«i of synods or presbyteries. They 
approved of a regular ministry. While the Brownists allowed promiscu- 
ously all ranks and orders of men to te;ich in public, the Independents le- 
quirad a proper examination of the capacity and talents of their teacher*. 



UNITED STATES. 43S 

4. They readily procured a tract of land from the Plymouth com 
pany One hundred and twenty persoas sailed from Plymouth in 
1,620, their destination being: Hudson's river : by some treachery at 
the Dutch, who then contemplated and afterwards effected a settlement 
at thrt place, they were carried to the north, and landed on cppe Cod, 
the eleventh of November of that year. They chose for their resi- 
dence a place called by the Indians Patuxet, to which they gave the 
name of New Plymouth. Before spring, half their number were cut 
off by famiiie or disease. In a few days after they landed, captain 
Standish was engaged in skirmishing with the IndianN , and the many 
disasters which folTowed, together with the implacable hostility of the 
Indians, which always has subsisted, are perhaps more owing to the 
imprudence of the first settlers, than to the bad disposition of the 
natives. 

5 This colony, like that of Virginia, at first held their goods and 
property in common , and their progress was retarded as ^ell by this 
circumstance, as by the impulse of imaginary inspirstion, which reg- 
ulated all their actions. At the end often years, these well meaning 
people, when they became incorporated with their more powerful 
neighbours of Massachusetts bay, did not exceed three hundred. 

6. In the year 1,629, Mr. White, a non-conformist minister at 
Dorchester, having formed an association, purchased from the Ply- 
mouth company a tract extending in length from three miles north of 
Merrimack river to three miles south of Charles river, and in breadth 
froiT^ /ae Atlantic to the Southern ocean ; and obtained a charter from 
"^'narles, similar to that given to the two Virginian companies by James- 
Five ships were fitted out, on board of which were embarked upwards 
ot three hundred souls, amongst whom were several eminent non» 
coiiforming ministers. On their arrival, they found the remnant of a 
small party that had left England the preceding year, under the con- 
duct of Mr. Endicott, who had been appointed by his companions 
deputy governor. They were settled at a place called by the Indians 
Naumkeag, to which he had given the scripture name of Salem. The 
new colonists imraediatel}'' formed a church, elected a pastor, teacher, 
and elder, disregarding the intentions of the king. They disencum- 
bered their public worship of every superfluous ceremony, and re- 
duced it to the lowest standard of calvinistic simplicity. 

But much as we respect that noble spirit which enabled them to part 
with their native soil, we must condemn the persecuting spirit of the 
colonists themselves. Some of the colonists, retaining a high venera- 
tion for the ritual of the church of England, refused to join the colonial 
state establishment, and assembled separately to worship : Endicott 
called before him two of the principal offenders, expelled them from 
tlie colony, and sent them home in the first ships retuniing to England 

7. The government of the colony was soon transferred to America, 
and vested in those members of the company who should reside there. 
John Winthrop was appointed governor, and Thomas Dudley deputy 
governor, with eighteen assistants. In the course of the next year, 
1,630, fifteen hundred persons arrived in Massachusetts from England, 
amongst whom were several distinguished families, some of them in 
easy, and others in affluent circumstances ; and Boston, Charlestown, 
Dorchester, Roxbuiy, and other towns, were settled. 

8. The first general court, held at Charlestown, ventured to deviate 
from their charter in a matter of great moment : a law was passed, 
declaring that none should be freemen, or be entitled to any share in 
Uie goveinment, except those who had been received as members of 

() o ^ 



m UNriKD STATES 

Ihe church. The fanatica. spirit continued to increase. A minister 
of Salem, named Roger Williams, having: conceived an aversion to 
the cra«8S of St. Georgre, a symbol in the English standard, declaimed 
against it with great vehemence, as a relic of «upei-stition ; and Endi- 
cott, in a transport of zeal, cut out the cross from the ensigji displayed 
hefore ttfe governor's gate. This frivoKms matter dividta the colon}^ ; 
hut the matter nas at length compromised by retaining the cross in 
the ensigns of forts and vessel.'*, and erasing it from the colours of the 
nilitia. 

9. In 1,636, Williams nas banished from Salem ; and, accompatiieri 
by many of his hearers, the exile went south, purchased a tract of 
land of the natives, to which he gave the name o4 Providence ; and a 
Mr. Coddington, with seventy-six others, exiled from Boston, bought 
a fertile island on Narraganset bay, that acquired the name of Rhode- 
Island. Mr. Coddington embraced the sentiments of the (Quakers, or 
Friends ; he received a charter from the British parliament, in which 
it was ordered, that ** none ^vere ever to be molested for any difference 
of opinion in religious matters :'' yet, the very ni-st assembly conven- 
ed under this authority, excluded Roman catholics from voting at 
elections, and from every office in the government ! 

10. To similar causes the state of Connecticut is indebted for its 
origin. Mr. Hooker, a favourite minister of Massachusetts, with 
about one hundred families, after a fatiguing march, settled on the 
western side of the river Connecticut, and laid the foundation of Hart- 
ford, Springfield, and Weathcrsfield. Their right to this territory 
was disputed by the Dutch, who had settler! at the mouth of the 
Hudson, and by the lords Say-and-Seal and Brook, who had com- 
menced the settlement called Sny-Brook. The Dutch were soon ex- 
pelled ; and the others uniting with the colony, all were incorporated 
by a royal charter 

11. New-Hampshire was first settled in the jprine; of 1 ,623, under 
the patronage ot sir Ferdinando Gorges, captain .Tohn Mason, and 
several others, who sent over David Thompson, a Scot, Edward and 
William Hilton, and a number of people, furnished with the requisite 
supplies. One company landed at a place called Little Harbour : the 
others settled at Dover. Mr. ^Vheelwright, a clei'g>'man banished frora 
Massachusetts, founded Exeter, in 1 ,638, 

12. Maine was not perm.anently settled until 1,635. Gorges ob- 
tained a grant of this territory, nliich remained under its own govern- 
ment until 1,652, when its soil and jurisdiction, as far as the middle of 
Casco bay, was claimed by Massacliu^etts. 

13. The mutual hostility of the English und Indians commenced 
with the first settlement; but it was not until the year 1,637, that a 
gj'steinatic warfare was begun. The Pcquods, who brought into the 
field more than a thousand warriors, were exterminated in a few 
montlis by the combined troc»ps of Massachusetts and Connecticut. 
In tlie nignt, the Pcquods were altacke<l, near the head of Mistic, by 
the Connecticut troops and Narraganset Indians, commanded by cap- 
tain Mason : in a lew moments, five or six hundre<l lay gasping ii» 
their blood, or were silent in the arms of death. '' The darkness, of 
(lie forest," obser>es a New-England author, *' the blaze of the 
dwellings, the ghastly looks of the dead, the groans of the dying, the 
sljrieks of the women and children, the yells of the friendly savages, 
presented a scene of sublimity and ten-cr indescribably dreadful.' 

14. In 1,643, an alliance for mutual defence was fonr.ed between the 
New-England colonies, excepting Rhode-lslar.d, which Massachusetts 



UNITED STATES. 435 

was unwillii)g to admit. This alliance continued until the charters 
were annulled by James the second. 

15. Up to 1,638, twenty-one thousand British subjects had settled 
in New-England ; and the country had begun to extend tlie fisheries, 
and to export corn and lumber to the West Indies. In 1,656, the per- 
secution of the Quakers was at its height. A number of these inoffen- 
sive people having arrived in the Massachusetts colony, from England 
and Barbadoes, and given ofience to the clei^ of the established 
church by the novelty of their religion, were imprisoned, and by the 
first opportunity sent away. A law was passed, which prohibited 
masters of ships from bringing Quakers into Massachusetts, and them- 
selves from coming there, under a graduated penalty, rising, in case 
of a return from banishment, to death. In consequence, several were 
hanged ! These proceedings are still the more reprehensible and re- 
'narkable, when contrasted witli a previous declaration of their govern- 
ment, which tendered " hosT)itality and succour to all christian 
strangers, flying from wars, famine, or the tyranny of persecution." 
The anabaptists were also persecuted ; many were disfranchised, and 
some were nanished. 

16. On the accession of James II., several of the New-England 
colonies were deprived of their charters ; but these, with various un- 
important modifications, were restored after the revolution. Sir 
William Phipps, a native of Maine, who rose to wealth and power in 
a manner the most extraordinary, was the first governor of Massachu- 
setts under the new charter. Witli a force of seven hundred men, he 
wrested from the French, L'Acadie, now called Nova Scotia. He 
afterwards made an unsuccessful attempt on Quebec, w ith the loss of 
one thousand men. The new charter, whilst it curtailed the liberties, 
extended the territory of Massachusetts ; to it were now annexed New 
Plymouth, Maine, and Nova Scotia, with all the country between the 
latter and the river St. Lawrence ; also Elizabeth islands, Martha's 
\'ineyard, and Nantucket. The people, however, had just reason to 
complain that they no longer chose their governor, under whose control 
was the militia, and who levied taxes without their consent, and tried 
capital offences. 

17. About this time the pillars of society were shaken to the foun- 
dation, in and about Salem, by imaginary witchcraft. The delusion 
commenced at Salem village, now Danvers, in the family of Rev. 
Samuel Paris.- Two young girk, one a daughter of Mr. Paris, aged 9; 
the other a niece, aged 11, were affected with singular nervous dis- 
orders, which, as they baffled the skill of the physician, Ayere thought 
to proceed from an " evil hand." The children were believed uy 
the neighbours to be bewitched, and the belief, sanctioned by the 
opinion of the physician, became general throughout the vicinity. 
The more the girls were noticed and pitied, the more singular and 
extravagant was their conduct. Upon the advice of the neighbouring 
ministers, two or three private fasts were first kept ; after^vards a pub- 
lic one in the village and other congregations ; and finally, the general 
court appointed a fast through the colony. This course gave the 
occurrences a solemn aspect, and probably contributed to tlie public 
credulity, till tlie supposed witchcraft had extended throughout a great 
part of the county of^ Essex. The infatuation prevailed fiom March 
to October, 1,692, during which time twenty persons, men and women, 
were executed. It was then that suspicion roused from its lethargy ; 
condemnation ceased ; the accusers were silent ; those under sentence 
were reprieved, and afterwards pardoned. 



49tf UNITED STATES. 

18. In the years 1,627 ami '38, '63 aiui '70, New-England eipe- 
nenced violent enrtliquakes. In the yir.tr l,6:i8. Harvard college, 
fjear IJo^ton, the oldest seminary of learning in the United States, >vas 
foumied. Four hundred pounds were voted to it by the eeneral court ; 
and this sum was nearly doubled by a be»|iKst IVom Mr. Johu Hanard, 
a minister of Charlestown. This institution is now the most richly 
endowed of all the American collep:ts, Yale colle;:^e,al New-Haven, 
was founded in 1,701 ten years alter that of William and Maiy, in 
Virginia ; and Dartmo jth college, in New Hampshire, was founded 
in 1,769. Tlie tii-st i)rinting press established in the British colonies 
was in 1,639, at Cambridge, superintended by Stephen Daye ; but 
erected cliieHy at the expense ot Mr. Glover, an English cleigyman, 
who died on his passage to America. 

• 19. Maiyland, the tirat colony that, from its beginning, was directs 
governed as a province of the British empire, was Toumfed by sir 
George Calvert, baron of Baltimore, in Ireland ; a Roman catliolic 
nobleman, born in England. He hrst went to V'iiginia ; but meeting 
an unwelcome reception there, on account of his religion, he fixed his 
attention to the lands north of the I'olomac, and obtained a grant of 
them from Charles 1. This country was called Marj^land, in honour 
of the queen, Henrietta Maria. The religious toleration established 
by the charter, the first draft of which is said to have been written by 
sir Geoige himself, is honourable to his memor)'. The grant was 
given to his eldest son, Cecilius, who succeeded to his titles ; but 
Leonard Calvert, brother to Cecilius, was the first governor, and made 
the first stand, at an islaiul in the Potomac, wliich he named St. 
Clements, in 1,633. He made seveial purchases of the Indians, with 
W'hom he cultivated a constant friendship, as well on the Potomac, as 
or: both shores of the Chesapeake, Never did any people enjoy more 
happiness than the inhabitants of Maryland. Whilst Virginia harass- 
ed all who dissented from the English cluircii, and the northern colonies 
all who dissented from the [)urilans, the Homan catholics of Maryland 
a sect who in the old world never professed the doctrine of toleration, 
received and protected their brethren of eveiy christian church, anf* 
Its population was ra))idly increased. 

20. About the middle of the seventeenth centuTj*, some emigran , 
chiefly I'rom Virginia, began a settlement in the county of Albemarle , 
and soon afterwards, another establishment was commenced at cape 
Fear, by adventurers from Massachusetts. These were held together 
by the laws of nature, without any written code, for soint* lime. But 
Charles il. com])elled the colonists to become subservient to his rule, 

nd granted to lord Clarendon and others the tract of land which now 
womposes North and South Carolina : perfect freedom in religion was 
granted in the charter. The iirst settlement was placed under the 
command of sir William B(?rkeley, governor of Virginia, who assigned 
his authority to Mr. Drumniond. In 1,761, the pi-oprietoi-s extended 
iheir settlements to the banks of Ashley and Cooj)er rivers, where 
•Charleston now stands ; and eventually this became the separate state 
of South Carolina. The cultiire of cotton commenced here in 1,700, 
and that of indiffo in 1,74R. 

21. New- York was first settled by the Dutch, and was b^ them 
held for about half a centuiy. It was, howevei, claimed by England 
as the fii"st discoverer. Peter Stuyvesanl, the third and last Dutch 
governor, be^an his administration in 1,647, and was distit^uished no 
kiSS for his fidelity than his vigilance. In 1 ,664 the colony surrendered 
to the English ; and the wliole territory now comprising New-Vorkt 



UNITED STATES. 437 

New-Jersey, together with Pennsylvania, Delaware, and a part of 
Coimecticut, was assigned by Charles II. to his brother the duke ot 
York. The Dutch inhabitants remained ; Stuyvesant retained his 
estate, and died in the colony. The country was governed by the 
duke's officers until 1,688 ; wSen representatives of the people were 
allowed a voice in the legislature. 

2-2. In 1,664, the duke of York sold that part of his grant now call- 
ed New-Jersey to lord Berkeley and sir George Carteret. It had 
previously been settled by Hollanders, Swedes, and Danes. The 
county ot Bergen was the brst inhabited ; and very soon the towns of 
Elizabeth, Newark, Middleton, and Shrewsbury were settled. The 
college, originally established at Newark, was, in 1,748, hnally fixed 
at Princeton : its chief benefactor was governor Belcher. Among the 
governors of New-Jersey was the celebrated Barclay, auUior ot the 
Apology for the Quakers, of v-hich sect a large number had establish- 
ed themselves there. 

23. Pennsylvania was fojnded by William Penn, son of a distin- 
guished admiral of the same name. From principle this excellent 
man joined the Quakers, then an obscure and persecuted sect. As 
one of the members, and a preacher, Penn was repeatedly imprisoned; 
but he plead his ov^n cause with great boldness, and procured his own 
acquittal from ar. independent jury who with himselt ^yeTe imprisoned 
until an unjust penalty was paid. In 1.681. he purchased of Charles 
the tract now called Pennsylvania, for an acquittance of sixteen thou- 
sand pounds due to his lather : and soon after, he obtained from the 
duke of York a conveyance of the town of New-Castle, with the 
country which now forms the state of Delaware. The first colony, 
who were chiefly of his own sect, began their settlement above the 
confluence of the Schuylkill and Delaware rivers. In August, 1,682, 
this amiable man embarked, with about two thousand emigrants, and 
in October, arrived in the Delaware. Besides bis own people, he 
was aided in the first setdement by Swedes, Dutch, Finlanders, and 
other English. The first legislative assembly was held at Chester, at 
that time called Upland. Among the first laws was one which de- 
clared '* that none, acknowledging one God, and living peaceably in 
society, should be molested for his opinions or his practice : nor he 
compelled to frequent or maintain any ministry whatever." Philadel- 
phia was begun in 1,683 ; and in l,69y, it contained seven hundred 
houses, and about four tliousand inhabitants. During the first seventy 
years of this settlenitnt, no instance occurred of the Indians killir^ 
unarmed people. The wise and good man, Penn, made every exer- 
tion and sacrifice to promote the peace and prospeniy of his favourite 
colony ; and between the persecution he had to encounter in England 
and the difficulties in Pennsylvania, his lite was a continued scene of 
vexation — his private fortune was materially iniured by the advances 
he made — he was harassed by his creditors, ana obliged tc undergo a 
temporary deprivation of his personal liberty. He died in London, ic 
1,718, leaving an inheritance to his children, ultimately of immense 
value, which they enjoyed until the revolution, when it was assigned 
to the commonwealth lor an equitable sum of money. In the interval 
between 1,730 and the war of the revolution, in this state, there was a 
ffreat influx of emigrants, principally' from Germany and Ireland : and 
these people early brought the uselul arts an ^. manufactures into Penn- 
sylvania. To tKe Germans, she is indebted for the spinninpf and 
weaving of linen and woollen cloths ; to the Irish, for variods tradei 
indispensable to u>eful agriculture. 
Oo2 



438 UNITED STATES. 

t4. Delaware was first settled in 1,627, by the Swedes and FiD> 
landers, and the colony bore the name of New-Sweden. It was 
aftenvards conquered by the Dutch from New- York, and remained 
subsH'Tvient to that colony until it passed into the hands of the 
Ene:li^h. 

25. Geoigia was the last settled of the thirteen colonies that re- 
volted from Britain. It received its name from Georte U. In 
November, 1,732, one hundred and sixteen persons embarked at 
Gravesend, under general Oglethorpe ; and early in the ensuing year 
arrived at Charleston. From this port they proceeded to their destin- 
ed territory, and laid the foundation of Savannah. The Spaniard 
laid claim to this territory, and made extensive preparations to attack 
it. But tlirough the finesse of Oglethorpe in practising an innocent 
deception, their plans were defeated. For many velars, this settle- 
ment languished froni a variety of causes. General Oglethorpe was 
(listinguisned as a soldier, a statesnian, arKl a philanthropist. At the 
beginning of the American revolution, he was oflered the command of 
the British army in America, but this from principle he declined. 
After the contest was decided, he died at the age of ninety-seven 
years, being the oldest general in the British service. 



SECTION fV. 

WAR WITH FRANCE, AND CONQUEST OF CANADA. DIS- 
PUTES WITH GREAT BRITAIN, AND WAR OF THE REVO- 
LUTION. 

1. Nearly coeval with the first English settlement at James Town, 
in V^irginia, was the establishment of a French colony at Quebec, on 
the great river St. Lawrence. The question of boundary between 
England and France, had long been a subject of unavailing negotia- 
tion. France, beside having Canada in Ihe north, had also discovered 
and settled on Mississippi in the south ; and in 1,753, she strove, by a 
military chain, the links of which were to be formed by outposts 
stretchmg along the Ohio and the lakes, to connect these two extrem- 
ities, and thus restrain the British colonists to a small territory on the 
Atlantic ocean, if not entirelj^ expel them from the country. The 
question ofjurisdictjor) remamed to be decided by the sword. Rc- 
|>eated complaints of violence having come to the ears of the governor 
of Viiginia, he determined to send a suitable person to the French 
commandant at fort Du Quesne, (now Pittsburgh,) demanding the 
reason of his hostile proceedings, and insisting that he should evacuate 
the fort which he had recently erected. For this arduous undertaking, 
George Washington, a maior of militia, then little more than twenty- 
one years of age, ofTereJ his services. The execution of this task 
seems to have been accomplished with all that prudence and courage 
which were so emintmtly displayed by this nero in afterlife. A' 
imminent peril, being waylaid and fired at by Indians, he not only 
faithfully accomplished the errand on which he had been sent, bu* 
gained extensive information of the distances and bearings of places, 
and of the number, size, ana strength of nearly all llie enemy's 
(ortresses. 

2. The reply of the French commander brought matters to a crian: 
tod in 1,754 iLe Virginian assembly organized a regiment, to suppon 



UNITED STATES. Ife 

the claims of the English over the territory in dispute : of thig regi- 
ment a Mr. Fry was appointed colonel, and the young Waste jffton 
lieutenant colonel. Colonel Fry d^ing, the command of the ;vhole 
devolved on Washington. The French having been strongly rein- 
forcud, Washington was obliged to fall back, was attacked in works 
which he had not time to complete, and, after a brave defence, was 
obliged to capitulate ; the enemy allowing him to march out with the 
honours of war, and to retire unmolested to the iriaabited parts ol 
Virginia. 

3. The next year, 1,755, general Braddock was sent from Europe 
to Vii^inia, with two regiments, where he was joined by as mairjr 
provincials as made his force amount to twenty-two hundred. Brad- 
dock was a brave man, but lacked that courtesy which could conciliate 
the Americans, and that modesty which shoula profit from the knowl- 
edge of those who better knew the ground over which he was to pass, 
and the mode of French and Indian warfare, tlian himself. He push- 
ed on incautiously, until, within a few miles of fort Du Qjiesne, he fell 
into an ambush of French and Indians. In a short time, Washington, 
who acted as aid to Braddock, and whose duty called him to be cm 
horseback, was the only person mounted who was left alive, or not 
wounded. The van of the army was forced back, and the whole 
thrown into confusion. The slaughter was dreadful. Braddock Wcts 
mortally wounded. What was remarkable, the provincial troops pre- 
served their order, and covered the retreat under Washington ; while 
the regulars broke their ranks, and could not be rallied. 

4. Three successive campaigns procured nothing but expense and 
iiisappointment to the English. With an inferior force, the French 
liad succeeded in every campaign ; and gloomy apprehensions were 
entertained as to the destiny of the British colonies. But in 1,756, a 
change of ministry in England took place. William Pitt was placed 
at the helm. To despair, succeeded hope ; and to hope victory- 
Supplies were granted with liberality, and given without reluctance: 
soldiers enlisted freely, and fought with enthusiasm. In a short time, 
the French were dispossessed, not only of all the territories in dispute, 
but of Quebec, and her ancient province of Canada ; so that all which 
remained to her of her numerous settlements in North America, was 
New-Orleans, with a few plantations on the Mississippi. Full of 
youth and spirit, the gallant general Wolfe, who led the European and 
colonial troops to victory, fell before the walls of Quebec, in the 
moment of success. In 1,762, hostilities having raged nearly eight 
years, a general peace was concluded : France ceded Canada, and 
Spain relinquished, as the price of recovering Havana, which had 
been taken by the British, both tiie Floridas to Great Britain. 

5. Althougji the American colonies had principally contributed to 
tlie great extension of the power of Great Britain, co-operating with 
the vigilance of more than four hundred cruisers on the sea, and 
furnishing more than twenty-four thousand soldiers; yet the latter re- 
garded her plantations as mere instruments in her hands. On the 
contrary, the high sentiments of liberty and independence nurtured in 
the colonies from their local situation and habits, were increased by 
the removal of *iostile neighbours. Ideas favourable to independence 
increased: and whilst combustible materials were collecting in the 
new world, a brand to enkindle them was preparing in the old. 

6. In 1,765, under the auspices of the minister, George Grenville, 
the obnoxious stamp act passed in the British parliament ; by which 
the instruments of writing in daily use were to be null and void, unless 



440 UNITED STATES. 

executed on paper or parchment atamptnl ivilh a specific duty : law 
documents, leases, deed^s, and indentures, newspapers and advertise- 
ments, almanacs and jiamphlrts, exocultd and printed in America- 
all must contribute to the British tn;'>ury. The bill did not pass 
without the decided opposition ol' patrioth in the British legislature, 
who toretold the result, and who declared that, the colonies being 
planted by British oppression, and havine assisted the mother country, 
that the mother had no claim on the child to derive from it a re vent e. 
The bill did not take efiect until seven months alter its passage ; thus 
giving the colonists an opportunity of leisurely examining and viewing 
the subject on every side. They were struck with silent consterna- 
tion ; but the voice of oj;)position was first heard in \'irginia. Patrick 
Henr}', on the 20th ot May. brought into the house of burgesses in 
that colony a number of resolutions, which were adopted, and which 
concluded with declaring, " That ever}- individual, who, by speaking 
or acting, should asser" or maintain, that any person or body of men, 
except the genera, assemnly of the province, had any right to impose 
taxation there, should be deemed an enemy to his majesty's colony." 
These resolutions were immediately disseminated through the otlier 
provinces ; the tongues and the peas of well-informed men laboured 
in the holy cause — the fire of liberty blazed forth from the press. The 
assembly of Massachusetts passed a resolution in favour of a continental 
congress, and fixed a day tor its meeting at New-York, in October. 
The other colonies, with the exception of four, accepted this invita- 
tion, and assembled at the appointed place. Here they agreed on a 
declaration of their rights. There was, however, a considerable de* 
gree of timidity evinced in this congress. The boldest and most im- 
pressive arguments were offered by James Otis of Massachusetts. 

7. The time arrived for the act to take etfecl ; and the aversion to 
it was expressed in still stronger terms throughout the colonies. By a 
common consent, its provisions were disregarded, and business was 
conducted, in defiance of the parliament, as if no stamp act was in 
existence : associations were formed against importing British manu- 
factures until the law should be repealed ; and lawyers were prohib- 
ited from instituting any action fi.r money due to any inhabitant ot 
England. The spirited conduct of the colonists, atVecting the interests 
of the Britisii merchants, had the desired effect. Warm discussions 
took place in the British parliament ; and tlie ablest speakers in both 
houses denied the justice of taxing the colonies. The opposition 
could not be withstood ; and in March, 1,766, the law was repealed. 

8. Simultaneously, however, with repealing this act, the British 
parliament passed another, declaring that the British pajliament had 
a right to make laws binding the colonies in all cases whatever ; and 
soon after another bill was passed, imposing^ in the colonies duties on 
glass, paper, painters' colours, and tea. 'i he fire of opposition was 
now retindlea with additional ardour, by the same principle, exhibited 
in its new form. The best talents throughout tlie colonics were 
engaged, in the public prints and in pamphlets, to work up the public 
feelii>g against the arbitrary measures of the British parliament. New 
associations were formed to suspend the importation of British manu- 
factures. The Massadmsett? assembly, having passed resolutions to 
this effect, drew forth the marked displeasure of the crown ; and, on 
their refusal to cancel their resolutions, were dissolved. 

9. In 1,768, Mr. HaiKock's sloop Liberty was seized at Boston, for 
not entering all the wine? she had brought from Madeira : this infianied 
the populace to a high degree of resentment. Soon afterwards, two 



UNITED STATES. 441 

Mtisfa regiments, and some armed vessels, were sent to Boston, to 
assist the revenue officers. The parliament, encouraged by the ex- 
pectation of quelling the refractory by their arms, continued to dis- 
solve the opposing assemblies : but the colonies remained firm in their 
purposes. 

10. Lord Xorth succeeded the duke of Grai^on, as British premier 
in 1,770 ; and the act was repealed imposir^ a duty on glass, paper, 
and painters' colours ; but that on tea was retained. Some slight 
prospect of allaying the difficulties succeeded. But on the second of 
March an aflfray took plac^ in Boston, between a private soldier afid 
an inhabitant. This was succeeded, in a few days afterwards, by a 
mob meeting a party of British soldier? under arms, who were dared 
to fire, and who at length did fire, and killed five persons. The cap- 
tain who commanded, and the troops who fired, were afterwards tried 
for murder, and acquitted. 

11. Things continued in this mode of partial irritation until 1,773, 
when the British East India company were authorized to export their 
tea to al! places, tiree of duty. As this would enable them to sell that 
article cheaper in America, with the government exactions, tfhan they 
had before sold it without them, it was confidently calculated that teas 
might be extensively disposed of in the colonies. Large consignments 
of tea were sent to various parts, and agents appointed for its disposaL 
The consignees, in several places, were compelled to relinquish their 
appointments. Popular vengeance prevented the landing at Xew- 
I ork or Philadelphia. In Boston it was otherAvise. The lea for the 

'jpply of that port was consigned to the sons and particular friends of 
, vernor Hutchinson. The lea was landed by the strenuous exertions 
v.f the governor and consijmees. But soon a party of men, dressed as 
Indians, boarded the tea sliips, broke open the cargoes, and threw the 
contents into the sea. Enraged against the people of Boston, i^he par- 
liament resolved to take legislative ver^eance on that devoted town. 
Disregardir^ the forms of the British constitution, by which none are 
to be punished without trial, they passed a bill, closir^, in a commer- 
cial sense, its port : its custom house and trade were soon after re- 
moved to Salem. The charter of the colony was new modelled, so 
that the whole executive government was taken from the people, and 
the nomination to all important offices vested in the cro^m : and it was 
enacted, that if any person was indicJed for any capital offence com- 
mitted in aiding tfie magistrates, he might be sent to Great Britain or 
another colony for trial. Property, liberty, and life, were thus subject 
to mim'sterial caprice. The parliament went still further, and pai^sed 
an act extending the boundaries of Canada, southward to the Ohio, 
*Testward, to the Mississippi, and Dorthwari, to the borders of the 
Hudson's bay corapaiiy. assimilating its laws >vith the French, which 
dispensed with the trial by jury, and rendering the inhabitants passive 
agents in the hands of power. 

12. The flame was now kindled in every breast ; and associations 
were formed, and committees of correspondence were established, 
which produced a unity of thought and action throughout the colonies. 
General Gage, the British commander-in-chief, arrived in Boston, in 
1,774, with more troops, with the avowed intention of dragooning the 
refractory Bostonians into compliance. A general sympathy was 
excited Tor the sufferirig inhabitants of Boston : addresses poured ir 
from all quarters ; Marblehead offered to the Boston merchants the 
use of her wharves, and Salem refused to adopt the L^ade, the oflfer ot 
'.^uch had been proffered as a temptation to her cupidkj. Affars 



44$ UNITED STATES. 

rapidly approached a crisis. The preparations foi offence and defence, 
induced general Gaee to fortify Boston, and to seize on the powder 
lodged at the arsenal at Charlestoivn. 

13. In September, deputies from most of the colonies met m con- 
gress, at Philadelphia. These delegates approved of the conduct of 
(he people of Massachusetts ; wrote a letter to general Ga^e ; pub- 
lished a declaration of rights ; formed an association not to import or 
u?e British goods ; sent a petition to the king of Great Britrjin ; an 
address to the inhabitants of that kingdom ; another to the inhabitants 
of Canada ; and another to the inhabitanfs ot the colonies. In the 
beginning of the next year, (1,775,) was passed the Jishery bilL by 
which the northern colonies were forbidden to fish on the banks ol 
Newfoundland for a certain time. This bore hard upon the commerce 
of these colonies, which was in a great measure supported by tlie 
fishery. 

14. Soon after, another bill was passed, which restrained the trade 
of the middle and southern colonies to Great Britain, Ireland, and the 
West Indies, except under certain conditions. These repeated acts 
of oppression on the part of Great Biitain, alienated the affections of 
America from her parent and sovereign, and produced a combined 
opposition to the whole system of taxation. Preparations began to be 
made to oppose by force the execution of these acts of parliament. 
The militia of the countrj^ were trained to the use of arms — great 
encouiagement was given to the manufacture of gunpowder, and 
measures were taken to obtain all kinds of military stores. 

15. In February, colonel Leslie was sent with a detachment ol 
troops from Boston, to take possession of some cannon at Salem. Bui 
the people had intelligence of the design — look up the drawbridge in 
that town, and prevented the troops from passing, until the cannon 
were secured ; so that the expedition failed. In April, colonel Smith 
and major Pitcairn were sent with a body of troops, to destroy the 
military stores which had been collected at Concord, about twenty 
miles from Boston. At Lexington the militia were collected on a 
green, to oppose the incursion of the British forces. These were fired 
upon by the British troops, and eight men killed on the spot. 

16. The militia were disperscci, and the troops proceeded to Con- 
cord ; where they destroyed a few stores. But on their i-etum they 
were incessantly Harassed by the Americans, who, inflamed with jus* 
resentment, fired upon them from houses and fences, and pursued them 
to Boston. Here was spilt the Jirst blood in the war which severed 
America from the British empire. Lexington opened the first scene 
of the great drama, which, in ;ls progress, exhibited the most illustri- 
ous characters and events, and closed with a revolution, equally 
glorious for the actors, and important in it« consequences to the human 
race. This battle n)used all America. The militia collected from 
ail quarters, and Boston was in a few days besieged by twenty thou- 
sand men. A stop was put to all intercourse between the town and 
country, and the inhabitants were reduced to great want of provisions. 
General Gage promised to let the people depart, if tney would deliver 
up their arms. The people complied ; bwt when the general had 
obtained their arms, the perfidious wretch refused to let the people go 

17. In the mean time, a small number of men, under the command 
of colonel Allen and colonel f^aston, without any public ordei"s, sur- 
prised and took the Britisii garrison at Ticondc'roga, without the loss 
of a man. 

1«. In June following, our troops attempted to fortify Bunker's biU 



UNITED STATES. 44S 

which lies in Charlestown, and but a mile and a half from Boston. 
TJiey had, during the night, thrown up a small breastwork, which 
jheltered them from the fi/e of the British cannon. But the next 
morning, the British army was sent to djive them from the hill ; and 
landing under cover of their cannon, they set fire to Charlestown, which 
was consumed, and marched to attack our troops in the entrenchments* 
A severe engagement ensued, in which the i3ritish suffered a very 
g;reat loss, lx)th of officers and privates. They were repulsed at first, 
and thrown into disorder ; but they finally carried the fortification 
with the point of the bayonet. The Americans suffered a small loss 
compared with the British ; but the death of the brave general Warren, 
who fell in the action, a martyr to the cause of his country, was severe- 
ly felt and universally lamented. 

19. About this time, the continental congi'ess appointed George 
Washington, Esq. to the chief command of the continental army. 
This gentleman had been a distinguished and successful officer in the 
preceding war, and he seemed destined by Heaven to be the saviour 
of his country. He accepted the appointment with a diffidence which 
was a proof of his prudence and his greatness. He refused any pay 
for eight gears' laborious and arduous service ; and by his matchless 
skill, fortitude, and perseverance, conducted America, through inde- 
scribable difficulties, to independence and peace. While true merit is 
esteemed, or virtue honoured, mankind will never cease to revere the 
memory of this hero ; and while gratitude remains in the human 
breast, the piaises of Washington shall dwell on every American 
tongue 

20. General Washington, with other officers appointed by congress, 
arrived at Cambridge, and took command of the American army in 
July. From this time, the affairs of America began to assume the 
appearance of a regular and general opposition to the forces of Great 
Britain. 

21. In autumn, a body of troops, under the command of general 
Montgomery, besieged and took the garrison at St. John's, which 
commands the entrance into Canada. The prisoners amounted to 
about seven hundred. General Montgomery pursued his success, and 
took Montreal, and designed to push his victories to Quebec. A body 
of troops, commanded by Arnold, was ordered to march to Canada, 
by the river Kennebec, and through the wilderness. After suffering 
every hardship, and the most distressing hunger, they arrived in 
Canada, and were joined by general M-ontgomery, before Quebec. 
This city, which was commanded by governor Carleton, was imme- 
diately besieged. But there being little hope of taking the town by 
a sie^e, it was determined to storm it. The attack was made on the 
last aay of Decembei, but proved unsuccessful, and fatal to the brave 
general, who, with his aid, Avas killed in attempting to scale the walls. 
Of the three divisions which attacked the town, one only entered, and 
that was compelled to surrender to superior force. Alter this defeat, 
Arnold, who now commanded the troops, continued some months before 
Quebec, although his troops suffered incredibly by cold and sickness. 
But the next spring the Americans were obliged to retreat from Canada. 

22. About this time the lai-ge and flourishing town of Norfolk, in 
Virginia, was wantonly burnt by order of lor^ Dunmore, the royal 
governor. General Gage went to England in September, and was 
succeeded in command by general Howe. Falmouth, a considerable 
town in the province of Maine, in Massachusetts, shared the fate of 
Norfolk : being laid in ashes by order of the British admiral. 



444 UNITED S'lATEa. 

23. The British king entered into treaties with some of the Geiman 
princes for about seventeen thousand men, who were to be sent to 
America the next year, to assist in subduing the colonies. The British 
parliament also passed an act, forbidding all iritercourse with America ; 
and while fhe^ repealed the Boston port and fi.shery bills, they declar- 
ed all American property on the high seas forfeited to the captors. 
This act induced congress to change the mode ol' carrying on the war • 
and measures were taken to annoy the enemy in Boston. For this 
purpose, batteries were cpened on several hills, from whence shot and 
bombs were thrown into the town. But the batteries which were 
opened on Dorchester Doint had the best effect, and soon obliged 
general Howe to abanaon the town. In March, 1,776, the British 
troops embarked for Halifax, and general Washington entered the 
town in triumph. 

24. In the ensuing summer, a small squadron of ships, under the 
command of sir Peter Parker, and a body of troops under the gene- 
rals Clinton and Cornwallis, attempted to take Charleston, the capital 
of South Carolina. The ships made a violent attack upon the fort on 
Sullivan's island, but were repulsed with great loss, and the expediti 
was abandoned. 

25. In July, congress published their aeciaiduu.. .,' aidP^v-'^**'^^* 
which for ever separated America from Great Britain. This great 
event took place two hundred and eighty-four years after the first dis- 
covery of America by Columbus — one hundred and seventy from the 
6rst effectual settlements in Virginia — and one hundred and fifty-six. 
from the first settlement of Plymouth in Massachusetts, which were 
tJie earliest English settlements in America. Just after this declara- 
tiMi, general Howe, with a powerful force, arrived near New- York, 
and landed the troops upon Staten Island. General Washington was 
in New-York, with about thirteen thovsand men, encamped either in 
the city, or m the neighbouring fortifications. 

26. The operations of the British began by the action on Long 
Island, in the month of August. The Americans were defeated, and 
general Sullivan and lord Sterling, with a iai-ge body of men, were 
made prisoners. The night after the engagement, a retreat was 
ordered, and executed with such silence, that the Americans left the 
island without alarming their enemies, and without loss. In Septem- 
ber, the city of New- York was abandoned by the American army, and 
taken by the British. 

27. In November, fort Washington, on York Island, was taken, and 
more than two thousand men made prisoners. Fort Lee, opposite ti 
fort Washington, on the Jersey shore, was soon after taken, but thfe 
garrison escaped. About the same time, general Clinton was sent, 
with a body of troops, to take possession of Rhode Island, and suc- 
ceeded. In addition to all these losses and defeats, the American 
anny suffered by desertion, antl more by sickness, which was epidemic, 
and verv mortal. ^ 

28. The northern army, at Ticonderoga. was in a disagreeable 
situation, particularly after the battle on lake Champlain, in which the 
American force, consisting of a few light vessels, under the command 
of Arnold and general Waterbury, was totally dispersed. But general 
Carleton, instead of pursuing his victory, landea at Crown Point, re- 
connoitered our posts at Ticonderoga and Mount Independence, and 
returned to winter quarters in Canada. 

29. At the close of this year, the Atuerican army was dwindled to a 
'sandful of men; and general Lee was taken prisoner in New-Jersey. 



UJSITED STATES. 445 

Far fiom being discouraged at these losses, congress took measures to 
raise and establish an army. In this critical situation, general Wash- 
ington surpristd and took a large body of Hessians, wlio were canton- 
ed at Trenton ; and soon .after, another body of the British troops, at 
Princeton. The address in planning and executing these enterprises, 
reflected the highest honour on the commander, and the success reviv- 
ed the desponding hopes of America. The loss of general Mercer, a 
gallant officer, at Princeton, was the principal circumstance that allay 
ed the joy of victory. 

30. The following year, (l,777,) was distinguished by very memo- 
rable events in favour of America. On the opening of the campaign, 
governor Trj^on was sent, with a body ot .<iot;ps, to destroy the stores 
at Danbury, in Connecticut. This plan was execi led, and the town 
mostly burnt. The enemy suffered in their retreat, and tne Americans 
lost general Wooster, a brave and experienced officer. General Pres- 
cott was taken from his quarters on Rhode Island, by the address and 
enterprise of colonel Barton, and conveyed prisoner to the continent. 
General Burgoyne, who commanded the northern British army, took 
possession of Ticonderoga, which had been abandoned by the Ameri- 
cans. He pushed his successes, crossed lake Geoi^e, and encamped 
upon the banks of the Hudson, near Saratoga. His progress was 
however checked by the defeat of colonel Baum, near Bennington, in 
which the undisciplined militia of Vermont, under general Stark, dis- 
played unexampled bravery, and captured almost the whole detach- 
ment. The militia assembled from all parts of New-England, to stop 
the progress of general Burgoyne. These, with the regular troops, 
formed a respectable army, commanded by general Gates. After 
two severe actions, in which the generals Lincoln and Arnold, behaved 
with uncommon gallantry, and were wounded, general Bui^oyne found 
himself enclosed with brave troops, an i was forced to surrender his 
whole anny, amounting to seven thousand men, into the hands of the 
Americans. This happened in October. This event diffijsed a uni- 
versal joy over America, and laid a foundation for the treaty with 
France. 

31. But before these transactions, the main body of the British 
forces had embarked at New- York, sailed up the Chesapeake, and 
landed at the head of Elk river. The army soon began tneir march 
for Philadelphia. General Washington had determined to oppose 
them, and for this purpose made a stand upon the heights near Brandy- 
wine creek. Here the armies engaged, and the Americans were over • 
powered, and suffered great loss. The enemy soon pursued their 
march, and took possession of Philadelphia towards the close of Sep- 
tember. Not long atter, the two armies were again engaged at Ger- 
mantown, and in the beginning of the action the Americans had the 
advantage ; but by some unlucky accident, the fortune of the day 
was turned in favour of the British. Both sides suffered considerable 
loss ; on the side of the Americans was general Nash. 

32. In an attack upon the forts at Mud Island and Red Bank, the 
Hessians were unsuccessful, and their commander, colonel Domp, 
killed. The British also lost the Augusta, a ship of the line. But 
the forts were afterwards taken, and the navigation of the Delaware 
opened. General Washington was reinforced with part of the troops 
which had composed the northern army, under general Gates : and 
Doth armies retired to winter quarters. 

33. In October, the same month in which general Burgoyne was 
taken at Saratoga, general Vaughan, with a small fleet, sailed up 

P P 



446 LtfifrEb StAT6S. 

Hudson's river, and wantonly bunit Kingston, a beautiful Dutch settle- 
ment, on the west side of the river. ,. . . « j i 

34. The beginning of the next year 0,773) was distingijwhed by a 
treaty of alliance between France and America ; by which we obtani- 
ed a powerful ally. When the English nunistrj' were informed tlrat 
this treaty was on foot, they despatched commissionei-s to America, 
to attempt a reconciliation. But America would not now accept their 
offers. Early in the spring, count de Estaing, with a tleet of fifteen 
sail of the line, was sent by the court of France to assist Anierica. 

35. General Howe left the army, and returned to England ; the 
command then devolved upon sir Henry Clinton. In June, the British 
army left Philadelphia, and marched for New-York. On their march 
they were much annoyed by the Americans ; and at Monmouth a very 
regular action took place between part of the armies ; tiie enemy were 
repulsed with great loss ; and had general Lee obeyed his orders, a 
signal victory must have been obtained. General Lee, for his ill con- 
duct that day, w^s suspended, and was never afterwards permitted to 

join the army. ... i •, r . 4 

36. In August, general Sullivan, with a large body of troops, at- 
tempted to take possession of Rhode Island, but did not succeed 
Soon after, the stores and shipping at Bedford, in Massachusetts, were 
burnt by a party of British troops. The same year, Savannah, tbe 
capital of Georgia, was taken by the British, under the command ot 
colonel Campbell. In the following year, (l,779,) general Lincoln 
was appointed to the command of the southern army. Governor 
Tryon and sir George Collier made an incursion into Connecticut, 
and burnt, with wanton barbaritj', the towns of Fairfield and >orwalk. 

37. But the American arms were crowned with success m a wOld 
attack upon Stony Point, which was surprised and taken by general 
Wayne, m the night of the 15th of July. Five hundred men ^vere 
made prisoners, with a small loss on either side. A party ot british 
forces attempted, this summer, to build a fort on Penobscot river, lor 
the purpose of cutting timber in the neighbouring forests. A plan was 
laid, by Massachusetts, to dislodge them, and a considerable fleet coi- 
lected for the purpose. But the plan failed of success, and the whole 
marine torce fell into the hands of the British, except some vessels, 
wliich were burnt by the Americans themselves. 

38. In October, general Lincoln and count de Eslamg made an 
assault upon Savannah ; but they were repulsed with considerable 
loss. In this action, the celebrated Polish count Polaski, who had ac- 
quired (he reputation of a brave soldier, was mortally wounded. In 
tliis summer, general Sullivan marched, with a body of troops, into 
the Indian ronntry, and burnt and destroyed all their provisions and 
fettlements that tell in his way. ^, ,on ^ «K« 

39. On tlte opening of the campaign, the next year, ^1,780,1 the 
British troops left Rhode Island. Au expedition under general Clin- 
ton and lord Cornwallis, was undertaken agamst Charleston, bouth 
Carolina, where general Lincoln commanded. This town, after a close 
sic«e of about six weeks, was surrendered to the British commander ; 
and general Lincoln, and the whole American garnson, were made 

'^"Jo." General Gates was appointed to the command in the soutlicm 
department, and another army collected. In August, lord Coniwaliis 
attacked the American troops at Camden, in South Carolina, and rout- 
ed them wiUi considerable loss. He afterwards marched through the 
Bouthern states, and supposed them entirely subdued. 1 he same 



LTNITED STATES. 447 

summer, the British troops made frequent incursions ftx)m New- York 
into the Jerseys; ravaging: and plundering the country. In some ot 
these descents, the He v. Mr. Caldwell, a respectable cleiip:yman and 
warm patriot, and his lady, were inhumanly murdered by the savage 
soldiery. 

41. In July, a French fleet, under Monsieur de Temay, with a 
body of land forces, commanded by count de Rochambeau, arrived at 
Rhode Inland, to the great joy of the Americans. 

42. This year was also distinguished by the infamous treason of 
Arnold. General Washington having some business to transact at 
Weathersfield, in Connecticut, left Arnold to command the important 
post of West Point, which guards a pass in Hudson's river, about sixty 
miles from New- York. Arnold's conduct in the city of Philadelphia, 
the preceding winter, had been censured, and the treatment he receiv- 
ed in consequence had given him offence. He determined to have 
revenge ; and for this purpose he entered into a negotiation with sir 
Heniy Clinton, to deliver West Point and the army into the hands of 
the British. While general Washington was absent, he dismounted 
the cannon in some of the forts, and took other steps to render the 
taking of the post easy for the enemy. But by a providential discov- 
ery, the whole plan was defeated. Major Andre, aid to general 
Clinton, a brave officer, who had been up the river as a spy, to con- 
cert the plan of operations with Arnold, was taken, condemned by a 
court-martial, and executed. Arnold made his escape by getting on 
board the Vulture, a British vessel which lay in the river. His con- 
duct has stamped him with infamy, and, like all traitors, he is despised 
by all manl<ind. General Washington arrived in camp just after 
Arnold had made his escape, and restored order in the garrison. 

43. After the dei'ea* o* general Gates, in Carolina, general Green 
>ras appointed to tlie command in the southern department. From 
this period, things in this quarter wore a more favourable aspect. 
Colonel Tarleton, the active commandei' of the British legion, was 
defeated by general Morgan, the intrepid commander of the riflemen. 
After a variety of movements, the two aiTnies met at Guilford, in North 
Carolina. Here was one of the best fought actions during the war. 
General Greene and lord Cornwallis exerted themselves, at the head 
of their respective armies, and, although the Americans Avere obliged 
to retire from the field of battle, yet the British army suffered an im- 
mense loss, and could not pursue the victor}-. This action happened 
on the 15th of March, 1,781. 

44. In the sprii)g, Arnold, who was made a brigadier-general in the 
British service, with a small number of troops, sailed for Vii-ginia, and 
plundered the country. This called the attention of the French fleet 
to that quarter, and a naval engagement look place, between the 
English aiKl French, in which some of the English ships were much 
damaged, and one entirely disabled. 

45. After the battle at Guilford, general Greene moved towards 
South Carolina, to drive the British from their posts in that state. 
Here lord Rawdon obtained an inconsiderable advantage over the 
Americans, near Camden. But general Greene more than recovered 
this disadvantage, by the brilliant and successful action at the Eutaw 
springs ; where general Marion distinguished himself, and the brave 
colonel W^ashington was wounded and taken prisoner. Lord Corn- 
wallis finding general Greene successful in Carolina, marched to Vir- 
ginia, collected his forces, and fortified himself in YorktoAvn. In the 
mean time, Arnold made an mcursion into Connecticut, burnt a part 



^■iS UNITED STATES. 

of New-London, took fort Griswold by storm, and put the garrison to 
the sword. The garrison consisted chiefly of men suddenly collected 
from the little town of Groton, which, by the savnge cruelly of tlie 
British officer \\ho comrnanded the attack, lost, in one hour, almost 
all its heads of families. The brave colonel Ledyard, who command- 
ed the fort, was slain with his own s^vord, after he had surrendered. 

46. The marquis de la Fayette, the brave and generous nobleman, 
whose services command the gratitude of every American, had been 
despatched^ from the main anny to watch the motions of lord Com- 
t^'allis, in Vircinia. About the fast of August, count de Grasse arrived 
with a large tieet in the Chesapeake, and blocked up the British troops 
at Yorktown. Admiral Greaves, with a British fleet, appeared off the 
Capes, and an action succeeded, but it was not decisive. General 
Washington had, before this time, moved the main body of his army, 
tc^ether with the French troops, to the southward ; and, as soon as he 
heard of the arrival of the French fleet in the Chesapeake, he made 
rapid marches to the head of the Elk, where embarking, the troops 
soon arrived at Yorktown. A close siege immediately commenced, 
and was carried on with such vigour by the combined forces of Amer- 
ica and France, that lord Cornwallis was obliged to surrender. This 
glorious event, which took place on the 19th of October, 1,781, de- 
cided the contest in favour of America, and laid the foundation of a 
general peace. A few months after the surrender of Cornwallis, the 
British evacuated all their posts in South Carolina and Georgia, and 
retired to the main army in New-York. 

47. The next spring (l,782) sir Guy Carlton arrived in New-York, 
and took command of the British army in America. Immediately 
after his arrival, he acquainted general -Washington and congress, that 
negotiations for a peace had been commenced at Paris. On the 30th 
of rsovember, 1,782, the provisional articles of peace were signed at 
Paris, by which Great Britain acknowledged the independence and 
sovereignty of the United States of America. 

48. Thus ended a Irng and arduous conflict, in which Great Britain 
expended near o hundred millions of money, with a hundred thousand 
lives, and won nothing. America endured every cruelty and distress 
fjom her enemies ; lost many lives, and much treasure — but delivered 
herself from a foreign dominion, and gained a rank among the nations 
of the earth. 



SECTION V. 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE STATE AND NATIONAL GOVERN- 
MENTS. WARS WITH TRIPOLI AND THE INDIANS, &«. 

1. The important revolution, as regarding the dependance of the 
colonies on Great Britain, required a correspondiiie: alteration in thei. 
govemniei.ts. Conventions were assembled in the several states, 
which formed new constitutions, agreeably to the strictest principles 
of republicanism ; retaining whatever was desirable in the original 
mstitutions, and at the same time providing additional security agahist 
tyranny or coi niption. 'i'he statute nod common laws of England, 
formerly ol>«crved in the provincial courts of justice, remain in prac- 
tice as before. Tlie inestimable pri\ ilege, of British origin, a trial 
by jury ; the freedom of the jiress, \\ith tlie additional right, in case 
of" prosecutii*^ for a libel, of giving the trutli in evidence ; are de- 



UNITED .STATES. 449 

dared to be liindamental principles. The governments resemble, in 
their principal organization, the frame of the new federal constitution ; 
they consist of three branches — a governor, a senate, and a lower 
house of representatives. The elections recur frequently, in which, 
m most of the states, every freeman has a right to participate. 

2. As yet the general government was not established on a solid 
foundation. The articles of union, formed under Hie pressure of com- 
mon danger, were found inadequate to the efficient management of the 
same country in the selfish periods of peace and security. No efficient 
fund had been provided to pay the interest of the national debt, and 
the public securities fell to oiie tenth of their nominal value. An open 
resistance to the government was made in Massachusetts, headed by a 
person of the name of Shays. Dai^er increased, and the friends of 
rational liberty became alarmed. 

3. The Virginia legislature, in 1,787, in accordance with a motion 
made by James 3Ladison, made a proposal to the otlier stales to meet 
in convention for the purpose of digesting a system of government 
equal to the exigencies of the union. The convention met at Phila- 
delphia, May 25, 1,787. and chose general Washington president ; 
and, at'ter deliberating with closed doors until the 17tli of September, 
agreed on a new plan of national government : this was aflf rwards 
ratified by the several states. " This new constitution not only fixes the 
national goverDment on a republican basis, but guaranties to each state 
of the family a republican form of government, and binds the whole 
to protect each against foreign invasion or domestic violence. Gen- 
eral Washington was unanimously chosen first president under the new 
constitution. March 4, 1,789, the first congress under the new consti- 
tution assembled at New-York ; and, in 1,790, duties were levied on 
imported merchandise, to replenish an empty treasury. The public 
debt incurred duriiig the revolutionary war Avas funded, and brought 
at once to its par value. A national bank was established, not how- 
ever without opposition. An excise duty laid on domestic spirits, pro- 
duced an insurrection in the western part of Pennsylvania ; but the 
laws were executed, and on the intervention of an armed force, tran- 
quillity was restored without bloodshed. 

4. Two new states were admitted into the confederacy, viz. : Ver- 
mont in 1,791, and Kentucky in 1,792. A war with the Cieek Indians, 
whose fighting men amounted to about six hundred, some time existed 
en the frontier of Geoi-gia : peace, however, was restored there in 
1,790. A sanguinary warfare, with various success, was for some time 
kept up with the north-western Indians. In 1,791, general Harmar 
was defeated, in the Ohio country, with the loss of three hundred and 
siAty men killed. General St. Clair, at the head of two thousand 
militia and regulars, was subsequently Avorsted, near the Indian villages 
on the Miami, with the loss of thirty-eight officei-s, and nearly six 
hundred privates. St. Clair was succeeded b}' general Wayne, who 
completely louted the savage foe, and drove the Indians out of the 
countiy. In the year after, Wayne negotiated a satisfactory treaty 
of peace with the hostile Indians ; and at this time commenced a 
humane system ^or ameliorating their condition. 

5. Whilst the United States were employed in quelling the refrac- 
tory, and restraining the inroads of a subtle eneuiy within their owa 
bosom, new sources of dilTicully discovered themselves in the great 
convulsions of Eurone. The French revolution had commenced, and 
that nation was under the wild misrule of its directorj\ Claims for 
assistance were made on the United States. Genet, the French envoy, 

Pp2 S7 



4S0 UNITED STATES. 

having arrived at Charleston, undertook to authorize the arming of 
vessels in that port, and the enlisting of men ; giving commissions, iu 
the name of the French government, to cruise at sea, and commit hos- 
tilities on land, against nations with whom the United States were at 
peace. The British minister remonstrated. The president issued 
orders for defeating the unwarianta})Ie interference of the French am- 
bassador. Genel threatened an appeal to the people, but was soon 
alter recalled. Aftenvards, the French directory authorized the in- 
discriminate capture of all vessels sailing under the tlag of the United 
States ; and ordered the American envoys to leave France. Two 
severe actions occurred in the West rndies, between the American 
friffate Constellation, of thirty-eight guns, and the French frigate 
l/Tnsurgente, of forty, and the same frigate and the La Vengeance, of 
fifty guns, in which L'Insuigente was captured, ^nd La Vengeance 
worsted. 

6. In 1,797, John Adams was chosen presidenr; and in the year 
after, Washington was called to the head of the army, in the prospect 
of a protracted war with France. But speedily after the overthrow 
of the directory government, all the disputes between France and the 
United States were amicably arranged. 

7. Although, since the definitive treaty of Paris, there occurred no 
open hostilities between England and the United States, yet they were 
far from he\ug on terms of amity and conciliation. On various pre- 
texts, the English retained possession of the forts on the south side of 
the lakes, ibrming the northern boundary of the United States ; and 
irritation was continually excited by the English insisting on the right 
of searching American ships for enemy's property. Mr. Jay was de- 
puted envoy to London, and negotiated a treaty, in 1,795, which set- 
tled the differences between the two nations, but the terms of which 
were much opposed in the United States. 

8. December 14, 1,799, died the illustrious VVashmglon, of an in- 
flammatory sore throat and fever, contracted from a slight exposure to 
the wet weather, after an illness of only about twenty-four hourb. 

9. The seat of governir.ent had been removed from New- York to 
Philadelphia, both of ^\hlc}l places being deemed inconvenient, pro- 
vision was made, at the second session after the formation of govern- 
ment, for the removal of the government to a district on the Potomac, 
which was ceded to the United States by Vii-ginia and Maryland ; and, 
in 1,000, the public offices were removed to the infant capital, of 
which magnificent buildings had been erected. This cily bears the 
name of Washington, and the district that of Columbia. 

10. The war with Tripoli commenced in 1,801, by an engaffemenl 
of the Enterprise, captain Sterrett, with a Tripolilan corsair, oft Malta, 
in which the American was victoiiou«. Commodore Murray, the 
following year, in the frigate Constellation, was attacked, while cruis- 
ing off Tripoli, by a k)nnidable number of ^un boats, but obliged 
(hem to retire in confusion. In l,ti03, the Philadelphia frigate, cap 
tain Bainbridge, ranuj)on a rock, in the ver>'jaws ol the pirates ; was 
obliged to strike, and hrrollkers and crew, amounting to three hun- 
dred, were made pnsoneis. This vessel was, however, recaptured 
and burnt, while lying in the harbour of Tripoli, Februaiy 16, 1,804, 
by captain Stephen Decatur, jr., and seventy men— one of the most 
daring and gallant exploits on record. From the 3d to the 29th of 
August following, commodore Preble made three general attacks upon 
the Tripolitan batteries. The barbarian enemy continued to treat 
tlie American prisoners with the most atrocious cruelty. Anothec 



UNITED STATES. 46! 

expedient was tried by the Amencan government General Eaton 
was despatched to co-operate with Hamet, who had been driven froni 
the g-overnnient of Tripoli by the usurpation of his brother. Travel- 
ling lo E^-pt, he found Uie exile, and proceeding tilty-lwo days 
through a hideous desert, he arrived betore Deme, a city in the 
regency of Tripoli, and carried the Xovm at the point of the bayonet. 
Twice did the enemy attempt to retake the tomi ; but, against teartul 
odds, they were repulsed by Eaton. This brought the reiernir^ 
bashaw to terms ; a peace was concluded by colonel Lear, and the 
prisoners long detained in captivity, were released. 

11. Tennessee in 1,796, and Ohio in 1,800, were added to the states 
of the union. In 1,803, Louisiana was purchased Irom the French 
government, for the sum of fifteen millions of dollars ; and in 1,812, a 
portion of this extended territory was erected into a state by that name. 
by this cession, the United States have acquired a territory of vast 
m?.gnitude, and extraordinary fertilitj^ from which new states wiJl 
continue to be incorpoi-ated. 

12. In the autumn of 1,806, Aaron Burr was detected in an enter- 
prise of great moment, the separation of the western states from the 
union, and the subjugation of New-Orleans : his plan was defeated by 
the vigilance of the government ; Burr was arrested on a charge of 
high treason — but no overt act being proved on him, be was released. 



SECTION VI. 
WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN, &c. 

1 We come now to treat of those interesting events which brought 
on a second contest between Great Britain and the United States. 
The custom of searching American vessels on the ocean, and impress- 
ing from them British seamen, had lon^ been practised by the English. 
But hitherto the custom had been conhned to private vessels : now, it 
was extended in some instances to public armed vessels. Four seamen, 
deserters from the British navy, were reported to have entered the 
ser\'ice of the United States, and to have been received on board the 
frigate Chesapeake, at the lime lying at Hampton roads, preparir^ for 
the Mediterranean. Admiral Berkeley ordered captain Humphries, 
of the Leopard, to follow the Chesapeake beyond th«» waters of the 
United States, and demand the deserters : this he did, and, after 
demanding the seamen, tired a broadside upon the American frigate 
This unexpected attack so disconcerted captain Barron, that he im«- 
mediately struck the colours of the Chesapeake, and permitted the 
four seamen to be taken without resistance. The Leopard carried 
fifty, the Chesapeake only thirty-six guns. On board the latter, four 
men were killed and sixteen wounded. One of the impressed seamen 
was aftenvards hanged, and one died in prison : and there was reason 
for supposing that three of them n^re native Americans. Captain 
Barron, for neglect of duly, was suspended from command for five 
years. This tragical occurrence produced a sreneral indignation. 
The British, however, disavowed admiral Berkeley's orders, and re- 
moved him from the station, but soon atter appointed him to a more 
importint one. 

2. New systems of blockade were invented by the belligerenlsj 
commencing with the French decree of Berlin, of November 21, 



451 UNITED STATES. 

1,806 : Januaiy 7, 1,807, came the British order prcliibiting coastii^ 
trade; November 11, the cele!)rated Britijsh orders in council ; aixi 
December 7, the French Milan decree. December 22, of the same 
year, congress, on the reconunendation ol' Mr. Jefferson, then presi- 
dent, ordered an eHibargo, urohibiliniEr the exportation ot every article 
i"rom the United Stater.. Alarch 4, 1,809, the embargo was removed, 
and non- intercourse substituted. April 19, an arrangement was made 
ivitli Mr. Ei-skine, which induced the American government to renew 
tlie trade with England ; tliis arrangement was subsequently disavow- 
ed by the British government. The insulting deportment of the suc- 
ceeding negotiator, Mr. Jackson, heightened the resentiT>€nt of the 
republic ; and a rencounter between the American and British ships 
of war, President and Little Belt, increased the unfriendly sentiments 
of England. 

3. Mr. Foster, a new British minister, offered honourable reparation 
for the indignity on the Chesapeake ; but no change could be procur- 
ed in the systems practised by Great Britain and France against 
American trade. The United States now offered to either of the 
belligerents, or both, as soon as they ceased to violate the neutral 
commerce of the republic, that the non-intercourse arrangement 
should be discontinued. The French artfully embraced the offer, by 
information that the French Berlin and Milan decrees had been re- 
voked ; and non-intercourse ^vith France was dLsconlinued by procla- 
mation of the president. 

4. War was declared by the United States against Great Britain, 
June 18, 1,812, too late to avail themselves of the retraction of the 
Bntisn orders in council, which followed the repeal of the Berlin and 
Milan decrees. The congress voted an addition to the regular amiy, 
of twenty-five thousand men ; authorized a loan of eleven millions; 
and nearly doubled the duties on imports. 

5. Previous to the declaration of war, indications of hostility had 
appeared among the Indians on the tVontiers bordering on Canada. 
A body of troops, under governor Harrison, was attacked on the 7th 
of Novenvber, 1,811, near a branch of the Wabash, by a larger body 
of Indians, who were defeated, not without considerable loss to the 
Americans. 

6. On the 12th of July, general Hull, governor of the Michigan 
territory, crossed from Detroit into the province of Canada, with a 
considerable force. In this situation, he soon received intelligence of 
the capture of the American post at Michiilimackinac. On the 8th 
of August, he returned to Detroit, followed by the British general 
Brock, with his regulars and Indians ; and he soon surrendered to the 
British, not only his army, but included the whole territory of Michi- 
gan in the articles of capitulation. He was afterwards tried, and 
found guilty of cowardice and neglect of duty, and sentenced to be 
sliot : out, in consideration of his revolutionary services, and his age, 
the court recommended him to mercy, and the president withdrew the 
punishment of death. He has since endeavoured, by letters address- 
ed to the people of this country, to justify his conduct ; and with many 
persons his endeavours have been successful. 

7. On the 19th of August, the Constitution frigate, captain Hull, 
captured the British frigate Guerriere, captain Dacres, after an action 
of thirty minutes : loss of the Guerriere, fifteen killed, sixty-four 
wounded, and twenty-one missing — that of the Constitution, seven 
killed and seven wounded. October 25, the frigate United States, 
captain Decatur, met the British friga^ Macedoflian^ off the western 



UNITED STATES. 453 

isles, and captured her after an action of one hour and a half: British 
loss, thirty-six killed and sixty-eight wounded — American loss, seven 
killed, five wounded. The next naval achievement was the capture 
of the British brig Frolic by the American sloop Wasp, commanded 
by captain Jones • British loss, thirty killed and fifty wounded— 
American, five killed, five wounded. In December, the Constitution, 
captain Bainbridge, again met the enemy, and the frigate Java was 
captured : British loss, sixty killed, and one hundred and one wound- 
ed — American, nine killed, twenty-five wounded. Besides these vic- 
tories of public ships, numerous privateers swarmed the ocean, and 
before the meeting of congress, in November, nearly two hundred and 
fifty vessels were captured from the enemy. 

8. In November, general Van Rensselaer, with about one thousand 
troops, crossed the Niagara river into Upper Canada, and attacked 
the British at Queenstown ; and, after an obstinate engagement, was 
obliged to surrender, with a loss of sixty killed, and about one hundred 
wounded. In this engagement the British general Brock was killed. 

9. Early in 1,813, an action was fought at the river Raisin, between 
an American detachment, under general Winchester, and a British and 
Indian force under cokjnel Proctor. The Americans were defeated, and 
the greater part of five hundred prisoners were immediately massacred. 
Proctor being unable or unwilling to protect them, as he had expressly 
stipulated ! Soon after, general Harrison was attacked and besieged, 
by the combined British and Indians at fort Meigs. A desultory war 
was kept up for some time. Colonel Dudley was detached from the 
fort, to attack the enemy's battery on the opposite side of the river. 
He succeeded in capturing the oattery, but his troops, imprudently 
pursuing the enemy, were soon surrounded by an Indian army, three 
limes their number, headed by the Indian general Tecumseh ; a des- 
perate fight, and a scene of slaughter almost as terrible as that at 
Raisin, ensued. Of eight hundred men composing the detachment, 
only about one hundred and fifty escaped. 

10. On the 21st of February, the British attacked Ogdensburgh, on 
the river St. Lawrence, with a force of twelve nundred, and compelled 
ihe Americans to evacuate the place. In Apri7, the Americans, under 
general Pike, landed at York, in Upper Canada ; and, alter some se- 
vere fighting, succeeded in capturing or destroying a lai^e amount ol 
public stores. The British lost seven hundred and fifty men, in killed, 
wounded, and captured. The brave Pike was mortally wounded, by 
the explosion of a magazine, which had been purposely set on fire. 
Tiie obiectof the expedition being gained, the American forces evac- 
uated York on the 1st of May, and re-embarked. 

11. Fort George, commanded bv general Vincent, was taken by 
the American forces, under general Boyd and colonel Miller, May 27 
after a sharp conflict. The British fort, in killed and wounded, about 
two hundred and fifty men, besides six liundicd prisoners — their ai)- 
tagonists, thirtj^-nine killed and one hundred and eight wounded. 
Soon afterwards, generals Chandler and Winder, who had advanced 
with a considerable force, were attacked in the night, by general 
Vincent, who had been reinforced, between fort George and Burling- 
ton bay, and, in a scene of confusion, were both made prisoners ; their 
troops retired to fort Geoi^e. 

12. Captain James Lawrence, of the Hornet, fell in with, and cap- 
lured, the British sloop of war Peacock, February 24. The action 
lasted ei2:ht minutes ; and the British captain and several others were 
killed, arxi twenty-nine wounded — the Hornet had thi-ee wounded* 



454 UNITED STATES. 

The Peacock sunk soon aAer the action, and thirteen British sailors 
went down with her. Captain Lawrence was aftenvards appointed to 
the command of the ill-fated Cliesnpeake, then ly inj^ in Boston harbour. 
The British frigate Shannon, commanded liy captain Broke, had been 
for some tinje in the bay, srckinj^ an eng^ageuient with an American 
frigate. Lawrence, burning witli impatience to meet tiie enemy, did 
not wait to inquire into the relative condition of the vessels. The 
Shannon had a picked crew, and was accoutred for the express pur- 
pose of engaging an American frigate of the largest size. The Ches- 
apeake, not of the largest description of frigates, had recently dis- 
charged a part of her crew, and enlisted others : several of her ofliccrs 
were sick. Lawrence sailed on the first of June ; and when he came 
within sight of the Shannon, addressed his crew, but they listened with 
"DO enthusjiasm : some complained that they had not received their 
prize money — murmurs and dissatisfaction were general ; in fact the 
crew were almost in a state of mutiny. The Chesapeake closed with 
the enemy and gave the first broadside ; and at the first fire of the 
Shannon, captain Lawrence was mortalty wounded. A second and a 
third broadside gave the British a decided advantage, which was ibl- 
lovred up by boarding the Chesapeake. A scene of carnage ensued ; 
captain Lawrence was carried below, exclaiming, as he left the deck, 
*' Don't give up the ship." Every officer qualified for command in 
the Chesapeake, was either killed or disabled : about eighty were 
killed, and as many wounded. Of the British, twenty-tliree were 
killed and fifty-six wounded. The captured friga|.e was carried in 
triumph to Halifax. The brilliant ?.chievements of Wellir^ton and 
Nelson scarcely called forth more lively expressions of exultatiof? m 
England, than did the capture of the Chesapeake. The tower guns 
at London were fired on reception of the news, and the prince regent 
conferred on captain Broke the order of knighthood. 

13. On the 4th of August, the American sloop of war Argus was 
captured by the Pelican, a vessel of her own class, but said to be two 

uns superior. Captain Allen, commander of the Ai-gus, was mortally 
wounded at the firsfbroadside of the enemy. In the following month, 
the American brig Enterprize captured the Boxer, a vessel superior 
.n effective force. The only person killed on board the Enterprize 
was her gallant commander, lieutenant Burroughs, and thirteen were 
wounded. The British loss was greater: among the slain was captain 
Blythe, who commanded the Boxer, and who was buried by tlie side 
of his antagonist in the town of Portland, off whose harbour the action 
was fought. 

14. Hut the most brilliant achievement this year was that of tb^ 
youthful Perry on lake Erie. The British fores consisted of six ves- 
sels, having sixty-three guns : that of the Americans, of nine vessels 
and fifty-six guns. The conllict was tremendous. The flag ship ol 
Perry suffered dreadfully in the loss of men, and was on the jJoint ol 
sinking : he left tlie siiip in the midst of the hottest fire, and proceed 
ed to another vessel ; and after three hours conllict, the laurel ol 
vk:tory was assigned to Perry ; the tiiumph was complete — not a singU 
vessel of the enemy escaped. This action took place on the 10th of 
September, and made the Americans masters of the lake. Tlie gallan* 
Perry announced this victor}- in the following laconic epif^tle to general 
Harrison : '* We have met the enemy and they are ours — two ships, 
two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." 

16. Chesapeake bay was blockaded by the British during the spring 
of this year, and several predatory incursions by their troops were 



UNITED STATES. 

made. Much property was plundered and destroyed, and many dis- 
graceful scenes occurred, particularly at Hampton, and Havre de 
Grace. 

16. An attack was made, May 29, on Sackett's harbour by about one 
thousand British, who were repulsed with considerable loss. General 
Brown commanded the American, and sir George Prevost the British 
troops. About the same time the British attacked Craney Island, 
near Norfolk, and were defeated with loss. 

17. General Dearborn, the American commander, retired from ser- 
vice tliis year. Fort Sandusky was invested by a large force of British 
and Indians ; and the exploit of major Croghan in repulsing the assail- 
ants with great loss, called lorth general admiration. In October, 
Detroit was abandoned by the British, on the approach of a large 
army under general Harrison ; who, soon after, defeated the enemy 
under the command of general Proctor, in Upper Canada ; in this 
battle the celebrated Tecumseh was killed. 

18. Little was done this year towards the conquest of Canada. 
General Wilkinson descended the St. Lawrence from lake Ontario in 
November ; and an engagement took place at Williamsbui^h, m 
which the Americans were repulsed with the loss of three hundred 
killed, wounded, and prisoners. A disagreement between the generals 
Hampton and VVilkinson, prevented that concert which was necessary 
to secure success ; the design of attacking Montreal was relinquished, 
and the army retired to winter quarters. Fort Geoi^e was evacuated 
in the month of December ; and misconceiving his instructions, general 
M'Clure, who commanded the fortress, set fire to the village of New- 
ark. Niagara was afterwards surprised and retaken by the British. — 
The British crossed over to the American side, and in resentment for the 
destruction of Newark, burnt Buffalo and some other villages, and laid 
waste the whole frontier. 

19. The Creek Indians, who had been for some time in open hos- 
niities with the United States, w'ere completely subdued this season 
and the succeeding spring, principally by troops commanded by gen- 
eral Andrew Jackson. 

20. In January, 1,814, propositions having been made by the prince 
regent for a negotiation, Messrs. Russell and Clay were appointed to 
join Messrs. Adams, Bayard, and Gallatin, already in Europe, as 
commissioners to meet such as the British government might appoint ; 
and Messrs. Gambier, Golbourn, and William Adams were appointed 
to meet them. The place of assembling was first fixed at Gottenburg, 
but afterwards changed to Ghent in Flanders ; where the commission- 
ers met in August. 

21. The frigate Essex, captain David Porter, after having long 
cruised in the Pacific and captured a great number of British vessels, 
ivas herself captured in the harbour of Valparaiso, by the British 
frigate Phebe and the sloop Cherub. The Peacock captured the 
British brig Epervier, April 29, after an action of forty-two minutes. 
The Hornet sloop of war captured the English national brig Penguin; 
and the old Constitution, under captain Stewart, overcame the united 
forces of the Cyane and Levant. 

22. In the beginning of July, fort Erie was taken by the Americans. 
On the 4th of July, a brilliant victory was gained by general Brown 
at Chippewa. On the 25th, one of the most sanguinary battles on rec- 
ord took place at Bridgewater: in this action the American generals 
Scott, Ripley, and Porter, with colonel Miller, majors Hindman, Jes 
«up, Leavenworth, and M'Neil. distinguished themselves The 



ft€ UNITKl) STATES. 

British forces were led by g^enerals Dniniinond and Kial. The battle 
lastt'd from four o'clock, P. M. until inidnip:ht. The British lost nine 
liiMidn'd, killed, uoundfil, and pn^oixi-s : tho Anu'iican loss was less 
'J^lie latter maintained their ground ; while the former i-etired. 

'23. The town of East port in the hay of Passamaquoddy, was this 
year taken In- a British naval force ; and soon after the British took 
possession ofCastine and all that part of the new state of Maine, lyinp; 
[)etween that place and Penobscot river, and compelled many ot the 
inhabitants to take the oath of allep^iance to Great Britain. The 
British this year landed marauding parties, at Saybrook, Wareham, 
bituate, ana other places, and destroyed much shipping : in an at 
i.invt on Stonington, they were beaten oft" by the gallant inhabitan 
»vith loss. 

24. Frorn the 16th to the 20th of August, about sixty sail of the 
British arrived in the Chesapeake, intending to invade the States in 
earnest. More than fifty of them landed at Benedict, on the Patuxent, 
about forty miles from Washington. On the 22d the Britisli flankers 
reached Wood Yard, iburteen miles from Washington. Commodore 
Barney here blew up a flotilla of gun boats to prevent their falling into 
the hands of the enemy. On tlie 23d the British forces, estimated at 
six thousand, reached Bladensbuig-h, about six miles from Washington. 
Here a short engagement took place ; but the greater part of the 
American militia fled. Commodore Barney, witli a few eighteen 

gounders and about four hundred men, made a gallant resistance Irom 
ladensburg to the city ; but he was wounded and taken prisoner. 
The Britisii here destroyed the capitol, the president's house, and 
several other public buildings, mutilated the monument in the navy 
yard, and committed many excesses. In the night of the 25th, tne 
British retired, gained their shipping by rapid marches, and embark 
ed on board their ships on the 27th. Several British ships under cap 
lain Gordon, at the same iime, ascended the Potomac, appeared be- 
fore Alexandria, robbed the defenceless inhabitants of a vast quantity 
of flour and other plunder ; and escaped down the river without mo- 
lestation. 

25. August 14, General Drummond was repulsed in an attack on 
fort Erie, after a severe conflict, with a loss of five hundred and eighty; 
two in killed, wounded, and prisoners, two hundred and twenty-one 
being killed ; American loss in killed and wounded, two hundred and 
forty-five. 

26. On Sunday, the 11th of September, admiral Cochrane appeared 
off Baltimore with about fifty sail. The laiger vessels landed at 
North Point, ten miles from the city, about seven thousand troops 
under general Ross and admiral Cockburn. The next da}', as they 
advanced towards the city, they were met by general Strieker wiln 
?bout three thousand militia, and a severe engagement took place, in 
which the British general was killed. The Americans were howcvei 
repulsed by superior numbers ; and on Tuesday evening, the Biitish 
advanced to within about two miles of the American entrenchments. 
Fiut so strong was the American force, and so valiantly had they fought 
the preceding day, (hat the British retreated before^ morning, and 
hastily re-embarked. A grand attack was made on Tuesday on foil 
M'Henrj', on the other side of the city and commanding the water 
f>3ssage to it, from frigates, bomb, and rocket vessels, which lasted tlie 
whole day and a part of the night, doing but little damage. In the 
night about a tho\:sand of tlie eneni}' landed between the tort and the 
city, but were soon repulsed The loss of the Americans in killed, 



UNITED STATES. 457 

wounded, and prisoners, was two hundred and thirteen : that of the 
British is not known. The enemy, thus discomfited, moved down the 
bay. 

27. The governor-general o(" Canada, sii George- Prevost, with 
from twelve to fourteen thousand men, made an attack on Plattsburgh, 
September 11. At the same time a naval engagement, on lake Cham- 
plain, took place in sight of the land forces. The American fleet 
having eighty-six guns and eight hundred and twenty-six men^ was' 
commanded by captain M'Donough ; the British, consisting of ninety- 
five guns and. one thousand and fifty men, was commanded by com- 
modore Downie. The action ended in the surrender of the British 
vessels, viz. one frigate, one brig, and two sloops of war. Some of 
their gallies were sunk ; others escaped. American loss, hlty-two 
killed, fifty-eight wounded : British loss, eighty-four killed, one 
aundred and ten wounded. At the same time that the fleets were 
engaged, governor Prevost attacked the forts at Plattsburgh with his 
'gnd forces, throwing shells, balls, and rockets : he attempted to cross 
.he Saranac, but was repulsed at three difierent places. So efflsctual 
was the fire of the Americans, that, before sunset, the batteries he had 
erected were all silenced; and at nine o'clock in the evening his 
whole army began a rapid retreat, leaving many wounded, and much 
ammunition, provision, and baggage. The American loss this day, 
and in skirmishes previous on land, was thirty-nine killed, sixty-two 
wounded, and twenty missing: the loss of the British, in killed* 
wounded, and deserters, besides those on hoard the fleet, was estimat- 
ed at two thousand five hundred. General Alexander Macomb com- 
manded the American land forces. 

28. As on Erie and Champlain, so on the lake Ontario, each party 
strove for a naval ascendency. Several large ships w^ere built by the 
Americans at Sackett's harbour, and by the British at Kingston. The 
American fleet was commanded by captain Chauncey, and the British 
by commodore Yeo. As at no time, one side equalled the other in 
strength, so at all times one avoided as the other sought for an engage- 
ment, A partial action once took place ; but the British commander, 
at that time supposing his force inferior, took the advantage of cir- 
cumstances to m.ake his port. One of the 'British vessels ready for 
sea at the close of the war manned nearly one hundred guns ; and two 
of the largest class of ve?s<:js in the world vvere at the same time 
erecting at Sackett's harbour. 

29. In a sortie from fort Erie, under the command ot general Jacob 
Brcwn. after a severe engageinent, the British were defeated with the 
loss of nearly a thousand, in killed, wounded, and prisoners : ine 
American loss exceeded five hundred. 

30. The frigate President, commodore Decatur, sailed from New- 
York, J ant! a ry 14, 1,815, and was the next day pursued by four frigates 
and a brig of the enemy. An engagement took place between the 
foremost of the pursuing vessels, the Endymion and the President; 
after a severe action of two hours, the Endymion was silenced and 
beaten off". The Pamone and Tenedos in one hour coming up, tlie 
President was obliged to surrender. 

31. One of the most splendid events on the part of the Americans 
closed the late war : it was the discomfiture and repulse of the British 
at New-Orleans. A very large British force entered lake Pontchar- 
train, near New-Orleans, early in December, 1,814, defeating, after 
in obstinate conflict the small' American naval force stationed there 
The British were commanded by general Packenham, one of Welling 

Qq 58 



4bS UNITED STATES. 

ton*f invincibles who had conquered the jjreat Napoleon . iLe Aineri- 
can army was led by preneral Andrew Jackson. Several skirmishes 
took place, in which the British were ahnost the exclusive sufferers. 
On Sunday niornino: early, January ii, a grand attack was :nade by 
tlie British on the An)erican troops in llirir entrenchments. Alter an 
eng-agement of more than an hour, the enemy ^yere cut to pieces to a 
degree ^lmo>t beyond exam})le, and tied in conlUMon. leaving- on the 
field of battle their dead and W(>unded. The Briti>h loss was seven 
hundred killed, fourteen hundred wounded, and five hundred prisoners: 
the g:enerals Packenhain and Keane, were aniong the slain, and gen- 
eral Cobb was dangerously wounded. The American loss was said to 
be only seven killed and six wounded! The attack was not renewed, 
and in a short time alter, the Briti^^h left the west. 

32. Up to the close ot 1,H14, the British ministry', calculating to 
bring the Americans to their terms, had discovered an indisposition to 
treaf with the commissioners of the United States ; but the defeat of 
Jie British bet'ore Plattsburgh, gave a new turn to the negotiation, and 
a treaty of peace was signed at Ghent, December 24, 1,814. Bi)th 
nations agreed to appoint commissionei-s to settle dis[>uted boundaries. 
No allusion was made in the treaty to the causes of the war. Security 
against their recurreiice rests, however, r^n a much firmer basis than 
the provisions of the most solemn treaty. Britain has been taught to 
appreciate the strer^th of the republic. By tli.is war t!ae public deb* 
ol the United Stales was increased a hundred mill inns of dollars. 

33. It would t<x) much extend this sketch of the histor)' of the re- 
public, to trace to its source ihe origin of parties which have diviiied 
the country into two great 5ection> with ditlercnt appellations. The 
distinction was unknown until sul)sequent to Mr. Jay's treaty with 
Great Britain in 1,795. George Wasliinglon was elected president in 
1,780, and re-electe<i in 1,79-2. He was succeeded by John Adams, 
elected in 1,796, between whom and Thomas Jefierson the parties 
divided in 1.800: the latter was chosen at that time, not iiowevet 
until he had been balloted for thirty-six times by the house of repre- 
sentatives in congress, the vote Ly slates beii»g at each balloting 
equally divided between Mr. Jefferson and Aaron Burr. In 1,804. 
Mr. Jeffer>on was re-elected. Declinijig an election in 1.808, Mr 
Jefferson gave place to rJames Madison. Tht; latter continuing eight 
years, Janjes Monroe was elected to the presidency in 1,810 ; and s<» 
general was the satisfaction with the admini.^tration, that in 1,820, lie 
had all the electoral votes sii^e one for U»e «ame otnce 

34. Since the peace the attention of tiie countiy has been called lo 
the propriety of augmenting the national defence. Congress having 
ujaile appropriations toi the purpose, extensive lortifications have be«B 
rnd continue to be erected lor the security of the commercial towns* 
One million of dollars annually is likewise appropriated for the grad- 
ual augmentation of the navy, to which, independent of smaller 
vessels, nine shins of the line, twelve frigates, and three floating balle- 
ries are to be added. 

35. By an act of congress in tlio year 1,818, a yearly pension, suffi- 
cient for their decent maintenance, having been granted to those officer."* 
and f»ri vales who served moie tlfto nine months at any one time in tl>e 
war of the revolution, iifore than tiiiity tliousand iiulividuais made ap- 
plication for relief. The .«iim required much exceeded general ex- 
j)ect;itioii: and the following year an additional act was pa.^sed which 
circuMiscrUied the applicants to a narrow space. Iinportations having 
lessened, the amount received into the treasury from duties f^ecanie 



UNITED STAIES. 459 

less than the calculations ; and in 1,821, tlie standing militaiy force 
was reduced from ten to six thousand, and the building of ships of war 
was, in some degree, suspended. _ 

36 Since the admission of Louisiana in 1,812, six other states have 
been admitted into the Union — Indiana in 1,816, Mississip]>i in 1,817, 
Illinois in 1,818. Alabama in 1,819, Maine in 1,820, and Missouri in 
1,821. Indiana and Illinois are sections of the same territory from 
wnicii Ohio was made a state. Mississippi and Alabama belonged to 
Georgia and Louisiana : Maine was separated from Massachusetts, and 
Missouri from the vast tract ceded by the French, under the name ol 

Louisiana. ' i i • i c. • 

37. A treaty was concluded at Washington m 1,819, by which bpaui 
ceded to the United States that portion of her territory, kno>vn by the 
name of Florida. Five millions of dollars was the price ; and the 
sum, in pursuance of the treaty, has been paid as indemnity to Amer- 
ican citizens for illegal seizures of their property in Spanrsh ports. 

38. Besides the different state governments, territorial governments, 
with magistrates appointed by the president and senate, exist in 
Michigan, Arkansas, and Florida. r , • , . 

39. In the year 1,820, the fourth authorized census of the inhabitants 
was recorded. The progress of population has been rapid almost 
beyond a parallel. In 1,790, the population was three million« line 
hundred and twenty-one thousand : in 1,800, five millions tnree 
hundred and twenty thousand! : in 1,810, seven millions two hundred 
and forty thousand ; and in 18,20, nine millions six hundred and thirty- 
eight thoasand. 



PART FIFTH. 

SECTION I. 

ADDITIONAL FACTS, BRINGING DOWN THE GENEaAL HIS- 
TORY TO THE PRESENT TIME 

1. In 1,820, some commotion was caused in France by the assassina- 
tion of the Uuke of Bern ; nephew of Louis XVIIl. and son of the 
present king. He uas stabbed at the door of the opera house by an 
obscure person named Louvel. It appeared that the assassin was 
instig^aled to this horrid deed merely by a thirst lor revenging an al- 
leged injury', which he sutTered many years previous. 

2. Napoleon Bonaparte died at St. Helena, May 5lh 1,*J21, aged 52. 
He was a man of talents which few other men are competent to esti- 
mate : of astonishing foresight and intrepidity : of insatiable ambition. 
His career was marked by the most splendid achievements. He was 
destined by Providence to humble the pride of the Princes of tl»c 
earth, to shake the foundations of arbitraiy power, and then, to be 
himself humbled and debased. To France he gave a code of laws, 
the influence of which has been felt throughout hurope, and will ex- 
lend through the world. He gave to the lower classes of the commu- 
nity, an activity and importance, which they had never felt ; but which, 
havirig been once appreciated, they are not likely to surrender. Hia 
political maxims, however selfish in their ends, were utterly at vari- 
ance with that baser love of arbitrary dominion, which is regardless 
of the welfare of its subjects. He loved to govern ; but his ambition 
made him wish to govern an industrious, enlightened, and happy 
world; and wherever he extended his conquests, he endeavoured to 

elieve the oppressed, and break the shackles under whTch humi»nit^ 
groaned. The ciTorts which .'re no>v making by the lower classes m 
almost every arbitrary government, to obtain free constitutions which 
shall elevate them from the rank of slaves to that of citizens, aw to 
be ascribed, in a great measure, to the iniluence of his institutions, and 
his example. We can mark no limits to the blessings which, under 
Heaven, he dispensed while he lived, and bequeathed to posterity. 
If we judge him by the efl'ects of his conquests, his institutions and his 
administration of government, he will appear one of the greatest bene- 
factors of mankind : but if as Christians, we estimate his character by 
the motives which he manifested throughout his career, we shall find 

ittle in it to applaud, but much to condemn. Although it was a part 
of his policy to ameliorate the condition of men, a wish to extend and 
lo secure his own sovereignty over them appears to have been his 
ruling motive. An all-wise Providence converted his deeds into 
blessings, but they cannot entitle him to the praise of Christian virtue. 
If his rise and reign was all that men call glorious, his downfall ex- 
hibited a reverse no less signal. Conlined on one of the most barren 
and dismal islands in the world, — guarded and controlled by gaolers, 
who exercised towards him a pett^' tyranny, which denied not unfre- 
auently the common civilities of lile, — wasted by a long and painful 
disease, — all the circums!<«nces about him combined to mock his for- 
mer greatness, and to witness to an ambitious world that he who 
cxalieth himself shall be abased. 



ADDITIONAL FACTS, &c. 4tl 

S. In 1,823, France obtained permiss;on from the Congress of Allied 
Soverei^s, held at V^erona, to invade Spain, and re-establish the king 
in his former authority. It was expected thai the friends of tne new 
constitution would have been able to make a powerful resistance to 
this invasion ; but the conquest proved easy ; and this revolution, 
like that of 1,820, was accomplished with very little bloodshed. On 
the 16th day of Sept. 1,824, Louis XMIl. died, of the dropsy; his 
brother succeeded to the throne and took the title of Charles X. 

4. A revolution similar in its character to that in Spain took place 
in Portugal in 1,820. In 1,821, the Royal Family, with the exception 
of the Prince Royal, the king's son, returned from Brazil. The kir^ 
swore to the free constitution, and the kingdom enjoyed a good de- 
gree of tranquillity until May 1,823, when a counter-revolution was 
commenced, and on the 3d of June the king issued his proclamation 
announcing the restoration of the Ancient Monarchy. 

5. In England, George IV. succeeded to the throne upon the death 
of his father George III. He had for many years been Prince 
Regent The year was distir>guished by domestic commotioRS, of 
which the disturbances among the labouring classes in Manchester 
and other manufacturing towns, were the most alarming. The al 
leged cause of complaint was the low price of wages, which was 
declared to be quite disproportionate to their services. Large meet- 
ir^ were held in many places, and very riotous proceedings passedi 
and the nation was much alarmed by the prospects of a civil war 
The malecontents found several able leaders, among whom Hunt and 
Thistle^vood were prominent. The commotions were, however, 
quelled without their objects bein^ obtained. Hunt suffered a lor^ 
imprisonment ; Thistle wood and lour others were executed, and five 
were transported. 

6. But this year was principally memorable for the trial of the 
Queen on a chajge of adultery. This affair produced a remarkable 
degree of excitement not only throughout that kingdom, but also on 
the continent and in America. 

7. Since the termination of these difficulties the nation has enjoyed 
tranquillity and a high degree of prosperity. 

8. The summer ot 1,821, was remarkable for the scantiness of the 
crops in Ireland. The following winter brought a most distressing 
famiiie, of which great numbers perished. 

9. Since the establishment of peace in 1,815, the Northern States 
of Europe have enjoyed a good degree of tranquillity. Few events 
have occurred, to serve as items of general history. By a decree of 
the Emperor of Russia in 1,811, the government of that empire was 
declared to be a constitutional monarchy. Little was done till after 
the peace to limit its despotic character, but since that period some 
constitutional privileges have been granted to the subjects. Similar 
improvements have been made, and are making, in the governments 
of most of these States. Prussia has established assemblies, which 
bear a representative character. 

10. In 1,815, the Congress of Vienna, composed of the authorities of 
Austria, France, Great-Britain, Prussia, and Russia, made a solemn 
declaration of their resolution to put a stop to the African Slave Trade. 
This wicked traffic was not, however, diminished by this measure, be- 
cause France was totally unfaithtul to her p:Dmise. At the Congress 
of Verona in 1,823, the same powers, with the exception of France, 
declared that this crime ought to be assimilated with that of piracy, 
and hence punishable with death. 

Qq« 



46t HISTORY OF NEW SPAIN. 

11. In 1,816, the Jesuits were expelled from Mosco\» and Peters- 
bunch, and iu 1,820, from the whole Russian empire, and forbidden 
pver to lY.'tiirn. ... 

12. Pope Piu* VII. died Aupr. 20, 1,823, in the eighty-second year 
•f his aee, .^tid tlie twenty-fourth of his pontificate. He was succeed- 

I by the Cardinal Delia Genga, who assumed the title of Leo XIl. 
i he prei^ent Pope, was born on the 2d of Au^. 1,760. He was Nun- 
rio fourteen years in the electorates of the Rhine. At the i>eriod of 
the persecutions exercised by Bonaparte against the Catholic Church, 
he was oblig:ed to quit Rome with the other prelates and cardinals. 
At the restoration, he was the cardinal selected by Pius VII. to 
conijratulate Louis XVIIl. on his return. The commencement of bis 
ponTific;de has been signalized by his refusal to restore the Inquisition 
■fu Snai!), dc^larini? it inconsistent with the liberal spirit of the a£:e. 

I J. In the summer of 1,820, an insun^'ction broke out in Naples 
and Srcily, and ^o feeble was the established government, that the 
insm-^eiits soon compelled the king to grant them a free constitution. 
The Allied Sovereigns of Europe at their session at Troppau, near the 
close of the same year, made a formal declaration of irreconcilable 
hostility to this new government. In 1,821, they decided at the Con- 
gress o'f Laybach, that a portion of the Austrian army should occupy 
Naples, to restore the authority of the king. This was readily ac- 
complished, and with little opposition. The Spanish constitution ot 
1,812. was granted to NapJes and Sicily, and tranquillity Avas restored 
similar disturbances t(K)k place at the same period in some of the 
Sardinian Stales, but they were quieted by the result of those in Na- 
ples and Sicily. ^, 

14. TuRKFY has enjoyed little tranquillity lor many years. J he 
Greeks revolted from the Ottoman power in 1.821 ; and from that 
period to the present a bloody war has been carried on between them 
and the Turks. The latter have committed frequent and hornble 
massacres of the Christians in Constantinople, Scio, and oiher places ; 
ai:(i have endeavoured to reduce their revolted subjects by every act 
of cruelty and oppression. The Greeks have maintained their strug- 
gle for independence with much bravery and spirit, which has some- 
times become ferocity ; but they are neither sufficiently virtuous nor 
civilized to act in full concert in resisting oppression. It is impossible 
to judge how far they have been really successful, and what are theit 
prospects of ultimate success, owing to the want of authentic channels 
of information ; but at this moment the existing probability is decid- 
edly in favour of their success. 

SECTION SECOND. 
HISTORY OF NEW SPAIN. 

COMPILEn PRINCIPALLY FROM POINSETT'S NOTES ON MEXICO. 

1. Whew this country was first visited by the Spaniards in 1,519, 
it had attained a high flegree of civilization. Of this we may judge 
()y the forn of its government, its laws, and its civil institutions. 

2. The monarch was chosen from among the members of the reign- 
iT'g farrily by six electors, chose.i Irom among the thirty princes of 
the first rank. The political system was feudal. The first class of 
nobles, consisting oi thirty families, had each one hundred thouasnd 



HISTORY OF NEW SPAIN. «6S 

<ffiS&. The second class consisted of more than three thousand 
lanulies. The lords exercised the right of life and death over their 
vassals. All the lands were divided into allodial, hereditary, and 
contingent estates, — the latter depending upon places in the gift of the 
crown. 

3. The priests were chained with the education of youth ; and on 
their testimony of the merit of their scholars, depended their future 
rank. Under Montezuma, the emperor at this period, the government 
was despotic, but he was subject to the high priest. Each province 
was subject to a tribute ; but certain nobles were excepted, who were 
compelled to take the field ir. case of a war, with a stated number ot 
lollowers. The tribute was paid in kind, and was fixed at one thir- 
tieth part of the crop. The governors of provinces also vied with 
each other in the magnificence of their presents to the emperor. 

4. Sacrilege, murder, and treason, were punished with death ; and 
the laws of the empire were generally as much respected as in th^ 
most civilized European nations of that age. The attention of the 
government was principally directed towards the internal commerce, 
so as to secure an abundant supply to the people. Posts were estab- 
lished between the capital and the remotest provinces. A court of 
ten magistrates determined the validity of contracts ; and officers were 
constantly employed to examine the measures and the quality of goods 
expoiied for sale. 

5. Besides the empire of the Mexicans, of which we have been 
-^^eaking, there were other powerful slates, whose form of government 
-<as republican. The most powerful of these was Tlascala, the gov- 
iYnment of which continued for some time after the conquest of 
tiexico. It was a thickly settled, fertile, and populous country, di- 
vided into districts, each under the authority of a chief. These chiefs 
idiiiinistered justice, levied the tribuie, and commanded the military 
forces, but their decrees were not valid, or of force, until confirmed by 
the senate of Tlascala, which was the true sovereign. A certain num- 
ber of citizens, chosen from the different districts by popular assem- 
blies, formed this legislative body. The senate elected its own chief. 
The laws were strictly and impartially executed ; and the people are 
represented as numerous, wealthy, and powerfijl. 

6. The Mexicans possessed some knowledge of Astronomy, and 
Ibeir calendar was constructed with mere exactness than that "of the 
Greeks, the Romans, or the Egj'ptians. Their hierc^lyphics, drawings, 
and maps — their cities and artificial roads, causeways, canals, and im- 
mense pyramids — their government and hierarchy, and administration 
of laws — their knowledge of the art of mining, and of preparing metals 
for ornament and use — their skill in carving images out of the hardest 
stone — in rn:mufacturlng and dying cloths, and the perfection of their 
agriculture, afford ample evidence of the high degree of civilizaticm 
attained by the Mexicans. If we recollect that at this period, the art 
of printing was not used in Europe, — that the Reformation had not 
taken place, — that most of the great improvements in arts and science 
are of more modern date, we shall see no reason to call the Mexicans 
barbarous, compared with their proud invaders, or vvith other nations 
of that period. Their religion was disgraced by gross superstition ; 
and the sacrifice of human victi.ns was not unfrequent. But, still, 
when compared with other nations, they were not deficient in practi- 
cal virtue. Indeed nothing in their character appears to have been 
half so gross and antichristian, as the merciless conduct of their inva- 
ders, We cannot estimate them by the degraded state of the reraaiiv 



464 HISTORY OF NKW SPAIN. 

ing natives ; for when Uie country was conquered, its aits, and sciences, 
and civil and ielie:ious institutions ceaseii, because those classes in the 
community by whom knowledge was possessed and transmitted, were 
utterly exterminated. 

7. Shortly after the Spaniards under Cortez landed at Vera Cruz, 
he received messengers from Montezuma, bijnging with them presents 
to a considerable amount, and cntreatiu": Cortez not to advance far- 
ther into the country. But the sight of this display of wealth stimu- 
lated the cupidity of the Si)aniards, and confirmed their resolution to 
penetrate to the capital, in their nmte they had to contend against 
the republic of TIascala, a nation continually at war with the empire 
of Mexico. Cortez vanquished them iii two battles, and found no 
ditficulty in enlisting them against Montezuma. Six thousand Tlasca- 
lans were added, as auxiliaries, to his European troops, and he con- 
tinued his march upon the capital of the empire under the guise of 
friendship.. As he advanced, he continued to augment his forces by 
treaties with other nations and tribes which were inimical to Monte- 
zuma ; and with a European force of five hundred infantry and fifteen 
hoi-semen, and a lar^e army of Indians, he reached the city of Tenoch- 
titlan on the 8th ot Nov. 1,519. The emperor received him with a 
degree of magnificence that excited the astonishment of the Spaniards. 
The whole army was lodged and entertained sumptuously, and Cortex 
received presents to a great amount. 

8. Montezuma soon found that by admitting an armed and power- 
ful friend into his capital, h« had delivered himself and his people 
into the hands of a ferocious enemy. Cortez demanded that the 
Mexican general, Qualpopoca, w^ho had committed some hostilities on 
the colony left nt Vera Uruz, should be delivered, up to him, boimd 
hand and foot, and he caused liiin to be burnt alive. He next ^'ot 
possession.of the person of the emperor and detained him prrsoiier.Bnt 
the indignation of the people was most excited by the conlernpi with 
which their religious rites and idols were treated by the S|)aniards. 

9. Cortez was now compelled to leave the force at Tetiochtitlan 
the capitaljin the command of Alvarado, and march ag.nitist Narvaez 
who had arrived on the coast to deprive him of his roinrnand. Having 
vanquished Narvaez and obtained a considerable arcesi*ion of force, 
he returned loTenochtitlan,and found that the Mexicans had burnt ihe 
vessels which he had constructed on the Lake,and IkkIjiisI laid siej?e 
to the building in which the Spaniards were lodjred. The siejie was 
prosecuted with vigour by the natives, and the place defended with 
obstinacy by the Spuniards. Montezuma having iiscended a terrace 
was killed by a stone or arrow,an(i hisbrotherCiuellavaca proclaimed 
bis successor. This gave such vigour to the Mexicans, that the Span- 
iards were ol)liged to rotreat with great loss. At Otuniba, Cortez was 
obliged to turn and give them battle. Me was victorious, and pro- 
ceeded to TIascala without Anther irouhle. To secure his ascenden- 
cy over this republic,hc made frt'cjuent incursions into the lerrilorie* 
of neighbouring nations, and wiih uniform su<cess. 

]0. In December 1,521, he returned to th*^ vah^ of Tezcneo, and 
fiom this place continued to carry on the war against tht* Alrxicans 
and their allies. He ordcnMJ to be'eonstrucied at Tiaseala the frames 
«if thirteen vessels,au<l they were brought by an innnense munber of 
Jndians to the Lake Tezcuco. When'ihcso vessels were ready, he 
pent for his allies.arnountmg to fifty thousand trooi)s,who soon arrived. 
Altera siege of seventy-five days the city was captured, Aug. 13lh. 
1,521. The captured MexicttDB were divided among the conquerow 



HISTORY OF NEW SPAIN. 466 

•one fiftn being reserved for the king of Spain ; and they continued 
to be treated as slaves for centuries, notwithstanding the humane laws 
passed in Spain lor their relief. This conquest was completed in the 
reign of Guatimozin son of Montezuma, who had succeeded to the 
throne after the death of Quetlavaca. 

11. There is little interesting in the history of Mexico from this 
period till the commencement ofthe Revolution in 1,810. Almost the 
only bright spot in the page of its history dutii^ this period, is the 
administration of the viceroy Revillagigedo. GvX>d roads, leading 
from the capital to different parts of the kingdom, were made by his 
orders ; the streets of the principal cities were paved and lighted, 
and good police regulations established. An authentic statistical 
account of the country was made, and almost every salutary law and 
regulation, now in existence, may be traced to his administration. 

12. To understand the nature of the authority which Spain exer- 
cised over her American Colonies, it is necessary to remark that all 
acquisitions in America were considered as belonging to the crown, 
rather than to the state. Pope Alexander Vi. first bestowed them as 
a tree gift, upon Ferdinand and Isabella. They and their successors 
were to be held as the universal proprietors of the regions which had 
been, or should be discovered. All officers in the colonies, whether 
civil or ecclesiastic, were appointed by their authority, and remova- 
ble at their pleasure. The Spanish possessions were, at first, divided 
into two viceroyalties. New Spain and Peru ; but subsequently, a 
third wa? established at Santa Fe de Bogota, the jurisdiction of which 
extended over Terra Firma and the province of Quito. 

13. The authority of the viceroys was supreme in every depart- 
ment of government, civil, military, and criminal. To aid them in the 
administration of government in provinces remote from their residence, 
magistrates of various orders were appointed, subject to the viceroy ; 
and courts, called Audiences, were established, Avhose decisions were, 
in most cases, final. Upon the death of a viceroy without any pro- 
vision of a successor by the king, the supreme power was vested in 
the court of Audience resident in the capital of the viceroyalty, and 
the senior judge, assisted by his- brethren, exercised all the functions 
of the viceroy, while the office continued vacant. 

14. The supreme government of all the Spanish possessions in 
America was, however, vested in the Council of the Indies. This 
Council was first established by Ferdinand in 1,511. Its jurisdiction 
extended to every department, ecclesiastical, civil, military, and com- 
mercial. All laws and ordinances relative to the government and 
police of the colonies originated there, and must be a-^proved by two 
thirds ofthe members, before being issued in the name of the king. 
To it each person employed in America, from the viceroy downwards, 
was accountable. Before it was laid all intelligence public or secret, 
received from the colonies, and every scheme of improving the ad- 
ministration, police, or commerce, was submitted to its considera- 
tion. 

15. Another tribunal was established at Seville in 1,501, called 
Casa de la Contratacion, or the house of trade. It was designed tc 
regulate such commercial affairs as required the immediate and per- 
sonal inspection of those appointed to superintend them. Such is an 
outline of the system of government which Spain established in hei 
American colonies. 

16. In 1,808, the viceroy of Mexico, Don Jose Iturrigaray, received 
luch contradictory orders from the supreme authorities in Spam, as 

59 



4^ ^ WSTORY OF SPAIN. 

to render it necesPary to call a Junta rori)|)o.-«'d of a reprc«!enlntive 
from each i)roviiicc. 'I'liin rneaHiire excited the jealousy of the Eu- 
ropeoMs in \\w capital.ns it was cah*uhitr<l to phice the Creolen on un 
p«Hial footing with themselves in the ^'overnment. They therefore 
ct)nsj)ire(J against the viceroy, surprised him, and sent him and his 
faniilv prisoners to Spain. Shortly after the arrival of the next vice- 
roy, Vanegas, the Creoles formed a conspiracy to overthrow his 
power. They collected a large force under Hidalgo a priest of some 
distinction, and for several months their success seemed almost cer- 
tain. But HidalgOjby a most unaccountable mismanagement suffered 
his army to be defeated with great slaughter in Oct. 1,801), and their 
total defeat followed in January 1,811. 

17. Another attempt was soon made by the Creoles and Indians 
nnder Rayon, a lawyer of great influejice, but the revolt was sup- 
pressed. A more formidable army was gathered by IMorelos in 1,814 
— 15,ajnl tht; contest for independence »igain appeared more hopeful; 
but ho was defeaterl, taken prisoner, and executed. In Nov. 1,81G 
the Patriots were cheered I)y the arrival of General Minn with a small 
force from Englarni. Unitir^ himself with the army already in one- 
ration, he sustained the conflict with great bravery for one year, but 
was then defeated and executed. The Independent army was now 
too feeble for offensive operation, and little was done until the revo- 
lution of Spain in 1,021. The decrees of the Cortez confiscating the 
estates, and reducing and reforming some of the higher orders of the 
clei^, excited the indignation of the church in Mexico, and from 
that time, the priests used their influence in favour of a separation 
from Spain. Although their inlluence had been sompwhat diminished, 
it was still sufficient to produce the adoption of almost any measure 
which the}' should recommend. They were aided by the wealthy 
Europeans who were anxious to preserve the country ui the pureness 
of desnotistn, that it might serve as a refuge for the king of Spain 
from the persecutions of the Cortez, and from the new constitution. 

18. Don Augustin Iturbide was fixed upon as a j>roper agent to 
carry their plans into effect. He had distinguished himself in the 
previous contests as" an enemy to the patriots, and the cleigj^ little an- 
tic paled that his love of tyranny would soon be exercised at the cost 
of iticir deai-est plans. He at this time commanded a considerable 
army, and on receiving money to proceed into the southern provmccs, 
he united himself with Guerrero, one of the patriot chiefs, and oflTcretl 
pardon to all who would unite themselves to his standard. From the 
ver}' energetic operations of the revolutionists in the capital, the whole 
nation was soon roused in favour of independence. The viceroy was 
deposed ; Iturbide was made admiral of the navy, generalissimo of 
the army, and pi-csident of the Regency which was established by the 
new Jurjta. His ambitious designs now became manifest, and he found 
little difficulty in raising hiinself above the established authorities, and 
securing the reins of government. The Cortez were decidedly op- 
posed id him, but the soldiery were his friends, and they compelled 
Ihe Cortez to declare him emperor on the 19th of May 1,822. After 
havir^ attained this object of his ambition, he sought by every means 
to render his authority absolute, and elevated the members of'^liis own 
family to offices of state. Many of the clei^y were far from being 
satifhed with the elevation of Iturbide. The archbishop of Mtxico 
relus<^(i to cmwn him, and retired from the capital. 

19. The empen)r did not long enjoy his despotic reign. Sanlana, 
the governor of Vera Cruz could not brook the control of a supe- 



HISTORY OF THE WEST INDIES. *^ 

fior. Enjoying an independent command, and posse5sir« ihe confi- 
deuce of a ffreat part of tne communitv, he found no difficulty in raising 
a formidable force. He was soon jomed bj Guadalupe Victoria, who 
nad from the commencement of tlie revolution been a most faithful 
fiiend to the cause of liberty-, but had been obliged, under the exist- 
ing despotism, to conceal himself in the mountains. Santana found 
that the great popularity of Guadalupe Victona made it necessary 
to yield to him the supreme command. This beinff readily granted, 
they possessed each others confidence, and the confidence of the em- 
pire.* The army in all parts declared tor the republican principles 
of Santana, and the commander in chief, and Iturbide ibund it neces- 
sary first to summon the Cortez which he had forcibly dissolved, and 
afterwards, on the eighth of Marx:h 1,823, to abdicate the throne. He 
was jjermitted to leave the empire, and he sailed with his family for 
Leghorn on the 11th of May. He returned in the summer of 1,824, 
but was received by republicans who justly appreciated him. An 
order had been passed by the Congress for'his immediate execution 
in case of his arrival ; and as soon as he was identified, he was im- 
prisoned, and, a few days after, was brought forth by public order 
and shot. 

20. Immediately after his abdication the nation declared for a re- 
publican government, and on the 2d of February 1,824, a federal 
constitution was adqjpted. amidst the shouts of the people ; and it is 
obviously the form of government best suited to the interests and wishes 
of a majority' of the community. The principal defect in their con- 
stitution is the establishment of tlie Catholic relisrion. The nation 
cannot expect to enjoy the real freedom of repul)lican institutions, 
while their minds are subjected under the real despotism of a national 
religion. In other respects the Constituticm of this republic veiy near- 
ly resembles that of the United Slates. 

21. The former Captain-General^hip of Guatimala, with the ex- 
ception of Chiapa. declared its independence at the same time with 
Mexico, but relused to unite with that goveraraent. It has establish- 
ed an independent, federal government, under the title of the Confed- 
erated States of the Centre of America. The Roman Catholic religion 
is establislied here also, to the exclusion of all others : and in moari 
respects tlieir constitution agrees with that of the 3Iexican Republic. 



SECTION THIRD. 
HISTORY OF THE WEST I>rDIES. 

J. The Bah.ous were the first land discovered by Columbus,— 
Oct. 12»h 1.49-2. The first settlement was made at Xassau in Nc^ 
Providence by the English. 1.672. These islands soon after became 
'he resort of pirates. Their leader was John Teach, called Blacl 
Z^r(f, who for about ten years was the sovereign of these islands, 
and the terror of the Xorlh American coast. He was killed off the 
coast of N. Carolina in 1.718. During most of the remaining period 
the English have quietly possessed the Bahamas, but they have con- 
stantly sen'ed as lurking: places for some pirates. These have mulli- 
plied greatly in all the West Indies within the last ten years, and no 
effectual means have been devised for exterminating them. 

2. When the Bahamas were discovered, the population was esti- 
mated at about 40,000. The inhabitants called tbemselve* Lucajrane. 



468 HISTORY OF THE WEST INDIES. 

They were mostly devoted to maritime Jife, and subsisted principal- 
ly upon fish. They were io^noraut of tlie use of iron, bu! ma ie some 
use of cotton and of pold. They were a kii»d, friendly people, 
averse to war. Scarcely 20 years, however, had elapsed, b< fere the 
rapacious Spaniards transported them all by force or artifice, to dig 
in tlie mines of Hispaniola. Being remarkably expert divers, some 
of them were afterwards transport*id to tne coast of Cumana, and em- 
ployed in the pearl fishery. 

3. The Greater Antilles when first discovered, n-ere inhabited 
by a race called Arrowauks. They also possessed a great part of 
Trinidad. It appears that they were descended from the Arrowauks 
of Guiana. All of this name spoke one language, and had the same 
institutions. They believed in an invisible, omnipotent Creator* 
named Jocahuna, but admitted a plurality of subordinate deities, and» 
like the American Indians generally, they believed in a future state 
of retributior. Their children were entirely naked, but the adultn 
wore a slight covering of cotton cloth round the waist. They were 
a mild arA hospitable people, but effeminate and sensual. The cli- 
mate, aiid fertility of the soil naturally made them indolent. From 
evening till dawn they were much engaged in dancing, and as many 
as 50,000 sometimes joined at once in this iavourite amusement. 

4. These islands were divided into great kingdoms, subject to 
caciques or hereditary monarchs. Each kingdom was subdivided 
into numerous principalities. The regal authority was absolute, but 
was administered with great mildness. The aboriginal population 
has been estimated at 3,000,000 : but within 20 years after the dis- 
covery by Columbus, the great body of them were exterminated. A 
very few only remain in the island of Cuba ; but the Arrowauks ir 
Guiana are still a distinct tribe. 

5. There is little in the history of colonial governments that is inter- 
esting and valuable ; and none of the West India islands, except St. 
Domingo, have beccime independent. The Spaniards have lost many 
of the islands to which they first laid claim ; but the present posses- 
tors are well known from common geographies, and the time when 
these trifling revolutions took place is o? little consequence, while the 
efifects produced, were so unimportant. One fact is worthy of record 
in favour of the Spaniards — whose rapacity and cruelty has been 
equalled by no other nation in modern times, and who have, of late 
years, been suffering a natural and just retribution of their enormities, 
out to their credit be it said, — tiieir treatment of negro slaves has 
been more humane than that of other nations ; and the Spanish laws 
enacted in their favour, have had a powertui influence to enlighten the 
English and French in this cause of humanity. 

6. The Buccaniers, who were the lorefathers of the present pirates, 
deserve some notice. They consisted originally of a body of Frencii 
and English planters expelled by the Spaniards from the island of Si. 
Christophers m 1,629, with circumstances of outrageous barbarity. 
They first established themselves on the small island of Tortuga, near 
the N. W. part of St. Domingo. They were here joined by some 
Dutch emigrants, who had been expelled in the same manner from 
Santa Cruz. Their first occupation was hunting wild cattle on the 
plains of St. Domingo, which they huccuned and brought to the place 
of their retreat. The word buccan signified a grate or hurdle on 
which meat was prepared before the fire ; and from their abundant 
use of it, these people were called buccaniers^ buccaners, or buccaneer$. 
A few years after their establishment here? a Spanish armament, 



HISTORY OF THE WEST IMDIES. 469 

without any provocation, invaded them, and barbarously murdered 
ail ♦heir women and children. This roused the Buccaniers to re- 
venge ; and they soon became the most terrible antagonists the 
Spaniard* ever encountered. Many others joined them, and they 
became formidable both from their numbers and their desperate brave- 
ry. By their means tne Spaniards lost the western part of St. Do- 
mingo, and the whole island of Jamaica, oesides an almost incredible 
amount of property, and a great number of human lives. Their most 
renowned leaders were Montbars, a native of Languedoc, and Henry 
Moi^an, a Welshman. The war between England and France in 
1,608, occasioned a disunion of the English and Frer.ch Buccaniers, 
and greatly weakened their force, and they possessed little povvei 
after the year 1,700. 

7. St. Domingo or Hayti furnishes tne most important items in 
the history of tlie West Indies. Spain ceded the western half of the 
island to France by the treaty of Ryswick in 1,697. It did not be- 
come a prosperous colony till thirty years after. In 1,791 an alarm- 
ing insurrection of the negroes broke out in the French colony, which 
deluged half of the northern province in blood. The next year, the 
national assembly proclaimed the political equality of the whites, 
and free people of colour. The commissioners of the French govern 
ment, in 1,793, decreed the emancipation of all the slaves in the colo- 
ny. On tbe 21st of June of the same year, Mocaya, a black, at the 
head of 3,000 negroes, began an indiscriminate slaughter of the whites 
at cape FranJ^ois, and multitudes were massacred. 

8. An expedition from Jamaica in 1794-5-6, attempted to reduce 
the island, but was, each year, driven off by the yellow fever. The 
eastern half was ceded to France in 1,795, but it was of little import- 
ance to that country. In 1,801, July 1st, the blacks rose and declared 
themselves independent, but its independence was not well established 
till 1,804. The first sovereign assumed the title of Jaques I. Empe- 
ror OF Hayti. He enjoyed his power but a short time, being killed 
in a conspiracy ; and was succeeded by Christophe under the title of 
Henry I. King of Hayti. His doftiinions were on the north part of 
the island ; the southern was occupied by a republican party, most- 
ly mulattoes, under Petion who assumed the title of President 
of Hayti. Frequent and bloody conflicts occurred between these 
two parties. On the death of Petion in 1,817, Boyer was appointed 
President ; and. on the death of Christophe, the two parties united 
under President Boyer, and have now established a very efficient 
government. He is an intelligent, energetic, and humane sovereign ; 
and his administration is highly calculated to promote the happiness 
of his subjects. In 1,808. the Spaniards, aided by the English, re- 
took the eastern part of the island, but their colony has little force, 
and lives on friendly terms with the blacks. 

9. The Caribbean Islands, when discovered, were innabited by a 
numerous, cultivated, and powerful nation, called Caraibes or Carih- 
bees. They were more warlike tlnn the Arro'vauks. Towards eaci) 
other they were faithful, friendly, and affectionate ; but regarded all 
strangers as enemies. They were well skilled in most of the arts of 
life ; and their religion acknowledged one supreijie, independent 
Deity ; and taught a future state of retribution. Nearly all of this 
race have been exterminited on these islands, but they stili remain 
on the continent of South America a very powerful nation. 

10. There is little else that i? iiteresting in the history of the West 
Indies, except to those who wisn to learn more of the aborigines, and 

Rr 



470 HISTORY Oh SOUTH AMERICA. 

of th« merciless treatment they received from tne Spaniards. A rtry 
minute history of these islands has been written by Edwards. 



SECTION FOURTH. 
HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 

UxNITED PROVINCES. 

.1 The river La Plata was discovered in 1,516. Buenos Ayres 
*«ras -cttled in 1,535. From the settlement of the country until 1,778 
its hi.-.tory comprises only a series of vexations Irom the aespotism of 
vicei.oys, of privations from monopolies, and commercial restrictions, 
and ot sufferir^s from wars foreign to its interests. From this periotJ 
to 1,781, the Iiidians from the upper country continually harassed 
tlie provinces, burnt many towns, and destroyed ma.uy of the inhabi- 
tants ; but they were at length defeated by the combined annies ot 
Buenos Ayres and Lima. 

2. In 1,806, the country was invaded by the British, and Buenos 
Ayres was taken without opposition. An army from the interior soon 
expelled them. A second attempt was made in 1,807, but the people 
beginning to acquire confidence in their own strength, attacked the 
army while in the city, and were completely successlul. 

3. On the 25th of May 1,810, in consequence of the renunciatioD 
of Ferdinand VU. in favour of Xapoleon, and the deranged state of 
affairs in Spain, a junta was convened iA Buenos Ayres to take the 
government into their own hands, still administering it, however, in 
the name of Ferdinand. This was the commencement of a revoh; 
tion which delivered them from the slavery they had suffered foi 
nearly 300 }-ears. Since that period, they have been m reality inde- 
pendent. 

4. Since 1,810, there have been four revolutions, each of which has 
changed the government, but there has constantly been a representa- 
tive assembly. On the 9th of July 1,816, the congress made, and 
promulgated a declaration of absolute independence. In December 
of the same year the country was invaded by the Portuguese, and a 
considerable part was conquered. .It has, however, reclauned its 
possessions, and its government has become so well established, that its 
independence has been acknowledged by other nations. 

BRAZIL. 

1. This country was discovered by Pedro Alvarez Cabral, a Por- 
tuguese, in 1,500. As little gold or silver was found near the coast, 
it was for a while wholly neglected, and none but criminals and aban- 
doned women were sent hither. In 1,548, the inquisition, after plun- 
dering the Jews of their property, banished them to Brazil. A 
governor was sent over the following year, who immediately built 
St. Salvador. It was reduced in 1,624, by the Dutch, and taken 
from them in 1,625, by the Spaniards. Portugal reclaimed it ni 
about 1,645, and remained in undisturbed possession of the whole 
country till the late revolutions throughout South America. 

2. In the latter part of 1,806, in consequence of the invasion of 
Portugal by the French, the royal family embarked for Bnzil, undei 
protection of an English squadron. Rio de Janeiro continued to be 
their residence from 1,807 till 1,821. When they left Brazil, \h% 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 471 

prince royal, the kill's eldest son, remained at the head of the 
government. The unsettled state of the government of the mother 
country, soon excited i revolutionary spirit in most of these provin- 
ces, arid they declared for independence. The crown was offered to 
the prince royal, and accepted under the title of emperor. 

GUIANA. 

The history of these colonies presents little worth relating. They 
have frequently changed masters, but with little detriment or advan- 
tage. Their present situation is well known from common geogra- 
phies. A great part of the country is occupied by Indians. Ot these, 
the Caraibes are the most numerous, brave, warlike, and industrious. 

REPUBLIC OF COLOMBIA. 

1. New-Granada originally constituted a part of Peru. Two au- 
diences were erected in 1,547, the one at Paiiama, the other at Santa 
Fe de Bogota, and the territories under the jurisdiction of both, con- 
stituted a captain-generalship. Quito was made the seat of an audi- 
ence in 1,563, but the territories belonging to it, still remained attached 
to Peru. In 1,718, New-Granada was erected into a viceroyalty ; 
Qjiito and Venezuela were annexed to it, and the audiences of Pana- 
ma and Quito were abolished. These wer£ afterwards restored, ai»d 
in 1,739, the territories dependent on the three audiences of Panama, 
Santa Fe, and Quito were again erected into a viceroyalty. A con- 
gress assembled at Carthagena in Nov. 1,811, and declared the coun- 
try independent, but it was afterwards reclaimed by the royalists. 

2. Venezuela was discovered by Columbus in 1,498. After several 
ineffectual attempts to settle it by missionaries, it was 6nally reduced 
oy force, and assi2:ned by Jharles V. to the Welsers a German mer- 
cantile house. Their administration was so tyrannical, tnat they 
were dispossessed in 1,550, and a supreme governor was appointed 
by the king of Spain. From this period till 1,806, it remained in 
quiet subjection to the mother countiy. 

3. In 1.806, general Miranda, a native of Caraccas, placed nimself 
at the head of an expedition, fitted out partly at St. Domingo, and part- 
ly at New-Y'ork, with the design of liberating this country from the 
Spanish yoke. Finding his force inadequate, he abandoned his men 
to the mercy of the provincial government. 

4. In 1,811, the inhabitants revolted from the Spanish yoke, and 
declared themselves independent. The declaration bears date July 
5th. 1,811, exactly 35 years and one day al'ter that of the United 
States. This revolution, like that of the United Provinces, was 
caused by the disorders in Spain. This country and New-Granada, 
continued in a revolutionary state till 1,819, when they both achieved' 
their independence under the renowned Bolivar. 

5. On the 17th of Dec. 1,819, the congress of Venezuela, at St. 
Thomas of Angostura, made a declaration of the fundamental law of 
union of the Republic of Colombia. On the 17th of July 1,821, the 
representatives of New-Granada and Venezuela, in general congress 
at the city of Rosario de Cucuta, declared the following among others, 
fundamental laws of the union of the people of Colombia ; That the 
people of New-Granada and Venezuela be united in one body as a 
nation, under the name of the Republic of Colombia ; That the govern- 
ment be popular and representative ; The nation free, and indepen- 
dent of the Spanish monarchy, as well as of all other powers ; That 



47* HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 

the government consist of legislative, executive, and judiciary au- 
thorities ; That the territory be divided into six departments, having 
an administration dependent on the national j^overnment ; That when 
the state of the nation sliall ndmit, a new city Miall be founded, as the 
capital of the Republic, which shall bear the name of the liberator 
Bolivar^ the site to be determined by congress ; That there be an 
dnnual lestival of three days on the 25th, 26th, and 27th of Dec. 
The constitution resembles that of the United States. Since its adop- 
tion the country has been prosperous, and its independence seems to 
be firmly established. 

PERU. 

1. A few tribes inhabiting this country had made considerable ad- 
vances in civilization when it was first visited by the Spaniards. 
Being destitute of the art of writing, the early history of the Ameri- 
can Indians exists only in tradition. There were indeed some 
records preserved by the Mexicans and Peruvians, but these were 
mostly destroyed by their conquerors, and the few that remained 
were not very intelligible to the Spaniards. Some credit however 
must be given to the tradition of the kingdom estaolished at Cuzco, 
m order to account tor its great superiority over others. 

2. The story isas follows : — Peru was originally possessed by small 
independent tribes, all of which were strangers to almost every spe- 
cies of cultivation or regular industry, without any fixed residence, 
and roamed about naked in the forests. After they had struggled for 
several ages with the hardships and calamities which are inevitable 
in such a state, and when no circumstance seemed to indicate the ap- 
proach of any uncommon effort towards improvement, there is said 
to have appeared on the banks of the lake Titicaca, a man md wo- 
man of majestic form, and clothed in decent garments. They de- 
clared themselves children of the Sun, sent by their beneficent parent, 
who beheld with pinr the miseries of the human race, to instruct and 
to reclaim them. The Peruvians worshipped the Sun ; and, there- 
fore, the commands of these strangers were regarded as heavenly in- 
junctions. Several of the dispersed savages united tc^ether, and 
followed their guides to Cuzco, where they settled and began to, lay 
the foundation of a city. 

3. MaiKO Capac and Mama OcoUo, for such were the names of 
those extraordinary personages, having thus united some wandering 
tribes, formed that social union, which by multiplying the desires, 
and uniting the efforts of the human species, excites industiy, and 
leads to improvement. Manco Capac instructed the men in agricul- 
ture, and other useful arts ; Mama Ocollo taught the women to spin 
and weave. The bjesnings of civilized life were gradually extended 
to neighbouring tribes, and the dominions of succeeding chiefs, called 
Incas, or Children of the Sun, comprised all the rt^ions west of tho 
Andes from Chili to Quito. 

4. To preserve the succession of the Incas pure and unpolluted by 
mixture with less noble blood, the sons of Manco Capac married 
their own sisters. As these Incas assumed the rank not only of l^is- 
lators, but messengers frf)m Heaven, the whole system of civil policy 
was Ibunded on religion. Their precepts were received as mandates 
of the Deity. Hence their authority was unlimited and absolute 
in the most extensive meaning of the words. All crimes were con- 
4Klered not only as violations of civil duty, but as insults offered to 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 473 

the Deity ; and they were all punished capitally. But so g:reat was 
the veneration for the Incas, that the numher of offenfleis was ex- 
tremely small. The genius of their religion was exceedingly mild, 
and as divine authority was ascribed to the Incas, the n^mds of the 
people were not humbled and depressed by a for«^ed subjection to 
the will of a superior ; and obedience implied no degradation. 

6. Thus during twelve successive reigns this happy nation ad- 
vanced in knowledge and virtue, in wealth and power, and m all the- 
essential arts of civilized life. Agriculture was in a state of high 
improvement ; architecture was advanced to a state equal to their 
wants ; their roads, bridges, and manufactures ; their use of gold and 
silver for utensils and works of ornament, all bear testimony that they 
had advanced far above the common state of savage life. B^kt there 
was no very distinct arrangement of professions ; no cities were es- 
tablished except Cuzco, to give activity to commerce ; they knew 
not the use of iron, and hence were little qualified to work in wood 
and stone ; they appear to have had no good method for lighting theii 
houses, — to have been ignorant of the construction of arches, — of evei^ 
convenient method of recording events, and of perpetuating th* 
knowledge they possessed. 

6. When the Spaniards first visited Peru in 1,526, Huana Capac- 
the twelfth Inca, Avas seated on the throne. He is reprerienteu as 
eminent for his virtues, his knowledge, and his military talents. He 
had subjected the kingdom of Quito and added it to his dominions. 
He was fond of residing in the capital of that province ; and contrary 
to the fundamental law of the monarchy, he married the daugliterof 
the vanquished monarch of Quito. She bore him a sonnamea Ata- 
hualpa, whom at his death, whicn seems to have occured about the 
year 1,529, he appoinied his successor toQui to, leaving the rest of his 
dominions to Huascar, his eldest son. This was no sooner known at 
Cuzco, than it excited general dis-gust. The Peruvians were shocked 
at this violation of a fundamental law, coeval with the empire, and 
founded on sacred authority. Huascar was hence encouraged to re- 
quire of his brother to renounce the government of Quito ; but Ata- 
hualpa had a large part of the Peruvian army under his control, and 
was little inclined to yield to the demand. Hence arose a civil 
war, which continued to rage until Pizarro with his cruel and per- 
fidious band, came among them in 1,532. 

7. The Spaniards, availing themselves of the existing dissensions, 
found the conquest easily attainable. Both the Incas were put to 
death under circumstances of most awful barbarity. No language 
can describe the detestable cruelties of these graceless invaders. A 
few, indeed, among them were found to protest against it, but in the 
heart of Pizarro, the common feelings of humanity had been alrolute- 
ly annihilated by his avarice. Cuzco ftimished more valuable spoil 
than was ever found in any other city. The whole countiy was soon 
subjected ; and its mines were seizea in the name of the kirg of Spain. 

8. Since 1,533, Peru has remained a Spanish province, subject to a 
viceroy. Fcr the form of government in all the Spanish provinces in 
Amorica, see Sec. I. Part V. The countrj" is now much smaller 
than when governed by the Incas. In 1,718, Quito on the north as 
far as the river Tmrbez, was annexed to New-Granada ; and in 1,778, 
Potosi and other rich districts on the southeast were annexed to Bne- 
nos Ayres. 

r. For several years Peru has been in a revolutionary state. The 
lea. tr of the patriots is Jose San Martin. The capital has several 
Rrt 60 



474 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 

times fallen into their hands, but has l»ecn retaken by the roya!»«ts. 
Their prospect for independence iajyenrly incrcasinp:, and the royal- 
ists now j)ossess only a small i)art ol I'lipcr Peru. This is (he only 
territory now possessed by the Sponianis on the continent of America. 
It cannot be many years beibro the New World which they discovered, 
and which has suffered so much from their lapacity and tyranny, will 
be completely wrested from their cruel despotism. 



CHILI. 

1. We know nothing of the history of Chili previous to the niiddlf 
of the fifteenth centur)'. From the Peruvian annals it appears that 
Yuj)anqui, the tenth bica, made an ailempt to subject the Chilese. 
He met with little opposition till he ariived as far as the river Kepel. 
Beyond this wa? 3. Ibrnjidable nation named Promaucians oryrtff; ^nn- 
cers. In a lona: battle they were successt'ul, completely routed the 
Peruvians, and drove them from their territories. The Inca imposed 
.in annual tribute of gold on the conquered tribes, but no innovation 
was attempted, either in their customs, manriei-s, or government. 

2. The countr\' was invaded by the Spaniards uwder Almagro m 
1,535. He left Cuzco with 570 Spaniards and 15,000 Peruvian aux- 
iliaries. Disregarding the remonstrances of hh confederates, he 
preferred passing the Cordilleras, to the entrai>ce, less dangerous at 
that season, by the desert of Atacama. Winter had connnenced 
when they reached the Cordillera Nevada, and the snow I'ell in .such 
abundance, and t^ie cold was so intense, that not less than 10,000 Pe- 
ruvians and 150 Spaniards perishetl. in a second expedition Alma- 
gro found the natives exceedingly friendly. They looked up to the 
Spaniards as beings of a superior order, and were ready to yield sub 
missioii. But when they arrived among the Promaucians, they met 
\vilh such powerful resistance, as determined them to abandon the 
enterprise. 

3. Keturnin^ to Cuzco a contest ensued Ijetween Almagro and 
Pizarro, in which the former was slain. Pizarro, now sole master of 
Peru, determined on the conquest of Chili. He entrusted the expe- 
dition to Valdivia, one of the ablest generals among the Spanish ad- 
venturers. He met with very inveterate animosity from a'l the tril)es, 
but their opposition was too feeble to arrest the progress of 2,000 
Spaniards, under such a leader. Having overcome Um; Alapochinians 
wno resided on the river Mapocho, he laid the ibundation of St. Jago 
and erected a strong citadel lor protection. The natives continued 
for six years their feeble attempts to regain their beautiful plain, but 
finding their object hopeless, the few that remained destroyed their 
crops, and retired to the mountains. Valdivia, havi.jg received a 
reinforcement iVom Peru, invaded and conquered the rromaucians, 
and established colonies in many places. Lndtavouring to penetrate 
still tarther soulhward, he encountered the most iormidable enemy 
which the Spaniards ever met Avith in Americ<-». This was the na- 
tion of the Araucar.ians. He gained some victories over them, but 
was frequently repul>cd, and at length was completely defeated, him- 
self taken prisoner, and his whoh; army slain, with the excei^tion of 
two Promaucian auxiliaries. Villagran, the successor of Valdivia, 
made a desperate attempt to revenge the death of that I'avourite 
general, but was repulsed with irreat slauirhter. lie was, how- 
ever, successful in a very important subsequent engagement, in which 
Lautaro, the Araucanian general, was slain. 

4. The contest continued for severaJ years with various success, 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 475 

till the Araucanians were rmich enfeebled. They have not, however, 
been conquered, and they retain to this day a considerable part or 
their ancient territories. They preserve their ancient customs and 
language in a considerable degree of purity. There are few lan- 
guages so regular in their structure, or so copious in their inflections, 
as the Araucanian. They had made considerable advancement in 
civilization, were remarkably active and energetic in their bodily and 
mental habits, generous and dignified in their disposition and deport- 
ment. Connected with the perfection of their language, was their 
habit ot cultivating the art of oratory ; and we know very kw civilis^ed 
nations that have so faithfully observed the common duties of chanty. 

5. From the period of the conquest of Chili till its revolution in 
1,810, few occurrences of much interest are recorded. At this time 
the Chilese, finding the same embarrassments which were suffered by 
other provinces on accoinit of the disorders in Spain, took the govern- 
ment into their own hands, — still holding out the idea, however, of a 
reunion with the mother country when circumstances would permit. 
In 1,B14, the royal troops from Peru invaded Chili, entirely defeated 
the patriots at Kancagua, and reconquered the country. A remnant 
of the patriot forces fled over the Andes, where, with other Chilian 
refugees and two regiments of negroes, and some officers, they were 
reorganized by general San Martin underthename of the Unitea Army 
of the Andes. In 1,017, they re-entered Chili, entirely vanquished 
tlie royal troops at Chacabuco, and restored independence to the 
countiy. The passage of this army over the Andes with its artillery, 
deserves to be ranked among the most celebrated achievements re- 
corded in history. It was effected with the loss of about 5,000 horses 
and mules, and a small number of men who perished with the cold. 

6. On the 12th of February 1,818, the nation made a formal declara- 
tion of absolute independence. The ro)''al truops who escaped from 
the battle of Chacabuco being reinforced by all the royal forces jn 
Peru, about 5,000 in number, renewed the contest with the patriots ; 
but after a temporaiy success, they were finally defeated in the de- 
cisive battle of Maypo, April 5th, 1,018. This event is celebrated 
by the Chilese in their songs, festivals, and histories, with the most 
enthusiastic expressions of gratitude and admiration. 

7. The government established in Chili is republican. Education 
is making considerable progress, and every ray of light confirms the 
people more absolutely in the love of liberty. Their independence 
IS acknowledged by other nations. They live^n amity with the 
Araucanians, who have a minister at the capital. JWere they exempt 
from the tyranny of the Catholic religion, we mignt regard them as 
destmed to oecome a great and happy nation ; but while this exists, 
they will make slow progress in that real knowledge which can result 
only from the free use of the faculties, with which Heaven has en- 
dowed the children of men.j 

8. Too much can hardly fDe said in praise of the disinterestedness, 
prudence, bravery, and steady perseverance of Don Jose San Martin. 
in maintaining the cause of South American independence. Fond of 
the retirement of private life, he has uniformly laid aside the high digni- 
ties with which the grateful patriots of Chili, Buenos Avres, and 
Peru, have repeatedly invested him, >vl enever the good of tneir cause 
would permit it ; and, although in limes of such public excitement 
the best men are subject to suspicion, envy, and slander, we have 
good reason ibr rankiiig this dL«tirjguished veteran among Ihose, who 
ref ard not tbair own, but the public good. 



476 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 

9. Nor is that distinguished hero and statesman, Bolivar, entitled 
to less refK)\vn. To him the Repubhc of Colombia principally owes 
its independence, and he has been one of its most efficient ae^ents in 
•reanizmg the new government. He is now President of the Re- 
public ; and, his career not being closed, we cannot decide on tlie 
rank to which his whole life will entitle him ; but he has hitherto trod 
in the footsteps of the Leader of tl:e fust American Resolution, and 
if he persist in this course to the end, his name will be ranked by po6> 
terity with iiat of Washington. 1826. 



t 



f 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



EXPLANATION OF THE TABLE OF CHRONOLOGY 

To give a distinct view of the succession of princes in the chief empires 
or kingdoms, without employing different columns, (which distracts the 
attention, and occupies too much space,) the series of the sovereigns of 
different nations is distinguished in this table by different typographical 
characters. By this method the succession of the sovereigns in the different 
kingdoms is immediately distinguishable, and also the duration of their 
reigns. In the intervals of time between every two successive reigns are 
recorded the remarkable events which occurred in those periods, in all parts 
of the world ; and thus the connexion of general history is preserved un- 
broken. 

The series of the kings and emperors of Rome is printed in a larger Ro- 
man type than the rest of the table : as, 

1 4 Tiberius j Emperor of Rome 

The series of the popes is distinguishable by this character IT prefixed to 
each name; as, 

1513 H Pope Leo X. 
The names of the emperors of Germany are printed in Italic capitals ; as. 

887 AKiCOLDy Emperor of Germany. 
The kings of England are designated by the black Saxon typo ; as, 

1066 SS^CUCam (the conqueror) kin^ of England. 

The kings of Scotland are denoted by a larger capital beginning ili9 
word; at, 

1390 Robert III., king of Scotland. 
The kings of France are distinguished by the Italic typ« ; ai| 
1496 Lewis Xll.f king of France. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



B. C. 

i004 The Creation of the World, according to the Hebrew t«xt of the 

Scriptures. 

Accoraing to the version of the Septuacint 5872. 

Acording to the Samaritan version 47U0. 
2348 The Universal Deluge. 
2247 The Building of Ba^l; the Dispersion of Mankind; and the Confi%* 

sion of Languages. 
2217 Nimrod supposed to have built Babylon, and founded the Babylonish 

Monarciiy ; and Assur to have built Nineveh, and founded die 

Monarchy of Assyria. 
8188 Menes (in Scripture Misraini) founds the Monarchy of Egypt. 
2084 The Shepherd Kings conquer Egypt. 
2040 Moeris King of Thebes and Mempnis in Egypt. 
1906 The Birth of Abrain. 
1897 Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed by fire from Heaven. 
189G Isaac born. "* 

185(3 Inachus founds the Kingdom of Argos in Greece. 
1836 Jacob and Esau born. ""^ 

1825 The Shepherd Kings abandon Egypt. 
1823 DeatJi of Abraliam. 

1796 Tile Deluge of Ogyges in Attica. ^ 

1722 Sesostris or Ramesos King of Egypt. 
16^J5 Joseph dies in Egypt. ' 

1582 The Chronology or the Arundelian Marbles begins with this year. 
1571 Moses born in Egypt. 
1556 Cecrops founds the kingdom of Athens. 
1546 Scamandcr founds the Kingdom of Troy. 
1532 Judgment of the Areopagus between Mars and Neptune, two princes 

of Thessaly. 



1529 The Deluge of Deucalion in Thessaljr. 
1522 The Council of the Araphictyons instit 



instituted. 
1520 Corinth built. 
1506 Ercctheus or Erj'cthonius institutes the Panathcnaan Gainea. 
1493 Ciidmus builds Tliebes, and introduces Letters into Greece. 
1491 Moses brings tiie Israelites out of Egypt. 
L453 The first Olympic Gaines celebrated in Greece. 
3452 The Pentateucli, or five Books of Moses, written. 
1451 The Israelites led into the land of Canaan by Joshua 
1438 Pandion King of Athens. 

1406 Minos reigns in Crete, and gives law* to the Cretans. g^ 

1376 SethoF reigns in Egypt. 
1322 Belus reigns in Babylon. 
1267 Ninus reigns in A.ssyria. 

1266 Oedipus marries his Mother Jocasta, and reigns in Thebes. 
1263 The Argonauiic Expedition. According to the Newtonian Chroooi 

ogy 937. 
1257 Theseus unites the Cities of Attica. 
1252 T^re, the capital of Pha-nicia, built. 
1225 Siege of Thebes. War between Eteocles and PoljnieM. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. « 

B.C. 

1225 Biirysthenes and Procles Kings of LacedcEmon. 
1215 Second War of Thebes, or War of the Epigonoi, 

. Semiramis supposed to have reigned at Babylon. 

1207 Gideon Judge of Israel. 

1202 Teuccr built Salamis. 

1193 The Trojan War begins. 

11B4 Troy taken and burnt by the Greeks. According to the Arundeliao 

Marbles 1209. 
1182 iEneas lands in Italy. 
1155 Samson born. 

1104 Return of the IlferaclidjB into Peloponnesus. 
1099 Samuel delivers Israel. 
1079 Saul King of Israel. 
1H70 Medon first Archon of Athens. 

lOUO Codrus King of Athens devotes himself for his country. 
IU55 David King of Israel. 
<004 Dedication of Solomon's Temple. 

080 Rehoboam King of Israel. 

889 Athaliah, wife of Jehoram, usurps the throne of Judah. 

886 Homer's Poems brought from Asia into Greece. 

084 Lycurgus reforms the Constitution of Lacedtemon. 

809 The city of Carthage built by Di3o. 

820 Nineveh taken by Arbaces and Belesis, which finishes that kingdom. 

776 The first Olympiad begins in this year. 

769 Sj'racuse built by Archias of Corinth. 

767 Sardanapalus King of Assyria. 

760 The Ephori, popular Magistrates, instituted at Lacedaemon. 

757 Halyattes King of Lydia. 

754 Decennial Archons elected at AthensL 

752 The foundation of Rome by Romulus. 

748 Rape of the Sabine Women. 

747 The Era of Nabonassar made use of by Ptolemy. 

738 Candaules King of Lydia. 

724 Hezekiah tenth King of Judah. 

721 Salmanazar takes Samaria, and carries the Ten Tribes into captivity, 

which puts an end to the Israelitish Kingdom. 
715 Numa Fompilius second King of Rome. 
711 Sennacherib, King of Assyria, invades Judea. 
710 Dejoces King of Media. 
708 Habakkuk prophesied. 
703 Corcyra founded by the Corinthians. 
696 Manns.seh sixteenth King of Judah. 
688 Judith kills Holofernes the Assyrian General. 
684 Annual Archons elected at Athens. 

631 Esarhaddon unites the Kingdoms of Babylon and Assyria. 
672 TuUus Hostilius third King of Rome. 
670 Psammeticus King of Egypt. 
667 The Combat between the Horatii and Curiatii. 
653 Byzantium founded by Pausanias King of Sparta- 

Pnraortcs King of Media. * 

640 Ancus Martius fourth King of Rome 

627 The Forty Years of Ezekiel began. 
626 Periander Tyrant of Corinth. 

— Nabopolassar, father of Nebuchadnezzar, begins to reign at Babylon. 
624 Draco Archon and Legislator of Athens. 

(;i6 Tarquinius Priscus fifth King of Rome. 

606 Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem, ind carries the Jews inK) captivity. 
IJUl Battle between the Medes and Lydians, who are separated by a great 
eclipae ot tiie sun, predicted by Thal^s. (Newton. Cbron. 5^.) 



480 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 

B. c. ]:f^ 

Wl End of the Assyrian Empire. Nineveh taken by Nebuchtdnoimr. 

(UN) Jeremiah j)ropiie8icd. 

r>!)9 Dirtli of Cyrus ihe Great. 

5U4 Solon ArcJion and Legislator of Athens. 

578 StM-vius 'riillius sixth King of Rorue. 

67'-i Nebuchadnezzar subdues Egypt. 

671 Phalaris Tvrant of Agrigenlum. 

6U2 Comedies Arst exhibited at Athens by Thespis. 

— — Crojsus reigns in Lydia. 

5r»l Confucius, the Chinese Philosopher, bom 

550 Pisistnitus Tyrant of Athens. 

548 The Ancient Temphj of Delphos burnt by the Pisistratida. 

538 Babylon taken by Cyrus. End of the Babylonian Empire. 

53(i Cyru.s ascends the throne of Persia. He puts an end to th« Jewiab 

captivity, which had lasted seventy years. 
534 '1 arciuinius Superbus seventh King of Rome. 

Daniel prophesied. 

521) Death of Cyrus the Great. Cambyses King of Persia. 

Death of Pisistratus Tyrant of Athens. 

522 Darius, son of Hystaspes, King of Persia. 

520 The Jews begin to build the second Temple, which is finished in four 

years. 
510 The Pisistratidse expelled from Athens, and the Democracy restored. 

Statues erected at Athens to Harmodius and Aristogiton. 

509 The Tarquins expelled from Rome and the Regal Government abol 

ished. 
508 The first Alliance between the Romans and Carthaginiana. 
504 Sardis taken and burnt by the Athenians. 
498 The first Dictator created at Rome (Lartius.) 
497 Institution of the Saturnalia at Rome 
493 The port of Piraeus built by the Athenians. 

490 The Battle of Marathon, ir which Miltiades defeats the Persians. 
488 The first Tribunes of the People created at Rome. According to 

Blair 493. 

Miltiades dies in prison. 

486 Xerxes succeeds his father Darius in the kingdom of Persia. 
485 Coriolanus banished from Rome. 
483 Qurestors instituted at Rome. 

Aristides banished from Athens by the Ostracism. 

480 The Spartans, under Leonidas, slain at Thermopylae. 

Naval Victory gained by the Greeks over the Persians at Salamii 

479 Attica laid waste and Athens burnt by Mardonius. 

Victories over the Persians at Platsea amd Mycale. 

Xerxes leaves Greece. 

477 300 Fabii killed by the Veientcs. 

476 Themistocles rebuilds Athens. 

— — Valerius triumphs over the Veientes and Sabinet. 

The Roman Citizens numbered at 103,000. 

A great Eruption of ./Etna. 

Iliero King of ^Syracuse. 

471 Volero, the Roman Tribune, obtains a law for the election of maf» 

trntes in the comitia held by tribes. 
470 Cimon, son of Miltiades, defeats the Persian army and fleet in on% 

day, at the mouth of the river Eurymedon. 
469 Capua founded by the Tuscans. 
4G4 Artaxerxes (Longimanus) Kin^ of Persia. 

Cimon banished by the Ostracism. 

463 Egypt revolts from the Persians. 

462 The Terentian Law proposed at Home. 
45€ Cincinnatui Dictator at Home- 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE ^ 

B.C. ^ 

456 The Ludi Sacu ares first instituted at Rome. 

55 Commcncenr.snt of the Seventy Prophetical Week* of Daniel* 
453 The number of the Tribunes of the people at Rome increased froft) 

Five to Ten. 
458 The two Books of Chronicles supposed to have been written at this 

time by Ezra. 
451 Creation of the Decemviri at Rome, and Compilation of the Laws of 

the Twelve Tables. 
449 Peace between the Greeks and Persians concluded by Cimon, glorious 

for Greece. 

Death of Virginia, and Abolition of the Decemvirate. 

445 The Lnw of Canuleius for the Intermarriage of the Patricians and 
Plebeians at Rome. 
Military Tribunes created, 
437 The Censorship first instituted at Rome. 
43ti P-^ricles in high power at Athens. 
432 Melon's Cycle of the Moon of nineteen years. 
431 The Pelopoonesian War begins, which lasted twenty-seven years. 
430 The History of the Old Testament ends about this time. 

Gieat Plague at Athens, eloquently described by Thucydides. 

Malachi the last of the Prophets. 

428 Death of Pericles. 

423 Darius Neth s King of Persia. 

418 Disturbances a Rome on account of the Agrarian Law. 

414 Th< Athenians defeated before Syracuse. 

413 Alcibiades, accused at Athens, flies to tlie Lacedaemonians. 

412 A Council of 400 governs Athens. 

405 Lysandei defeats the Athenians at iEgos Potamoa. 

404 Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon) King of Persia. 

- End ct the Peloponnesian War. 
403 Lysandei takes Athens. Government of the Thirty Tyrants. 
401 The younger Cyrus defeated by his brother Artaxerxes, and killeU 

Retreat of the Ten Tljousand Greeks. 

Persecution and Death of Socrates. 

Thrasybulus drives out the Thirty Tyrants, and delivers Alliens 

309 A Lectisterniuni first celebrated at Rome. 

397 The Lake of Alba drained by the Romans. 

396 Syracuse unsuccessfully besieged by the Carthaginians. 

391 Alarcus Furius Camillus Dictator at Rome. Veii taken. 

387 Dishonourable Peace of Antalcidas between the Spartans and Per- 
sians. 

385 Rome taken by the Gauls Jnder Brennus. 

liS2 Phaebidas, the Spartan, seizes the Citadel of Thebes. 

380 Pelopidas and Epaminondas deliver Thebes from the Lacedaemonians. 

371 Battle of Leuctra, in which the Lacedaemonians are defeated by tii« 
Thebans under Epaminondas. 

364 Pelopidas defeats the Tyrant of Pliersea, but is killed in battle. 

.363 Battle of Matinea, in which Epaminondas is killed. 

362 Curtius leaps into a Gulf in the Forum at Rome. 

361 Darius Ochus (or Artaxe» HL) King of Persia. According m 
Blair, 358. 

358 War of the Allies against Atl ens. 

-— Philip of Macedon takes Amphipolis, Pydna, and Potidea. 

S57 Dion overcomes tho party of Dionysius at Syracuse. 

350 Alexander the Great born at Pella in Macedonia. 

Tho Temple of Diana, at Ephesus, burnt by Erostratus. 

The Phocian or Sacred War begins in Greece. 

Philip conquers the Thracians, Paeonians, and Illyrians. 

350 Darius Ochus subdues Egypt, 

248 Philip of Macedon takes Olymhus. 



48f CHRONOLfKj'ICAL TABLE. 

B. C. 

3.W End of the Sacred Wnr. 

347 Dionyslus restored at Syracuse, after an exile of ten jMn. 
24C) Philip admitted n Member of tlie Amj)hictyonic Council. 
34:^ SyracMiso lalten by Timoleoii, and Dionysuis the Tyrant finally ban 
isliHtl. 

The NVar between the Romans and Saninites, which led to the con 

quest of all Italy. 
340 Tlie Carthaginians dcf(F,ated near A?rif;entiim. 

P. Deciu8 (h'votos himself for his country. 

3:W Battle ofCheronaa gained by Pliilip over the Athenians and Th»:ban« 
337 Pliilip chosen (ieneralissinvt of the Greeks. 
330 Philip murdered by Pausanias. 

Ale.\ander the Great Kin<? of Macedon. 

Alexander the (ireat destroys Thebes. 

335 Darius III. (Ct)dotnannufi) King of Persia. 

Alexander chosen Generalissimo by the Slates of Greece. 

3^M Alexander defeats the F*ors!ans on the banks of tl: f" t 

3:i3 The Persians defeated by Alexander at Issus. 

3:i*2 Alexander conquers Egypt, and takes Tyre. 

'Xil Darius defeated by Alexander at Arbehi. 

330 Darius Codomannus killed. End of the Persian Empire. 

- Alexander takes possession of Susa, and sets fire to the Pa'.ace of 

Persepolis. 
328 Alexander passes into India, defeats Porus, founds several ciilh., 
penetrates to the Ganges. 

The Voyage of Nearchiis from the Indus to the Enphrates. 

325 Papirius Cursor, Dictatoi at Rcme, triinnphs over the Samniies. 
324 Alexander the Great dies at Babylon, at the age of thii ty-three. 

321 The Samnitcs make the Roman Army pass under the y(»ke M 

Caudium. 
320 Ptolemy carries 100,000 Jews captives into Egypt. 
317 Agathocles Tyrant of Syracuse. 
312 Era of the Selucidae. 
311 Cassander, Lysimachus, and Ptolemy, conclude a peace with Anttg- 

onus. 
304 Demetrius besieges Rhodes. 

:]03 Demetrius restores the Greek Citic* to their liberty. 
301 Battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in v.hif h Antigonus is defeated and slain. 

FabiuB Maximus and Valerius Coivus Dictators. 

?00 Seleucus founds Antioch, Edessa, and Laodicca. 
£1)8 Athens taken by Demetrius Poliorcetes. 

2f)4 Seleucus resigns his Wife Stratonire 10 nis son Antiochus. 

28C Law of Ilortciisius, by which the decrees of the people were nllowj^d 

the same force as those of the senate. 
285 The Astronomical Era of Dionysius of Alexandria. 
284 Ptolemv Phila'Wphus King of Egypt. 
283 The Library of Alexandria founded. 
281 Commencement of the Achaean League. 
280 Pyrrhus invades Italy. 

Antiochus Sotcr King of Syria. 

277 The Translation of the Septuagint made by order of Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus. Playfair, 285 

- Antii^onuR Gonattis reigned in Macedon thiriy-pLr years. 
275 Pyrrlius unsuccessful against the Carthaginians in Sicily. 

274 Pyrrhus, totally defeated by the Romans near I>eneveniunr>, evacnatos 

Italy. 
272 The Samnites finally subdued by the Romans. 
2(k) Silver Money is coined at Rome (br the first time. 
2.>5 The Citizens of Rome numbered at 2^)2,224. 
204 The first Punic War begins. The Chronicle of Paros compotcd 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 48t 

B.C. 

260 Provincial Quaestors instituted at Rome.. 

First Naval Victory obtained by the Romans under the Consul Duilius. 

255 Regulus defeated and taken prisoner by the Carthaginians under 

Xantippus 
253 Manasseh chosen High Priest of the Jews. 
251 Great Victory of Meiellus over Asdrubal. 
250 The Romans besiege Liiyboeum ; are defeated bv Hamilcar. 
241 End of the first Punic VVar. 

Attalus King of Pergamus succeeds Eumenea. 

240 Comedies are first acted at Rome. 

235 The Temple of Janus shut the first time since the reign of Numa. 

228 Hamilcar killed in Spain. 

225 Great Victory of the Romans over the Gauls, 

219 Hannibal takes Saguntum. 

218 The second Punic War begins. 

217 Hannibal defeats the Romans under Flaminius. 

Fabius Maximus Dictator. 

216 Battle of Cannae, in which the Romans are totally defeated by Han- 
nibal. 
212 Philip H. of Macedon defeats the iEtolians. 

Marcellus takes Syracuse, after a siege of two years. 

211 Capua surrenders to the Romans. 

Antiochus the Great conquers Judaea. 

210 Asdrubal vanquished in Spain by the Scipios. 

Publius Scipio, sent into Spain, takes New-Carlhage. 

206 Philopoemen Praetor of the A«haeans. 

203 The Carthaginians recall Hannibal to Africa. 

Sophonisba poisoned by Massinissa. 

201 Syphax led m triumph to Rome by P. Scipio. 

197 Philip defeated by the Romans at Cynocephale. 

196 The Battle of Zama, and end of the second Punic War. 

190 The Romans enter Asia, and defeat Antigonus at Magnesia. 

183 The elder Cato Censor at Rome. 

173 War between the Romans and Perseus King of Macedon. 

172 Antiochus defeats the generals of Ptolemy Jn Egypt. 

170 Antiochus Epiphanes takes and plunders Jerusalem. 

169 Terence's Comedies performed at Rome. 

167 Perseus defeated by Paulus .^milius, and brought prisoner to Rome 

End of the kingdom of Macedon. 
166 Judas Maccabeus drives the Syrians out of Judea. 
104 The Roman Citizens numbered at 327,032. 
149 The third Punic War begins. 
147 Metellus defeats the Achaeans. 
146 Corinth taken by the Consul Mummius. 

Carthage taken and destroyed by the Romans. 

137 The Romans shamefully defeated by the Numantines. 
135 The History of the Apocrypha ends. 

Antiochus besieges Jerusalem. 

133 Tiberius Gracchus put to death. 

Numantia taken. Pergamus becomes a Roman Province. 

121 Caius Gracchus killed. 

113 Carbo the Consul drives the Cimbri and Teutones out of Italy. 

Ill The Jugurthine War begms. 

108 Manus defeats Jugurtlia. 

103 J ugurtha starved to death at Rome. 

102 Marius defeats tlve Teutones and Cimbri. 

i)l The War of the Allies against the Romans. 

90 Svlla defeats the Marsi, Peligni, Samnites, &c. 

89 The Mithridatic War begins. 

88 Civil War between Marius ant) Syllq. SyUn takes posMSiioa of Rome 



4gl^ CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

B. C. i 

8^ Mithridate§ King of Pontus defeated by Sylla. v 

83 iSylla defHats Nurbaniis. The Capitol burnt. 

82 tfyU** perputiiul Dictator, llm horrible Proscription. 

tK) Julius Cifsar makes )iis first Canii»aign. 

71) Cicero's fir.st Oration for Rosciua. 

76 Sylla resi«;ns all power, and dies. 

77 l^he War of Sertoriua. 

71i Luculhw repeatedly defeats Mithridates, and reduces Pontus to • 

Roman province. 
70 Crassus and Ponipey chosen Consuls nt Rome. 
C3 VictorieH of Ponipey. He takes Jerusalem, and restores Ilyrcaat^t o 

the government of Judea. 
62 Catiline's Conspiracy (quelled at Rome by Cicero. 
CI Ponipey enter;* Rome in triumph. 
59 The first Triumvirate ; Pompcy, Crassus, and Ceesar. 

— CtEsar proposes a new AjCrarian Law. 

58 Clodius the Tribune j.rotures the Banishment of Cicero. 
57 Cresar defeats Ariovistus in Gaul. 

— (;icero brought hack from Exile with high honour. 
55 Ctesai lands in Britain, and makes a short campaign. 

54 Cajsar invades Britain a seoond time, and conquers part of it 
53 Crassus killed in Mesopotamia. 

52 Milo defended by Cicero for the slaughter of Clodius. 
49 Cajsar passes tli* Rubicon, and inarches to Rome. 

— Commencement of the Era of Aiitioch, October, 49 A. C. 

48 Battle of Pharsalia, in which Pompey is defeated. ^^j-j 

— Pompty slain in Egypt. " ^^j^ 

— The Alexandrian Library of 400,000 volumes burnt. 
40 Cato besieged in Utica, kills himself 

4c The Kalendar reformed by Julius Caesar, by introducing the SSoiav 

Year instead of the Lunar The first Julian Year began January i, 

45 A. C. 
44 Julius CsBsar Kuica m the Senate-House, 
— Octavius, grand-nepliew and heir of Julius Cesar, comes to Rom«, 

and is oj>posed at first by Antony. 
43 Second Triumvirate ; Octavius. Mark Antony, and Lepidus. 
42 Battle of Philippi, in which Brutus and Cassius are deie&ted. 
40 Herod marries Muriamne, daughter of Hyrcanus, and obtains from thm 

Romans he Government of Judsea. 
34 Antony divides Armenia among the children of Cleopatra. 
33 Mauritania reduced into a Roman Province. 
32 War declared by the Senate .-i^ainst Antony and Cleopatra. 
31 Battle of Acliuin and end of the Roman Commonwealth. 

— Octavius Emperor of Rome. 

30 Death of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. Alexandria taken by Octa- 
vius. 
Octavius receives the title of Augustus. 
23 Death of Marcelliis. Agrippa in Spain. 
20 Porus King of India sends an Embassy to Augustus. 
17 Agustus revives the Secular Games. 
15 The Rhoeti and Vindelenci defeated by Drusus. 
10 The Temple of Janus shut by Augustus for a short time. 

8 Augustus corrects an Error of the Roman KoJendor. 

- Death of Maecenas. 

6 Augustus ordains a Census of all the people in the Roman Empire. 
4 JESUS CHRIST is bom four years before the commencemcQi of the 
vulgar era. 
A. D. 

9 Tb« Roman Legions under Vanis, deatroycd ia Germany. 

- Orid ttia Poet banished to Tomoa. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 466 

A.D. 

14 Tiberius Emperor of Rome. 
19 Germanicus dies at Antiuch. 

— Tiberius banishes tlie Jews from Rome. 

26 John the Baptist preaches in Judxa the Coming of the NeMimft. 

27 Tiberius retires to the island of Capreae. 

— Pilate made Governor of Judaea. 

31 Sejanus disgraced, and put to death by Tiberius 
33 IT St. Peter first Pope. 

— JESUS CHRIST is crucified. 
35 The Conversion of St. Paul. 
37 Caligula Emperor of Rome. 

^ 39 St. Matthew writes his Gospel. 

40 The name of Christians flrst given to the Disciples of Christ at An* 

tioch. 

41 Claudius Emperor of Rome. 

— Herod persecutes the Christians, and imprisons Peter. 

42 Sergius Paulus, proconsul, converted by St. Paul. 

43 Expedition of Claudius into Britain. 

44 St. Mark writes his Gospel. 

45 Vespasian in Britain. 

47 The Ludi StBculares (secular games) performed at Rome. 

48 Messalina put to death by Claudius, who marries Agrippina the 

mother of Nero. 
50 St. Paul preaches in the Areopagus at Athens. 
- 51 Caractacus, the British King, is carried prisoner to Rome. 

54 Nero Emperor of Rome. 

55 Britannicus poisoned by Nero. 

59 Nero puts to death his motlier Agrippina. 

60 Suetonius Paulinus defeats the Britons. 

61 The Britons, undei Queen Boadicea, defeat the Romans. 
64 The first Persecution of the Christians raised by Nero. 

— Rome set on fire by Nero. 

66 Bareas Soranus and Thrasea Paetus put to death by Nero. 

— H Pope Linus. 

67 Massacre of the Jews by Florus, at Caesarea, Ptolemais, and Alex- 

andria. 

— St. Petur and St. Paul put to death. 

— Josephus, the Jewish historian, governor of GalUe** 

— H Pope St. Clement. 

68 Gaiba Emperor of Rome. 

69 Otho Emperor of Rome. "^ 

— Vitellius Emperor of Rome. 

70 Vespasian Emperor of Rome. 

— Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Titus. 

77 ir Pope St. Cletus. 

78 A great Pestilence at Rome, 10,000 dying in one day. 

79 Titus Emperor of Rome. 

— Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed by an Eruption of Vesuvios. 

80 Conquests of Agricola m Britain. 
31 Domitian Emperor of Rome. 
83 IT Pope Anacletus. 

89 Apollonius of Tyanea defends himself before Domitian against an 

accusation of Treason. 
96 Dreadful Persecutii3n of the Christians at Rome^ and in the prov< 

inces. 

— St. John writes his Apocalypse, and his Gospel 
96 Nerva Emperor of Rome. 

882 



4M CilRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A.D. ^ 

96 IT Pope Evartfltus. 

98 1 rajan Emperor of Rome. 

- - Trajan forbids the Christian Assemblies. 
*00 
103 The Dacians subdued by Trajan. 
IU7 Trajan's Victories in Asia. 
108 l!^. Ignatius devoured by wild Beasts at Rome. 

— H Pope Alexander I. 

1 15 I'he JewM in Cyrcno murder 200,000 Greeks and Romans. 

117 IT Pope Sixtus I. 

118 Adrian Emperor of Rome. 

Persecution of the Christians renewed by Adrian, but aftorwmrd 
suspended. 
120 Adrian's Wail built across Britain. 
127 U Pope Telesphorus. 
\'M Adrian visits E^ypt and Syria. 

l'^2 Adrian publishes his perpetual Edict or Code of the Laws. 
IliT) Tlu5 Romans destroyed 580,000 Jews in Judsa. 

137 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem by the name of iElia Capitolina. 

138 U Pope 11} sinus. 

Antonius Pius Emperor of Rome. 

142 ir Pope Pius I. 

150 U Pope Anicclus. 

154 Justin Martyr publishes his Apology for the Christians. 

i(ji Marcus Aurelius Antoninus and Lucius Verus Emperors of 

Rome. 
/G2 11 Pope Sotcr. 

1()7 Polycarp and Pionices suffered Martyrdom in Asia. 
I()9 War with the Marconianni. 
171 Death of Verus. Marcus Aurelius sole Emperor. 

^ Pope Eleutherius. 

177 Persecution of the Christians at Lyons. 

180 Comniodus Emperor of Rome. 

185 TI Pope Victor I. 

ISO The Sar?cons defeat the Romans. This people first mentioned in 

history. 
11)3 Pertinax Emperor of Rome. Didius Julianus purchases Um 

Empire. 
-_ Pescennius Niger declared Emperor in the East. 

— Septimius Se verus Emperor of Rome. 
I!)4 Niger defeated by Severus, and put to death. 
I'J5 Byzantium besieged, surrenders to Severus. 
|<)G Albinus proclaimed Emperor in Britain. 
197 Albinus, defeated by Severus, kills himself. 

• - % Pope Zephyrinus. 
200 

202 The fifth Persecution against the Christians, principally in Egypt. 
208 Severus. with his sons Caracalla and Geta, in Britain. 
'209 The Caledonians repulsed, and a Wall built between the rivers Forth 
and Clyde. 

211 Caracalla and Geta Emperors of Rome. 

212 Caracalla murders Geta. 
217 Caracalla put to death. 

— Macrinus Emperor of Rome. 

f Pope Calixtus I. 

ai8 Helio^abalufl EmpMor of 



CH&ONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A.D. 

222 Alexander SeveniS Emperor of Rome. 

- A Tribute paid by tlie Romans to the Goth» 

- !i Pope Urban I. 

226 The Persians totally defeated by Alexander Sevems 
230 IT Pope Pontianus. 
235 U Pope Anterus. 

- Maximinus assassinates Alexander Severus, and 'u procUiaied £■ 

peror of Rome. 
«36 The sixth Persecution of the Chri«tian«. 

- IF Pope Fabianus. 

237 Maximinus defeats the Dacians and Sarmatiana. 

238 Maximus and Balbinus Emperors of Rome. 

Gordian Emperor of Rome. 

242 Gord'ian defeats the Persians under Sapor. 
244 Philip the Arabian Emperor of Rome. 

248 The Secular Games celebrated at Rome. Pompey'i Theatre bunt 

St. Cyprian elected Bishop of Carthage. 

249 Decius Emperor of Rome. 

2o0 The seventh Persecution of the Christians under Decius. ,0^1^ 

U Pope St. Cornelius. iHr 

251 Vibius Volusianus Emperor of Rome 

Gallus Emperor of Rome. 

252 IT Pope Lucius I. 

253 The Goths, Burgundians, &c nuike an Irruption into Moeaia and 

Pannonia^ 

254 Valerianus Emperor of Rome. 

H Pope Stephen I. 

257 The eighth Persecution of the Christiana. 

IT Pope Sixtus 11. 

259 The Persians ravage Syria. 

^ Pope Dionysius. 

260 Galhenus Emperor of Rome. 

The Temple of Diana at Epliesus burnt. 

261 Sapor, the Persian, takes Antioch, Tarsus, and Ccaare* 

267 The Heruli invade and ravage Greece. 

268 Claudius II. Emperor of Rome. 

269 Tlie Goths and Heruli, to the number of 320,000, defta. 4 by 

Claudius. 

IT Pope Felix I. 

270 Aurolian Emperor of Rome, 

271 The Aleraanni and Marcomanni ravage the Empire. 

272 The ninth Persecution of the Christians. 

273 Zenobia Queen of Palmyra defeated by Aurelian at Fdfwa 

274 IF Pope Eutychianus. 

275 Tacitus Emperor of Rome. 

276 Florianus Emperor of Rome. 

277 Probus Emperor of Rome. 

289 Carus Emperor of Rome defeats the Quadi and SannatiaBa. 

282 Carinus, Numerianus, Emperors of Rome. 

283 IT Pope Caius. 

Fingal King of Morven died. 

284 Diocletian Emperor of Rome. 

286 The Empire attacked by the Northern N^ooa. 

- Cawuaiuf usurps the govermaent of Britain, uki ni§m 1 



488 CHRONOLOGICAL TABlE. 

AD 

2iH) The Grogoiian and HMmogenian Codes published. 

202 Partition of the Enopiro by Diocletian between two Emferora aad two 

Csaarj. 
2i)5 H Pope MarccHihus. 

Alexandria in Egypt Uken by Diocletian. 

1502 The tenth Persecution of th* Christiann. 

304 IT Pope Marcellus. 

Resignation of Diocletilirt and Ifaximian 

- Galcrius and Constantius Emperors of Rome. 

305 MajciminUS Emperor of Rome. 

VHi Constantine the Great Empercr of Rome. He rtope the Per 

secution of the Christians. 
.510 II Pope Eusebins. 

H Pope MelcJiiades. 

314 1\ Pope Sylvester. 

325 Constantine abolishes the Combats of Gladiators. 

• Ue assembles the first General Council at Nice, where the Doctrines 

of Arins are condemned. 

326 St. Atlianasius, Bishop of Alexandria, introduces iMonarchism in the 

Roman Emp^lre. 
32i) Constantine removes the Seat of Empire to Constantinople. 
336 U Pope Marcus. 
.337 IT Pope Julius 1. 
- — Death of Constantine. The Empire divided amon^ his throe Sons. 

- Constantine II., Constans, and Constantius, Emperors oi 

Rome. 
352 IT Pope Liberius. 
a56 IT Pope Felix L 

357 The Germans defeated by Julian at Strasburg. 

358 IT Pope Felix U. 

361 Julian Emperor of Rome. He abjures Christianity, is elected Pon- 
tifex Maximus, and attempts fruitlessly to rebuild th« Temple (vf 
Jerusalem. 

363 Jovian Emperor of Rome. 

364 Valentinian Emperor of the West. 
. Valens Emrperer of the East. 

366 IT Pope Damasus. 

367 Gratian Emperor of the West. 

375 Valentinian II. Emperor of the West. 

376 Valens allows the Goths to settle in Thrace. 

378 The Goths advance to the Gates of Constantinople. Death of Valen*. 

379 Theod^osius the Great Emperor of the East. 
381 Second General Council held at Constantinople. 

383 The Huns overrun Mesopotamia ; are defeated by the Goths. 

384 Symmachus pleads the cause of Paganism against St. Ambrose in the 

Senate. 

385 X Pope Syricius. .^.,,4^ ^ 

3f)o Tlieodo.sius Emperor of the West and East. 

395 Arcadiu.S Emperor of the East, and Hononus of the West. 

The Huns invade the Eastern Provinces. 

397 St. Chry808tf»m chosen Patriarch of Constantinople. 
?0i) 5 Pope Anastasius. 
— Gaines the Goth obtains Honours fom 'ArcadiuB. 



^mONOLOGlCAL TABLE. --' 

A.Dl 

400 

Alaric th<i Goth ravages ItaJy. 

401 IT Pope Innocent I. 

403 Stilicho, General of Honorios, defeats Alaric near Pollentia. 

404 h ergus I. King of Scotland, supposed to have begun his reign. 
406 The Vandals, Alans, &c. mvade France and Spain. 

403 Theodosius II. Emperor of the East. 

410 Rome sacked and burnt by Alaric. Death of Alaric. 

411 The Vandals settled in Spain. 

416 The Secular Games celebrated at Rome. 

The Pelagian Heresy condemned by the Bishops of AiVic.i. 

417 H Pope Zozimus. 

418 IF Pope Boniface I. 

420 P/iaramond first King of the Franks supposed to have oegun his 

reign. 
422 IT Pope Caelestinus. 

424 Valentinian III. Emperor of the West. 
426 The Remans withdraw finally from Britain. 
428 if.tius, the Roman General, defeats the Franks and Goths. 

431 The third General Council held at Ephesus. 

432 r\ Pope Sixtus III. 

4.35 The Theodosian Code published. 

439 Generic the Vandal invades and plunders Italy. 

— Eudocia the Empress, yrife of Theodosius, retires to Jerusalem. 

Carthage taken by the Vandals. Kingdom of the Vandals in Africa. 

440 ^ Pope Leo the Great. 

442 Theodosius forced to make a disgraceful Peace with Attila the Hun. 

Attila causes his brother Bleda to be m.urdered. 

445 The Britons in vain solicit the Romans to assist them against the Picts 

and Scots. 
445 Attila the Hun overruns Illyrium, Thrace, Dacia, Moesia, and Scythia. 
448 The Romans engage to pay a heavy Tribute of Gold to Attila. 
441) ^feroT(BUS King of the Franks. 

450 Marcian Emperor of the East. 

— Attila ravages Germany and France. 

451 Theodoric King of the Visigoths killed in battle. The Huns defeated 

by ^tius. 

— The Saxons arrive in Britain under Hengist and Horsa. 

— The fourth General Council held at Chalcedon. 
4f>2 Foundation (>f the city of Venice. 

455 Pctromius Maximus Emperor of the West. 

— AvitUS Emperor of the West. 

Rome taken and plundered by Genseric the Vandal. 

450 Childeric King of the Franks. 

457 Leo the Great Emperor of the East. 

Majorianus Emperor of the West. 

461 Severus Emperor of the West, raised by Ricimer. 

H Pope Hilarius. 

467 Anthemius Emperor of the West. 

468 Eric King of the Visigoth.'? drives the Romans out of Spain. 

H Pope Simplicius. 

470 JF.Usx the Saxon takes possession of the Kingdom of Siusoz. 

471 iElla defeats all the British Princes. 

472 Great Eruption of Mount Vesuvius, seen fit>ni ConstaatiaopI*. 

- Olybius Emperor of the West. 



«gt CH&OiSOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A.D. 

473 Glycerius, Emperor of tiie Woat, degraded «od Uripped by 

474 Julius NepOS Emperor of ihe West. 

Zero Emperor of tlie Eut. 

AugUStuIus Romulus Emperor of the West, rmued by iiii (ather 

Orestes, General of Nepos. 
476 Orestes put to death by Odoacer Kins of the HeniJi. 

Rume taken by Odoacer now king or Italy. 

ExTiNCTioif or THE WcsTERV Empire of tile Romans, §07 years 

from the battle of Actium, and 1224 from the building of Rome. 
481 Clovis King of the Franks. 

Zeno makes Theodaric, the Ostrogoth, his General, and creates him 

Consul. 
483 11 Pope Felix III. 
485 Battle of Soissons gained by Clovia 
488 Thoodoric, the Ostrugoth, entirely defeats Odoacer, and ia acknowl* 

edged King of Italy by the Emperor Zeno. 

490 The Burgundians, under Gondebald, ravage Italy. 

Ireland, called the Isle of Saints, famous for its schools. 

491 Anastasius Emperor of the East. 
493 Odoacer put to death by Theodoric 

496 IT Pope Anastasius II. 

497 Clovis and the Franks converted to Christianity. 

498 H Pope Symmachus. 

499 Alliance between CIotis and Theodoric the Great 
500 

- Gondebald, the Burgundian, becomes tributary to Clovis. 
501 The Burgundian Laws publislted by Gondebald. 

50*2 Cabades King of Persia ravages part of the Eastern Empire. 

504 The Eastern Empire makes peace with Cabades. 

507 Clovis defeats Alaric the Visigoth, and receives a congratulatory en»- 
bassy, with a diadem, from Anastasius. 

505 Theodoric the Groat defeats Clovis in the battle of Aries, and then 

makes peace with him. 

510 Clovis makes Paris the capital of the kingdom of the Franks. 

511 Death of Clovis. Division of his kingdom among his four sons, 

Childebtrty Tfuerry, Clotaire, and Clodomir, Kings of the Franks, 

512 The lieruli allowed by Anastasius to settle in Thrace. 

514 H Pope Hormisdas. 

515 Arthur king of the Britons supposed to have begun his reign. 

51G The Computation of Time by the Christian i£ra introduced by Die 
nysius the Monk. 

517 The deta ravage Illyrium, Macedonia, and Epirus. 

518 Justin I. Emperor of the East raised from obscurity. 

519 Justin restores the Orthodox Bishops, and condemns the Eutychiana. 

Cabades King of Persia proposes that Justin should adopt his aoii 

Cosroes, and makes war on a refusal. 
523 IT Pope John I. 
525 The Arian Bishops deposed by Justin, and this act highly raaented by 

Theodoric. 

Anlioch and many other cities almost destroyed by an earthquake, and 

rebuilt by Jjstin, who adopts his nephew Justinian. 
52G Theodoric puts to death Boethius and Syramachus. 
— H Pope Felix IV. 
527 Justinian I. Enr.pcroi- of the EasU 
529 Belisarius, General of Justinian, defeats the Persians. > 

The Books of the Civil Law published by Justinian. 

{>J0 1 Pope Boniface II. 



CH&ONOLOGICAL TABLE. 49I 

A D. 

532 Jwdnian congratulates Cosroes ou mcceeding to the ihroiM of Persia. 

and concludes a perpetual peace with }iini. 

Great In$urrectk>a at Constantinopie quelled with prodigioiuelaaghtei 

br Belisarius. 

533 Ath'alaric King of the Ostrogotns dies, and ia succeeded by hta mother 

AmaJasonta. 

^ Pope John II. 

534 Tkeodobert King of Met z. 

Belisarius defeats Gelbner and the Vandals in Africa. 

535 % Pope Aeapetus. 

536 ^ Pope Sylvester. 

537 beiisarius subdues the Ostrogoths in Italy, and takes Home. 
o38 If Pope Vigil ius. 

540 Belisarius refuses to accept the crown of Itair. 
543 Totila, the Goth, recovers Italy from the Komans. 
547 Totila takes and plunders Rome. 
543 Theobald King of Metz. 

549 Rome retaken br Beiisarius. 

550 Commencement of the kingdom of Poland under Lechus. 

Rome recovered by Totila. 

551 The manufacture of Silk introduced into Europe. 

553 Totila defeated bv IS'arses the Eunuch, and put to death. 
555 •" Pope P^agius I. 

558 The Huns, breaking into Thrace, are defeated by Belisarius. 

559 BeUsarius degraded, and ungratefully treated by Justimaa. 

Clotaire sole King of France. 

560 T Pope John III. 

Belisarius restored to his Honours and Command. 

562 C<iribert. Goniran Sigebert, and CkUptrie, Kings of Franct. 
5<>5 Justin II. Emperor of Rome. 

566 Narses, recalled from Italy, invites the Lombards to take poveMJoa 
of the country-. 
■* Italy conquered by the Lombards, 
r I Birth of Mahomet the false Prophet. 
574 •" Pope Benedict I. 
578 Tiberius II. Emperor of the East. 

•' Pope Pelagius II. 

580 The Latin Tongue ceases to be spoken in Italy about this tbae. 

5^ Maurice Emperor of the East. 

5^ Ciotnire II. King of Soissons. 

590 AntitK;h a^ain destroyed, with 30,000 inhabitants, by an Earthquake 

*" Pope Gregory the Great. 

596 Thierry IF. mnd Tkeodobert II. Kings of Paris and Austrasia. 

Augustine the Monk converts the Saxons to Christian hj. 

600 

602 Phocas Emperor >f the East acknowledges the Supremacy of ths 

Popes. 
604 ^ Pope Sabinianus. 

607 r Pope Boniface IV. 

The Pantheon at Rome Dedicated to God, the Virgin, and the SttiaU 

608 •' Pope Boniface IV. 

009 The Jews of Antioch meissacre the Christians. 
611 Heraclius Emperorof the East. 

613 The French Maires du Palais first introduced by Clotaire as Regents. 

614 Clolairt II. sole King of France. 

— Queen Brunechilda, accr^sed of numberleas crimes, is put to dos t h by 
QiHaire 11. 



4df CHAONOLOOICAL TABLE 

A.D. 

615 IT Pope Deni-dedit 

616 Jerusalem taken bv the Peraiana under Coiroes II. ..^ 
618 H Pope Boniface V. 

622 Era of the He^ra, or Flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina. 
625 II PoDe Honorius I. 

The Persians under Cosroes II., with the Huna, Abari, and Sclaro 

nians, besiege Constantinople. 
628 Dagobert and Clianbert Kings of France. 

632 Death of Mahomet. Abubeker soeceeds him aa Caliph of the Sara- 

cens. 

633 Abubeker dies, and is succeeded by Omar in the Caliphate. 

636 Jerusalem taken by Omar and the Saracens, who keep possession ofn 

463 years. 
638 Sigebert If. and Clsvis II. Kings of France. 
640 H Pope Severmus. 

IT Pope John IV. 

The Library of Alexandria, founded by Ptolemy Philadelphos, is 

burnt by the Suracens. 
541 Constantine, Emperor of the East for a few months, poisoned by 
his step-mother. 

- Heraclionas and Tiberiu.s III. Emperors of the East. 

642 Constans, son of Constantino, Emperor of the East. 

IT Pope Theodorus. 

645 Otman succeeds Omar m the Caliphate. 

648 Cyprus taken by the Saracens under Mawia. 

649 IT Pope Martin 1. 

653 The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the Colossus. 

654 Childeric II. King of Jiustrasia. 

IT Pope Eugenius I. 

655 Ali Caliph of Arabia Mawia Caliph of Egypt. 

657 IT Pope Vitaliarius. 

658 The Saracens obtain Peace of the Emperor Constans, and agree to 

pay a yearly tribute. 
C68 Constantius V. (Pogonatus) Emperor of the East. 
669 Sicily ravaged by the Saracens. 
672 IT Pope Adcodatus 

The Saracens ineffectually besiege Constantinople. Their fleet de- 

stroyed by the Greek Fire used by Callinicus. 

675 The Saracens attempt to land in Spain, but are repulsed by Wamba 

King of the Visgoths. 

676 IT Pope Donus. 

679 Thierry IV. King of all France. 

IT Pope Agatho. — ^ 

680 The sixth General or CEcumenical Council of ConsUntinopIe. OOd 
082 IT Pope Leo II. > 

684 IT Pope Benedict IL 

685 IT Pope John V. 

Justinian II. Emperor of the East. 

' The Britons, totally subdued by the Saxons, retreat into Wales and 

Cornwall. 

686 IT Pope Canon. 

686 Ceadwalla King of Wessex subdues Sussex and Kent. 

687 II Pope Scrgius. 

690 Pepin Herist«;l, Maire du Palais, defeats Thierry, and acquires tha 

chief power in France. 
692 Chris III. King ef France. 

694 Justinian II. dethroned, mutilated, and banished by Loonthis. 

695 Gildeberl III. King of France. 



CHRONOLOGICIL TABLE. 493 

A.D. 

635 Lcontius Emperor of the East. Dethroned and mutilated bf 
697 Apsimar or Tiberius Empeiui of the East. 
699 The Saracens defeated by John the Patrician. 
700 

The Saracens again defeated with great slaughter bj Heraclius, brother 

of Tiberius. 
701 TT Pope John VI. 
704 Justinian escapes from prison, defeats Tiberius, and is restored to tho 

throne. 

707 Justinian II. defeated by the Bulgarians. 

708 II Pope Sisinnius. 

IT Pope Constantine. 

, 711 Philippicus Bardanes Emperor of the East. 

Dagobert III. King of France. 

;i3 Anastasius II. Emperor of the East. 

Spain conquered by the Saracens under Muca, the general of tho 

Caliph Walid. 
714 IT Pope Gregory II. 

Tiieodosius Emperor of the East. 

Charles Martel, Maire du Palais, governs all France for 26 years. 

716 Childeric II. King of France. 

Leo (the Isurian) Emperor of the East. 

720 Omar II. besieges Constantinople without success. • 

Thierry IV. King of France. 

726 Leo forbids the Worship of Images, which occasions a great rebellion 
of his subjects. The Pope defends the practice. 

728 Leo orders Pope Gregory to be seized and sent to Constantinople; 

but the order is frustrated, and Leo confiscates the Imperial Do- 
mains of Sicily and Calabria. 

729 The Saracens ravage Gallia Narbonnensis. 

731 IT Pope Gregory III. 

732 Charles Martel defeats the Saracens between Tours and Poictiers. 

736 Leo persecutes the Monks. 

737 Death of Pelagius, who preserved the Christian Monarchy in Asturia. 

740 The Duchy of Spoleto seized by the Normans. Recovered by tho 

Pope. 

741 IT Pope Zachary. 

742 Childeric III. King of France. 

Constantine (Copronymus) Emperor of the East. An enemy to 

images and saint worship. 

743 He defeats and puts to death Artabazdus, who had seized Constan- 

tinople. 
745 He destroys the fleet of the Saracens. 
749 The Race of the Abassidse become Caliphs of the Saracens. 

751 Pepin {le Bref) King of France, founder of the second or Carlovitm 

gian Race. 

752 IT Pope Stephen III. 

753 Astolphus King of the Lombards erects the Dukedom of Ravenna, 

and claims from the Pope the Dukedom of Rome. 

754 Pope Stephen requests the assistance of Pepin against the Lombards. 

Pepin invades Italy, and strips Astolphus of his new possessions, con- 

ferring them on the Pope as a temporal sovereignty. 

Almanzor Caliph of the Saracens, a great encourager of learning. 

756 Desidcrius, or Dider, proclaimed King of the Lombards, with tho 

Pope's consent. 
.^ Abdalrahman I. takes the title of King of Cordova, and is tho foundei 
of tho splendid dominion of the Moors in Spain 

Tt 



404 CHRONOLOGICAL TAfiLB. 

AD. 

757 U Pope Paul I. renews the alliance with DeaideriuB. 

7r>l) If Pope Stephen III. auarrola with Desiderius. 

702 Almanzor builds Uagdat, and makes it the seat of the Empire of the 

Caliphs. 
767 The Turks ravage Asia Minor. 
7t)d Charles {the Great) and Carloman, Kings of France. 

M Pope Stephen IV. 

770 Contitantine dissolves the Monanteries in the East 
772 Charlemagne sole Monarch of France. 

He makes war against the Saxons. 

H Pope Adrian I. 

774 Charlemagne defeats Desideriiis, and puts nn end to the kingdom of 

the Lombards, which had subsisted 206 years. 

775 Leo IV. Emperor of the East. 

776 Battle of Roncezvalles between the Christians and Moors in Spam, 

where Rolando is killed. 
779 Charlemagne conquers Navarre and Sardinia. 
781 Constaiitine (Porphyrogenitus) Emperor of the East. 

Irene, Empress, is Regent in her son's minority, and keeps him in 

entire subjection. 

She re-establishes the worship of images. 

785 Charlemagne subdues the Saxons. 

Haroun Alraschid Caliph of the Saracens. 

He invades and ravages a part of the Empire. 

786 Consta^ine assumes the government of the Empire, and imprieone 

his mother. 

787 The Danes first land in England. 

The seventh General Council, or second of Nice. 

788 Irene puts to death her son Constantine, and is proclaimed so.e Em- 

press. 

793 Irene proposes to marry Charlemagne, which being disapproved by 

her subjects, she is dethroned, and confined to a monastery. 

Nicephorus Emperor of the East. 

794 Charlemagne defeats and extirpates the Huns. 

II Pope Leo III. 

797 The Saracens ravage Cappadocia, Cyprus, Rhodes, &c. 

Nicephorus associates his son Saturacius in the Empire. 

800 

New Empire of the West. Charlemagne crowned Emperor t 

Rome. 
807 Haroun Alraschid courts the alliance of Charlemagne. 
811 Michael (Curopalates) Emperor of the East. 

813 Leo (the Armenian) Emperor of the East. 

Almamon, Caliph of the Saracens, a great encourager of learning. 

814 Lewis (le Debonnaire) Emperor of France. 

816 The Eastern Empire ravaged by Earthquakes, Famine, Conflagra> 

tions, &c. 
PIG U Pope Stephen V. 
S17 U Pope Pascal I. 

- Lewis (le Deb.) divides the Empire among his sons. 

821 Michael (Balbus or the Stammerer) Emoeror of the East. 
824 IT Pope Eugene II. 

627 22ort)fCt unites the kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy. BegiDniog 
or the kingdom of England. 

f Pope Valentine 

828 Gregory IV. 

829 Thiophilug Emperor of the 



eHRONOLOCIICAl. TABLE. 4m 

A. D 

638 iStiirltoOlf King of England. 

— Tlie Scots under Kenneth entirely subdue the Picts. 

840 LOTHj]RWS Emperor of Genxi^ny. 
Charles {the Bald) King of France. 

841 Loiharius defeated by his two brothers in the kattle of Font«nU| tud 



842 LEWIS (of Bavaria) Emperor of Germany. 
Michael HI. Emperor of the East. 

843 The Normans plunder the city of Rouen. 

844 H Pope Sergius III. 

845 The Normans plunder Hamburgh, and penetrate into Germany. 

847 % Pope Leo IV. 

848 The Venetian Fleet destroyed by the Saracens. 

851 II Pope Joan supposed to have filled the Papal chair for two years. 

Basilius associated Emperor of the Past. 

855 LEIVIS II. Emperor of Germany. 

857 iSti)eltJaltr and |Hti)eltJtrt Kings of England. 

858 11 Pope Nicholas I. 

666 2Hti)elreTJ King of England. 

667 The Danes ravage England. 

- Basilius sole Emperor of the East. 

- "IT Pope Adrian II. 

- Potius, Patriarch of Constantinople, excommunicates Pope Adrian. 
372 ^liVtti (the Great) King of England. 

% Pope John VIII. 

875 CHARLES (the Bald) Emperor of Germany. 

877 LEIVIS (the Stammerer) Emperor of Germany and King of France, 

879 Lewis TIL and Carloman, Kings of France. 

The kingdom of Aries begins. 

880 CHARLES (the Gross) Emperor of Germany and King of France. 

llavagers of the Normans in France. 

882 IT Pope Marinus. 

884 IT Pope Adrian III. 

886 Leo (the Philosopher) Emperor of the East. 

The University of Oxford founded by Alfred. 

887 ARNOLD, Emperor of Germany. 

The Normans besiege Paris, which is gallantly defended by Bishop 

Goselin and Count Eudes. 

888 Eudes or Odo King of France. 

890 Alfred the Great composes his Code of Laws, and divides England 

into Counties, Hundreds, and Tithings. 

891 IT Pope Formosus. 

896 IT Pope Stephen VII. 

897 IT Pope John IX. 

898 Charles III. {the Simple) King of France. 
900 

IT Pope Benedict IV. 

LEWIS IV. Emperor of Germany. 

901 IStJtOartr (the Eider) succeeds Alfred as King of England 

904 IT Pope Leo V. 

905 IT Pope Sergius III. 

911 CONRAD I. Emperor of Germany. 

Constantine IX. Emperor of the East. 

912 The Normans are established in Normandy under Rollo. 

913 IT Pope Anastasiua. 

914 IT Pope Landon. 

915 Congtantine and Romanus Emperon of the Emc. 



«ge CitttONOLOOICAL TABLt 

AD. 

915 H Pope John X. ., ^. j .u »i»— 

- The Univerwty of Cambridge founded by Edwwd the El*». 
920 //£A*« F (the Fowler) Emperor of Germiny. 

923 Rudolph King of France. 
oi'> ^t1)Clfltan King of England. 
- V. Pope Leo VI. 
.'^> fl Pope Stephen VIII. 
yai ir Pope John XI. 
936 OTIIO (the Great) Emperor of Germany. 

U Pope Leo VII. 

Leiois IV. (d'Outremer) King of Frmce. 

9:?9 H Pope Stephen IX. 

940 Howel-Dha, King of Wales, an eminent Lawyer. 

941 IgtJmUntr I. Kin- of England. 
943 H Pope Marinus XIII. 

946 IT Pope Agapet. 

943 IStJrrt King of England. 

954 Lotharius King of France. 

955 IStltOS King of England. 

956 H Pope John XII. 

959 Ronianus II. Emperor of the Eait. 

IStrgcir King of England. 

963 H Pope Leo VIII. 

Nicephorus Phocus Emperor of the Eait. 

964 Otho the Great conquers Italy. 

965 H Pope John XIII. 

967 Antioch recovered from the Saracens by Wicephotu*. 
909 John Zemisses Emperor of the East. 

972 t Pope Benedict VI. 

973 OTHO If. Emperor of Germany. 

974 H Pope Boniface VII. 

975 U Pope Benedict VII. 

Basiliiis and Constantine X. Emperors of the Eajt 

97G I5tJtoarTl II- King of England. 
978 iitijClrrtl II. King of England. 

983 OTIIO III. Emperor of Germany. 

984 H Pope John XIV. 
986 IT Pope John XV. 

Leicis V. {le Faineant) King of France. 

Hugh Capet, King of France Jounder of the Third K*ee ^ IM 

kings. , 1 • 17 

901 The Arabic numeral Ciphers first introduced into fcurope. 
9<)6 Robert {the li'ise) King of France. 

U Pope Gregory V. 

991) TI Pope Sylvester II. 

1000 

1002 HE^VAJKff. Emperor of Germany. r p«-i.«^ 
Great Massacre of the Danes by Ethelrcd Ring of En§|tmL 

1003 \\ Pope John XVI. 

H Pope Joim XVII. 

1004 V Pope John XVIII. 

UMJ5 Churches first built in the Gotlwc <Tle. 
1009 H Pope Scrgitis IV. 

1012 H P«.|)e ncncdin VIII. , r. i j 

1013 The l)ancs, under Sueno, gel possession of England. 

1015 The Manichean Doctrines prevalent in France an4 Italy. 

1016 iSlJmUntr U- (ironside) King of England. 



tHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. *tW 

A. D. ^ .. 

1016 Six Battles foaght with the Danes under Canute in Englsad. 

1017 CanUU the Dane (the Greats King of England. 

1018 The Worinans invade Italy. 
1024 IT Pope John XIX. or XX. 

— CONRAD II. (tlie Salic) Emjperor of Germany^ 
. 025 Musical Characters invented by Guido Aretino. 
1028 Romanus Argyrus Emoerorofthe East. 
1031 Henry I. King of France. 

1033 II Pope Benedict IX. 

1034 Michael IV. Emperor of the East. 

1036 Jl^arOltr II. (Harefoot) King of England. 

1039 HE.YRY III. Emperor of Germany. 

Canute II. or Jj^aV^itanUtt King of England. 

1040 Macbeth usurps the Throne of Scotland by the murder of Duncan. 

1041 i^t(U)attf III. (the Confessor) King of England, restores the Sax- 

on line. 
Michael (Calaphales) Emperor of the East. 

1042 Constantine (Monomachus) Emperor of the East. 

1043 The Turks, under Tangrolipix, subdue Persia. 

1045 If Pope Gregory VI. 

1046 IT Pope Clement II. 

1048 U Pope Damasus II. 

1049 IF Pope Leo IX. the first Pope who maintained a regular army. 

1054 Theodora Emperor of the East. 

Pope Leo IX. taken prisoner by the Normans. 

1055 U Pope Victor II. 

The Turks take Bagdat, and overturn the Empire of the Caliphs. 

1056 HEJVRYIV. Emperor of Germany. 

1057 iVl alcolm III. (Canmore) King of Scotland, 

Isaac (Comnenus) Emperor of the East. 

H Pope Stephen X. 

1058 U Pope Nicholas II. 

r The Saracens driven out of Sicily by Robert Guiscard the Norman. 

1059 Constantine XII. (Ducas) Emperor of the East. 

1060 Philip I. King of France. 
lOCl IT Pope Alexander II. 

1065 The Turks take Jerusalem from the Saracens. 

1066 fl^tirOltJ II. King of England reigned nine months. 

3ifc*lllCattX (the Conqueror) King of England. 

1068 Romanus Diogenes Emperor of the East. 

Edgar Atheling seeks refuge in Scotland. 

1068 3Iargaret, sister of Edgar Atheling, married to Malcolm King of Scot- 
land. 

1070 The Feudal Law introduced mto England. 

1071 Michael Ducas Emperor of the East. 
1073 !T Pope Gregory VII. 

1076 The Emperor Henry IV. excommunicated and deposed by the Popei 

1078 Nicephorus (Boton) Emperor of the East. 

1079 Doomsday-book begun by William the Conqueror. 
1081 Alexius I. (Comnenus) Emperor of the East. 

Henry IV. Emperor besieges Rome. 

1034 He is re-crovvned Emperor of Germany. 
1086 1i Pope Victor III. 

(067 f Pop« Urban XL 



4^ CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D h 

1087 S^iUfam II. (Rufus) King of England. 
IOJ3 St. Margaret Uuucn of dcoUund died. 

~- Lloiiald Bano King of Scotland. 

1003 Duncan II. King of Scotland. 

riie first Crusade to the Holy Land. Peter the Hermit. 

10'J8 riic Crusaders take Antiuch. 

fl^dgar King of Scotland. 

1 09!) Jeriisalini taken by Godfrey of Boulogne. The Knighta of St. John 
instiiutHd. 

H Pope Pascal J I. ^ 

1100 

l^nXVV I. (Beauclerc) King of England. 

I lO'J Guiscaruof Normandy takes the title of King of Naplcf. 
1104 Baldwin Kin^ of Jerusalem lakes Ptoleinais. 
1100 HE.yRY y. Emperor of Germany. 

1107 Alexander I. King of Scotland. 

i IMS Lewis VI. {le. Gros) King of France. 

1118 ^ Pi»p« Gelasins II. 

Tiie order of Knights Tenfiplars instituted. 

John (Comnetius) Emperor of the East. 

Iir.) !i Pope Calixtus If. 

11-34 David I. King of Scotland, 

li Pope Hunorins 11. 

tl-2."i LOTIURIUS If. Emperor of Gcrmauy. 

IISO V, Po])(i Innocent II. 

U:^ <StCp))^U King of England. 

1137 Lewis Vll. {le Jeune) King of France. Married to Eleanor of Gwi- 
enne. 

The Pandects of the Roman Law discovered at Amafphi. 

il'SS CUyiLiD III. Emperor of Germany. 

The Scots, under David I., dcfeated'by the English in the battle of the 

Standard. 
113!) Alpln>nso I. King of Portugal rescues his kingdom from the Saracens. 

1140 The Canon Law first introduced into England. 

1141 Stephen King of En<rland taken prisoner in the battle of Lincoln by 

the troops of .Alatilda. 

1143 He recovers his kingdom. 
• II Pope Caelestinus II. 

Maiaicl (^Oomnenus) Emperor of the Ea«t. 

1144 !T Pope Lufius 11. 

1145 T Pope Eu^'ene in. 

1147 The sec(md Crusade excited by St. Bernard. T 

1 1.'>0 The study of the Civil Law revived at Bologna. 
1 lol The Canon Law is collected by Gratian. a Monk of Bologna. 
11.j2 FREDERICK 1. (Barharossa) Emperor of Germany. 

1153 Malcolm IV. King of Scotland. 

tr Pope Anastasius IV. 

Treaty of Winchester. Compromise between King Stephen and 

Prince Henry. 

1154 JijtnVP H- (PInntagenet) King of England. 

II Pope Adrian IV. 

——- The )>arties of the Guelphs and Ghibellinet disturb Italy. 

1157 The Bank of Venice instituted. 

► 158 Interview betw«ien Henry II. and Malcohn IV. at Carlifle. » 

1169 T Pope Alexander III. o4 



CHAOKIOLOGICAL TABLE. 499 

A.D. 

11(10 The Albigenses maintain heretical doctrines. 

1164 Institution of the order of the Teutonic Knights ki Gennany> 

T. Becket condemned by the Council of Clarendon. 

1165 William (the Lion) King of Scotland. 

1171 T. Becket murdered at Canterbury. 

1172 Conquest of Jreland by Henry II 

1180 Philip Augustus King of France. 

1181 Alexius II. (Comnenus) Emperor of the East. 
1183 Tl Pope Lucius III. 

Andronicus (Comnenus) Emperor of the East. 

1185 TI Pope Urban III. 

Isaac Angelas Emperor of the East. 

1187 H Pope Gregory VIII. 

The city of Jerusalem taken by Saladin. 

1188 TI Pope Clement III. 

1180 litCfiartr I. (Cocur de Lion) King of England. 

The third Crusade under Richard I. and Philip Augustus. 

1190 HEJVRV VI. Emperor of Germany. 

1191 IT Pops Cselcstinus III. 

1192 Richard I. defeats Saladin in the battle of Ascalon. 

Guy of Lusignan King of Jerusalem. 

1195 Alexius Angclus (the Tyrant) Emperor of the East. 

1198 PHILIP Emperor of Germany. 

IT Pope Innocent III. 

1199 ^OiVn King of England. 
1200 

1202 Tlie fourth Crusade sets out from Venice. 

Constantinople taken by the French and Venetians. 

1203 Alexius and Murbzuphlus Emperors of the East. 

1204 Baldwin I. Emperor of Constantinople, and TheodorC I. 

caris) Emperor of Nicsea. 

The Inquisition established by Pope Innocent IIL 

1206 Henry Emperor of Constantinople. 

1208 OTHO 11^. Emperor of Germany. 

London incorporated, obtains a charter for electing a Mayor and 

Magistrates. 
1210 Crusade against the Albigenses, under Simon de Montfbrt. 
1212 FREDERICK II. Emperor of Germany. 

1214 Alexander II. King of Scotland. 

1215 Magna Charta signed by King John. 

1216 fl^tnVS ill. King of England. 

Peter and John Ducas Emperors of the East. 

1219 Robert Emperor of the East. 

Damietta taken by the Crusaders 

1223 Lewiy VIII. King of France. 

1226 IT Pope Honorius III. 

St. Lewis IX. King of France. 

1227 IT Pope Gregory IX. 

Gengiskan and the Tartars overrun the Empire of the Saracens. 

1228 Baldwin 11. French Emperor of Constantinople. 
1234 The Inquisition committed to the Dominican Mooka. 
1237 Russia brought under subjection by the Tartars. 
1241 IT Pope Cslestinus IV. 
1243 IT Pope Innocent IV. 
1248 Th« fifth Cnirade under St. L«wu. 



800 Chronological tablb. 

AD. «^ 

lezsnder HI. King of Scotland. 
ViTA CU.yR.-ID ly. Emperor of Germany. 

1254 H Pope Alexander IV. 

Interregnum in the Empire of Germany, from the death of Conrad IV. 

in 1254, to the election of Rodolph in 1273. 

1255 Theodore II. (Lascaris) Emperor of NicEBa. 

1258 BaL'dat taken by the Tartars. End of the Empire of the Saracens. 

1259 John (L'scaris) Emperor of Nicaea. 

i2(X) Michael (PiUseologus) Emperor of Nicaea. 

The Flagellants preach Baptism by Drood. *"" 

i2Gl H Pope Urban IV. ^*' 

The Greek Emperors recover Constantinople from the French. 

12G3 The Norwegians invade Scotland, and are defeated by Alexander HI 

In the battle of Largs. 
1264 U Pope Clement IV. 

The Deputies of Boroughs first summoned to Parliament in England. 

Henry HI. of England taken prisoner in the battle of Lewes. 

1285 Charles Count of Anjou King of Sicily. 

1270 Philip HI. {the Bold) King of France. 

1271 H Pope Gregory X. 

1272 lEtllSaVT) I. (Longshanks) King of England. 

1273 RODOLPH (of Hapsburg) Emperor of Gennany, first of the Austri- 

an Family. 

1276 IT Pope Innocent V. 

U Pope Adrian V. 

H Pope John XXI 

1277 H Pope Nicholas III. 

1281 11 Pope Martin IV. 

1282 The Sicilian Vespers, when 8,000 French were massacred. 

1283 Andronicus I. (Palaeologus) Emperor of the East. 

The conquest of Wales by Edward I. 

1285 IT Pope Honorius IV. 

Philip IV. {the Fair) King of France. 

1286 irlargaret (of Norway) Queen of Scotland. 
1288 IT Pope Nicholas IV. 

121)0 Intertegnum in Scotland for two years. Competition between Dcaee 

and Baliol for the crown, decided by Edwara I. 
1291 Ptolemais taken by the Turks. End of the Crusades. 

i292 John Baliol King of Scotland. 

.^DOLPHUS (of Nassau) Emperor of Gennany. 

IT Pope Caelestinus V. 

^293 From this year there is a regular succession of English Parliaments. 

1294 IT Pope Boniface VIII. 

1205 Michael Andronicus Emperor of the East. 

12U6 Interregnum in Scotland for eight years. Sir W^illiam Wallace nobly 

supports the liberty of his country, defeats the English at Sterling 

and drives them out of the kingdom. 
1298 Wallace chosen Regent of Scotland, defeated at Falkirk. 

ALBERT I. (of Austria) Emperor of Germany. 

The present Turkish Empire begins under Ottoman in Bithynia. 

1300 

1301 Quarrel between Philip the Fair and Pope Boniface VTH. 

1302 Comyn and Eraser deleat the English thrice in one day. 

The Mariners Compass said to be discovered at Naples. 

1304 Wallace betrayed, delivered up, and put to death by Edwasd L 

1306 Robert I. (Bnic«) King of SeoUaad. 



i 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. SOI 

A.D. ;. « 

1307 The Establishment of the Swiss Republics. ^-/^ |N£f 

StJtDartJ II. King of England ^ 3L 

1308 HEyRY VII. Emperor of Germany. 

!i Pope Clement V. 

The seat of the Popes transferred to Avignon for seventy years. 

1310 Rhodes taken by the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. 

1311 Pierce Gaveston, favourite of Edward II., put to death. 

1312 The Knights Templars suppressed by Philip the Fair. 

1314 The Scots under Robert Bruce defeat the English under Edward IJ 

at Bannockbum. 
— LEWIS V. (of Bavaria) Emperor of Germany. 
Lttcis X. (Hutin) King of France. 

1315 John King of France. 

1316 !: Pope John XXII. 

Philip V\ {the Long) King of France. 

1320 Andronicus II. (Paleeologus) Emperor of the East. 

1321 Charles IV. {the Fair) King of France. 
1327 HtJtoart» III. King of England. 
ia& PhU^ VI. {of Valois) King of France. 

1329 David IT. King of Scotland. Randolph Earl of 3Iurray Regent. 

1331 The Teutonic Knights settle in Prussia. 

1332 Edward Baliol, assisted by Edward III., is crowned at Scone Kin^ of 

Scots, but is soon driven out of the kingdom. 

1333 Casimir III. (the Great) King of Poland.^ >^ 

1334 H Pof« Benedict XII. ^ - 

1340 Gunpowder invented by Swartz, a Monk of Cologne. 

Oil Painting invented by John Van Eyke. 

1341 John V. (Palaeologus) Emperor of the East. -^ 

John Cantacuzenos, his governor, usurps the throne. ',-• 

1342 IT Pope Clement VI. ' _ 

1346 Battle of Cressj- won by Edward III. and the Black Prince over tli* 

French. 

Battle of Durham, in which David II. of Scotland is taken prisoner. 

1347 CHARLES IV. Emperor of Germany. 

Cola Rienzi assumes the Government of Rome. 

1350 The Order of the Garter instituted by Edward HI. 

Peter (the Cruel) King of Castile. 

1351 John H. King of France. '*^ 

1352 r Pope Innocent VI. »• 

The Turks first enter Europe — 

1356 The Battle of Poictiers, in which John II. King of Franco is takeil^ 

prisoner, and afterwards brought to London. 
1362 H Pope Urban V. 

The Law-pleadings in England changed from French to English. J 

1346 Charles V. King of France. 

1370 T; Pope Gregorj- XI. 

- Robert II. King of Scotland. 

1377 The Seat of the Popes removed back from Avignon to Rome. 

iiiCf)artl II. King of England. 

Wicklitfe's Doctrines propagated in England. 

1378 The Schism of the double "Popes at Rome and Avignon begins and 

continues thirty-eight years. 

IT Pope Urban VI. of Rome 

H Pope Clement VII. of Avignon. 

1378 WEJiCESLAUS Emperor of Germany, deposed in 1400. 

1380 Charles VI. King of France. 

Tamerlane invades and subdues Chorassar. 

1381 Wat Tjrler's and Jack Straw's Insurrection in Englaod. -^ 



■ ■> I *^ ill I 



602 cfttoSoLOGiCAL TABLE. 

AD. ff A 

1381 Peace between Venice and Genoa. 

— - Bills of Exchange firHt used in England. 

}S [>,*?*'", ^"»"f/^ ^y !'•« *^"^''«'' i" ''•« d«f<^"ce of Calai.. 

FlL!e^. ''^' ^"^° "'^ Burgundy, succeeds to the Earldom of 
138G Tamerlane subdues Georgia 

IS^ ?''pi;:'B":!?:cr."x'"'""'"" ''"^^ <"°"p"" "■' °°"8'"'- 

1390 Robert III. king of Scotland 

!•«« J!!'''!^^^ H; (Pal^ologus) Emperor of the East. 

\^i T^ 7^P^ k'^ ^?'*^. ?^P^ discovered bv the Portuguese. 

1394 Ihe Jews banished from France by Charles VI 

II Pope Benedict XIII. ^ 

1395 Sigismund King of Hungary defeated by Bajazet I. 

\^^ l^rntTlV ^"'' P""' "'' il-<l-ostan/and /akes Delhi. 

13<)9 mtnVS IV. King of England. 

1400 

- Baldf of^H^ iT *""»",?' ^-" Tamerlane in the battle of Angoria. 

1403 Ba o nf if ""r "'"' '" "^'"^'^ '''« Scots are defeated. ^ 
i^a Ba«'e of Shrewsbury, in which Hotspur is killed. 

1404 II Pope Innocent VII. 

1405 Death of Tamerlane. 

1406 James I. King of Scotland. 

II Pope Gregory XII. 

- " Alei'anie^V^^ ^^"^^ ^^^^°^^ '" '^^^-'^ 

— f po,^ iohnTxii?^^"'^"'"^^'^') ^-p-- ^' «-™-y 

1411 5/G/5.tft/JVZ> Emneror of Germany. 

7^^ wi^i^^v '^ "^^'- "^"^^^^^ ^" Scotland founded. 

Ji 2 ^^"^^.Y; ^'"« -^ England. 

1414 Council of Constance, in which two Popes were deposed, and Pop- 

1410 Henry V. defeats the French at Aglncourt. 

bu JU."'' '^"^""^"^^ ^y ^''^ Council of Constance for Hereey and 

-— Paper first made from linen rags. 

1420 'I he Island of Madeira discovered by the Portuguese. 

]f>> . Vr (''^''•^"'"g"^) Emperor of the East 

14-W Amurath besieges Con.stantinople 

l^enrS VI. King of England. 

Charles VII. King of France 

U25 Th"^'rouJt of S '' ^""'" ^t'T"^ f'"""' ^"P''^'^^ ^y '^^ English. 
142S J nn T A .^'%*" '[' Scotland instituted by James I. " 

1431 IF Pope Eugene IV. 

,"7;:: S**? ^'^ *''® Medici family at Florence. 

143G Pans recovered by the French from the English. 

1437 James 11. King of Scotland 

J1:S -^^^^^^T- //. Emneror of Germany. 

14J9 Reunion of the Greek and Latin Churches 

14^0 lR%DP%'?ri"nrv''''' '^'^^^''it'^^ *" ^>ance. 
MW tRLDERICK III. Emperor of Germany 

Inrenfon of the art of Printing by Johu Guttenberg at 8tr«.barf. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE f^OS 

A.D. 

1444 Ladislaus King of Hungary killed in battle with the Turks. 
445 Constantine (Palaeologus) Emperor ot' the East. 
144(5 Great Inundation of the sea in Holland. 
1447 U Pope Nicholas V. 

Rise of the Sforza Family at Milan. 

1453 Constantinople taken by the Turks Extinctiow of the EifTXRV 
Empire ok the Romans. 

End of the English government in France. 

1455 H Pope Calixtus III. 

Battle of St. Albans, where Henrv VI. is taken prisoner by the Dakt 

of York. 

1458 Tf Pope Pius II. (JEneas Sylvius.) 

1459 The art of Engraving on copper invented. 

1460 J ames III. King of Scotland. 

Rattle of Wakefield, in which the Duke of York is killed. 

1461 Htrtoartr IV. King of England. 

Lewis XI. King of France. 

1470 Henry VI. restored to the throne of England. 

1471 Batt!«5 of Barnet, where VVar\vick is killed. Battle of Tewksburj, 

where the Lancastrians arc totally defeated. 

Edward IV. restored. Prince Edward of Lancaster basely murdere*' 

by Clarence and Gloucester. Death of Henry VI. 

!F Pope Sixlus IV. 

1474 The Cape de Verd Islands discovered by the Portuguese. 

1475 Edward IV. invades France, Peace of Pecquigni purchased by \.\e 

French. 
1479 Ferdinand and Isabella unite the kingdoms of Arragon and Castile. 

Russia freed from subjection to the Tartars by John Basilwitz. 

1483 Charles VIII. King of France. 

IStrtOattl V. King of England. Duke of Glcucester Protector. 

Edward V. and his brother murdered. 

3£llCt)attr III. King of England. 

1481 H Poi)e Innocent VIII. 

1485 Battle of Bosworth, in which Richard HI. is killed. 
— ?l^tni'g VII. King of England, first of the house of Tudor. Union 
of the houses of York and Lancaster. 

1488 JimcsIV. King of Scotland. 

1491 Granada taken by Ferdinand and Isabella. End of the kingdom of 

the Moors in Spain. 
1402 U Pope Alexander VI. (Borgia.) 
Hispaniola and Cuba discovered by Christopher Columbus. 

1493 MAXIM I LUX I. Emperor of Germany. 

1494 E-vpeditidfl of Charles VIII. into Naples. 
Algebra first known in Europe. 

America discovered by Columbus. 

1497 The Portuguese, under Vasco de Garca, double the Cape of Good 

Hope and sail to the East Indies. 

1498 Lewis XII. king of France. 

Savanorala burnt by Pope Alexander VI. for preaching against th« 

vices of the clergy. 

1499 Lewis XII. takes possession of the Milanese. 

Sebastian Cabot lands in North America. 

1500 

Brazil discovered by the Portuguese. 

— ^ Maximilian divides Germany into six Circles, and adds four mor« in 

1512. 
1503 U Pope Pius HI. 



504 CHKONULOGICAL TABLE 

AD j^tj^ 

1503 IF Pope Julius II. ^iJJ 

Dattlu of Cerizolea, in which the French lose Naples. 

ir.Ul Pliilij) I. Iviiij» of Spain. — I5(KJ Jane his Queen. ^ 

ir)()7 MafJu^asrar aiscovered hy the Portug^iiese. 

I .")()-' Lea<:iit-' dC Cainbruy against the Venulians. 

LVW |4jCnr^) VIII. Kin^r of England. 

Huttl«! ut Agnadello, Alay 14. 

1511 Cuba conquered by the Spaniards. 

J513 Battle of Flodden, fatal to the Scots 

•! ames V. King of Scotland. — ; 

- - *' Pt)j)e Leo X. 

1515 Fratuis I. King of France. '* • 

IMG Charles I. (Emperor Charles V.) King of Spain. 

Barbarossa seizes the Kingdom of Algiers. 

1517 The Reformation in Germany begun bv Luther. 

The Turks put an end to the reign of tl)e Mamelukes ii Cgypt. 

1518 Loo X condemns Luther's Doctrines. 
I5iy CHARLES V. Emperor of Germany. 

Fernando Cortez engages in the conquest of Mexico. 

1520 Sweden and Denmark united. 

Massacre at Siockliolra by Christicrn II. and Archbisho/ rroUo. 

1521 H Pope Adrian VI. 

Gustavus Vasa King of Sweden. 

Ct>rtez completes the conquest of Mexico. 

1522 The first Voyage round the World performed by a ship « Magellan*! 

sqiwdron. 

1523 Solyman the Magnificent takes Belgrade. 

11 Pope Clement VII. * 

1524 Sweden and Denmark embrace the Protestant faith. 

1525 Battle of Pavia, in which Francis I. is taken prisoner by ni>\rleii V. 
152ti Treaty of Madrid between Charles V. and Francis I., wfM»H the UrfMi 

is set at liberty. — 

1527 Rome taken and plundered by Charles V. 

Pizarro and Dalmagro invade the Empire of Peru 

1528 Revolution of Genoa by Andrea Doria. 

Gustavus Eriscon crowned King of Sweden. 

1529 Diet of Spires against the Huguenots, then first termed F'e*<MUnt«. 

Peace of Cambray, August 5 

1530 The League of Smalcald between the Protestants. 

1531 Michael Servetus burnt for heresy at Geneva. 

1532 The Treaty of Nuremberg, August 2. 

The Court of Session in Scotland new modeled by James \ 

153-1 The Reformation in England. 

U Pope Paul III. 

Barbarossa seizes the Kingdom of Tunis. *• 

Jack of Leyden heads the Anabaptists at Munster. 

1535 The Society of the Jesuits instituted by Ignatius Loyola. 

Expedition of Charles V. against Tunis. 

1538 Treaty of Nice between Ciiarles V. and Francis 1. 

1540 Dissolution of the Monasteries in England by Henry VIII 

1542 illar^ Queen of Scotland. 

1544 The French defeat the troops of Charles V. in the battle of C» ^■oi«s. 

The treaty of Crepi. 

1545 The Council of Trent begins, which continued eighteen years. 
154'1 Cardinal Beaton, of St. Andrew's, assassinated. 

1547 Fresco's Conspiracy at Genoa. 

- The Battle of Mulberg, in which the Protestants are defeated, N«d ih* 

Elector of Saxony taken prisoner. 

- ]5)JtDarTy VI. Kins of England. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. WQ 

A.D. 

1547 Henry II. King of France. 

1548 The Interim granted by Charles V. to the ProtMtanti. 
1550 ir Pope Julius III. 

*552 The Treaty of Passau between Charles V. and the Elector of 5axon j, 

for the Lstablishment of Lutheranism. 
1553 If^arS Queen of England. 
■ Lady Jane Grey beheaded. 

1555 TI Pope Marcellus II. 

IT Pope Paul IV. 

Many Bishops burnt in England by Mary. 

1556 FERDmSND I. Emperor of Germany. 
Philip II. King of Spain. 

1557 Philip II. defeats the French at St. Quintin. 

1558 IHUjatJetJ Queen of England, 

1559 H Pope Pius IV. 

. Francis II. King of France. 

Treaty of Catteau-Carabresis. 

1560 Charles IX. King jof France. 

Conspiracy of Amboise formed by the party of Conde aj^ainit that of 

Guise. Beginning of the Civil Wars in France. 

The Reformation completed in Scotland by John Knox. 

1561 Mary Queen of Scots arrives in Scotland nrom Franco. ,|^ 

1562 Battle of Dreux. Victory of the Guises over Conde* 
1564 MAXIMILIAN II. Emperor of Germany. 

1566 IT Pope Pius VI. 

Revolt of the Netherlands from Philip II. 

15C7 The Duke of Alva sent by Philip to the Netherlands. 

•! ames VI. King of Scotland. 

1568 Mary Queen of Scots flees to Englaj d for protection. 

Philip II. puts to death his son Don Carlos. 

1509 The Earl of Murray, Regent of Scot land, assassinated b;^ Hamilton. 

The battles of Jarnac and Moncontc ur in France, in wmch the Prot* 

estants are defeated. 

1571 Naval Victory at Lepanto, where the ; Turks are defeated by Don Jotai 

of Austria. 

1572 IT Pope Gregory XIII. 

The Massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 

1574 Henry III. King of France. 

Socinus propagates his opinions. 

Don Sebastian King of Portugal invades Africa. 

1576 RODOLPHUS //. Emperor of Germany. 

The Lfague in France formed against the Protestants. 

1579 Commencement of the Republic of Holland, by the union of Utrocht 

1580 Philip II. takes possession of Portugal. 

The World circumnavigarted by Sir Francis Drake. 

1582 The New Style introduced into Italy by Pope Gregory XIII., the 6tb 
of October being counted the 15tn. 

1584 William I. Prince of Orange murdered at Dolfl. 

Virginia discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh. 

1585 IT PopeSixtusV. 

1587 Mary Queen of Scots beheaded at Fotheringay. 

1588 Destruction of the Spanish Armada by the English. 

1589 Henry III. of France murdered by Jaquez Clement. 

Henry IV. {the Great's King of France. 

1590 The battle of Ivry, which ruins the league in France. 

IT Pope Urban VII. 

H Pope Gregory XIV. 

1591 The University of Dublin erected. 
If Pope Innocent IX, 

Uu ^ 



g^ CUHONOLOGICAL TAhUL 

AD. n^ 

1592 Presbyterian Church Government established in Scotland. n* 

U Pope Clement VII 1. 

1594 The Bank of Eni^lnnd incorporated. 

I5l<b Edict ol NantcH, tolerating tiio Protestants in France. 

Peace of Verins concluded between France and Spain. 

Philip III. Kin^ of Spain. 

Tyrone's rebellion in Ireland. 

1600 

Cowrie's Conspiracy in Scotland. 

The Earl of Essex beheaded. 

Tlie English East India Contpany established. 

1602 Decimal Arithmetic invented at Bruges. 

1603 J|<{inCSi I- King of Great Britain. Union of the crowns of Enf land 

and Scotland. 
i605 The Gunpowder Plot disco%'ered. 

IT Pope Paul V. 

1608 Galileo discovers the Satellites of Jupiter. 
— — Arminius propagates his opmions. 

1610 Henry IV. of France murdered by Ravaillac. 

LexcLS III. King of France. 

The Moors expelled from Spain by Philip III. 

Hudson's Bay discovered. 

1611 Baronets first created in England by James I. 

1612 MATTHIAS Emperor of Germany. 
1614 Logarithms invented by Napier. 

1616 Settlement of Virginia by Sir Walter Raleigh. 

1618 The Synod of Dort in Holland. 

1619 Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood by Dr. Harvej. 

FERDLYAAL II. Emp'^ror of Germany. 

^— — Vanini burnt at Thoulouse for Atheism. 

1620 The Battle of Prague, by which the Elector Palatine loses his ElfiO> 

torate. 

- The English make a settlement at Madras. 
— — Navarre united to France. 

1621 Philip IV. King of Spain. 

Batavia, in the I:iland of Java, built and settled by the Dutch. 

H Pope Gregory XV. 

1623 H Pope Urban VIII. 

1625 (tf^aVltn I- King of Great Britain. 

The Island of Barbadoes the first English settlement in tb« W«« 

Indies. 
IfJiG League of the Protestant Princes against the Emperor. 
1632 Gustavus Adolphus killed in the bat'tle of Lutzen. 

Christina Queen of Sweden. 

16."^ The French Academy instituted. 

Itj37 FERDIKAKD III. Emperor of Germany. 
1638 Hagdat taken by the Turks. 

The Solemn League and Covenant established in Scotland. 

1640 John Duke of Braganza recovers the kingdom of Portugal. 

1641 The Irish Rebellion, and Massacre of the Protestants, October 23. 

The Earl of Strafford beheaded. 

1642 Beginning of the Civil War in England. The battle of Edgahlll, 

October 23. 
1G43 Lcwii XIV. King of France. 

Ann of Austria llegent of France. 

Archbishop Laud condemned by the Commons, and beheaded. 

1644 11 Pope Innocent X. 

Revolution in Ch^na by the Tartar!. 

1645 Charles I. d^feate^l in liio bettio of Naseby. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLB. 907 

A.D. 

1648 The Peace of Westphalia. The Civil War of the Fronde at Paris. 

1649 Charles I. of England beheaded. 

Comnionweallh of England begins. 

1650 The Marmiis of Montrose put to death. 

- — Battle of Dunbar. Covenanters defeated by Cromwell. 

1651 The battle of Worcester won by Cromwell. 

1652 The first War between the English and Dutch. 

1654 End of the Commonwealth of England. Oliver Cromwell Lord Pro- 

tector. 

The English, under Admiral Penn, take possession of Jamaica. 

Christina Queen of Sweden resigns the Crown to Charles X. 

1655 ^ Pope Alexander VII. 

1658 LEOPOLD L Emperor of Germany. 

— — Richard Cromwell Lord Protector of England. 

1659 The Peace of the Pyrenees between France and Spain. 

1660 (tX^WCXtU II. King of Great Britain. Restoration of Monarchy. 

The Peace of Oliva between Sweden, Denmark, and Poland. 

1662 The Royal Society instituted in England. 

1663 Charter of Carolina, and a colony settled soon after. 
— — The French Academy of Inscriptions instituted. 

1664 The second Dutch War begins. 

1665 Charles II. King of Spain. 

Great Plague in London. 

1666 Great Fire in Lctidon. 

— — The Academy of Science instituted in France. 

■ Sabatei Levi, in Turkey, pretends to be the Messiah. 

1667 The Peace of Breda, which confirms to the English PemuiylTUiia, 

Now- York, and New-Jersey. 

IT Pope Clement IX. 

1668 The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1669 The Island of CandJa taken by the Turks. 

1670 IT Pope Clement X. 

1672 Lewis XIV. conquers great part of Holland. 

The De Witts put to death in Holland. 

1674 John Sobieski King of Poland. 

1676 TF Pope Innocent XI. 

1678 The Peace of Nimeguen, July 31. 

—— The Habeas Corpus act passed in England. '^ 

1679 The Long Parliament of Charles II. dissolved. 
1681 Peter the Great Czar of Muscovy. 

1683 Execution of Lord Russel, July 21. 

— — Execution of Algernon Sydney, December 7. 

— — The Siege of Vienna by the Turks raised by John Sobieski. 

1685 3^mt% II. King of Great Britain. 

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Lewis XIV. 

Duke of Monmouth beheaded. 

1686 The Newtonian Philosophy first published in England. 

The League of Augsburg against France. 

1688 Revolution in Britain. King James abdicates tne throne. Decern. 

her 23. 

1689 S32llUUam and j^at^ King and Queen of Great Britain. 

Episcopacy abolished in Scotland by King William. 

H Pope Alexander VIII. 

1690 Battle of the Boyne, July 1. 

1691 II Pope Innocent XII. 

1692 Battle of La Hocue, May 19. 

— — The Massacre of Glencoe in Scotland, January 31. O. S. 

— — Battle of Steedkirk. King William defeated by Luxemburg, July 24 

•-— Hanover made the ninth Electorate of the Empire. 



008 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

^^ a ^4^ 

lti95 Namur taken by King William, June 25. ■•1 *»rfT Ml 

icy? Peace of Riswtck concluded, September 11 

Charles XII. King of Sweden. 

IU1J9 Peace of Carlovjtz concluded, January 26. 
1700 

IMiilip V. King of Spain. 

^i IV)pe Clement XI. 

1701 D«'atli of Janifs II. at St. Gennain'a. 

1702 ^UltC Queen of Giout Britain. War Hgainst France and S^n- 

The English and Dutch destroy (he French Fleet at Vigo. 

The French send colonies to the Mississippi. 

1703 Gibraltar taken by Admiral Rooke, July 24. 

1704 Battle of Blenheim. The French defeated by Marlborough and 

Prince Eugene, August 2. 
Peter the Great founds St. Peter.sburgh. 

1705 The Ei-'lish take Barcelona. 

JOSEPH J. Emperor of Germany. 

1706 Battle of Ramilies. The French defeated by the Duke of Marlbo* 

rougli, May 12. 
The Treaty of Union between England and Scotland, signed July 22 

1707 The battle of Almanza. The French and Spaniards, under the Duke 

of Berwick, defeat the allies, April 14. 

1708 Battle of Oudenarde. The French defeated by Marlborough and 

Eugene, June 30. 

Minorca taken by General Stanhope, September 18. 

1709 Battle of Pultowa. Charles XII. defeated by Czar Peter, June 30. 

Battle of Malplaquet. The French defeated by Marlborough and 

Eugene, September 11. 
1711 CHARLES VI. Emperor of Germany. 

1713 The Peace of Utrecht signed March 30. 

1714 CrCOCfit I. Elector of Hanover, King of Great Britain. 

1715 Lewis XV. King of France. 

Th« Rebellion of Scotland. Battle of Sheriff-muir, November 13. 

1716 Prince Eugene defeats the Turks at Peterwaradin. 

1718 Charlee XII. of Sweden killed at the siege of Froderickshall. 

1721 U Pope Innocent XIII. 

1724 IT Pope Benedict XIII. 

1725 Death of Peter the Great, Czar of Muscovy Catharine Empress. 

1726 Great Eaitliquake at Palermo, August 21. 

1727 (JSCOrflC II. King of Great Britain. 

1727 Treaty of Copenhagen between Great Britain and Denmark. 

The Spaniards besiege Gibraltar. May 20. 

1728 Treaty between Great Britain and Holland, IVIay 27. 

The Congress of Sois.<<on8, June 14. 

1729 Treaty of Seville between Great Britain, France, and Spain, Novem- 

ber 9. 

1730 H Pope Clement XII. 

Christian VI. King of Denmark. 

The Persians under Kouli-Khan defeat the Turks. 

1731 Treaty between Great Britain, the Emperor, and King of Spain, 

July 22. 

1733 The Jesuits exnelled from Paraguay, January. 

Frederick III. King of Poland. 

1734 Commercial Treaty between Great Britain and Russia, December 2> 

1735 The French defeat the Imperialists in Italy. 

1736 Peace between Spain and Austria. 

• Kouli-Khan fNadir-Schah) proclaimed King of Peraia, September 29. 

1737 War declarea between the Emperor and the Toriu, July «. 

1738 The Russians invade the Crimea. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 50^ 

A. 1). 

1739 Nadir-Schah conquers the greater part of the Mogul Empire. 

Treaty between Great Britain and Denmark. 

— — Peace between the Emperor and the Turks, August 21. 
— — Peace between Russia and the Turks, November. 

1740 Frederick III. (the Great) King of Prussia. 

U Pope Benedict XIV. 

War between Poland and Hungary. 

1741 War declared between Russia and Sweden. 

The Prussians masters of Silesia, October 20. 

1742 Peace between Austria and Prussia, June 11. 

Defensive Alliance between Great Britam and Prussia, November 18. 

CHARLES VII. (of Bavaria) Emperor of Germany. 

1743 Defensive Alliance between Great Britain and Russia, February. 

War in Germany between the British, Hungarians, French, and 

Austrians. 

The French defeated by the allies at Dettingen, June 6. 

1744 War declared in Great Britain against France, March 31. 
— — The King of Prussia takes Prague. 

Commodore Anson completes his Voyage round the World. 

1745 FRAJ^CIS I. (of Lorraine) Emperor of Germany. 

Quadruple Alliance between Britain, Austria, Holland, and Poland, 

January 3. 

The allied army defeated by the French at Fontenoy, April 30. 

Louisburg and Cape Breton taken by the British troops, June 6. 

The Rebellion breaks out in Scotland, July. 

Treaty of Dresden between Prussia, Poland, Austria, and Saxony, 

December 25. 

1746 Ferdinand VI. King of Spain. 

Frederick V. King of Denmark. 

■ ■ Count Saxe takes Brussels and Antwerp. 

Vieto^v of CuUoden, which outs an end to the Rebellion in Scotland, 

April Ij. 
— — Lorc?s Balmermo ana Kumarnock beheaded, August 18. 

Count Saxe defeats the aliies at Raucoux, October 11. 

Dreadful Earthquake at Lima in Peru, October 17. 

1747 Kouli-Khan murdered. Revolution in Persia. 

1748 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle between Great Britain, France, Spain, Aas 

tria, Sardinia, and Holland, October 7. 

1750 Joseph King of Portugal. 

Academy of Sciences founded at Stockholm. 

1751 Adolphus of Holstein King of Sweden. 

Peace between Spain and Portugal. 

1752 New Style introduced in Britain, September, 3 reckoned 14. 

1753 The British Museum established in Montague house. 

1754 Great Eruption of ^tna. 

Great Earthquake at Constantinople and Cairo, September 2. 

1755 Lisbon destroyed by an Earthquake, November 1, 

1756 War declared between Great ll'-itain and France, May 18. 

1757 The King of Prussia conquers Silesia. 

1758 IT Pope Clement XIU. 

1759 The French defeated by the allied army at Minden, August 1. 

Charles HI. King of Spain. 

The Jesuits expelled from Portugal, September 3. 

General Wolfe takes Quebec in Canada, September 17. 

1760 Montreal and Canada taken by the British, September 8. 

iiSfeOrfle in. King of Great Britain, October 25. 

17(32 Peter III. Emperor of Russia. 

• The Jesuits banished from France, August. 

—— Peace between Great Britain and France at Fontainebleau, Novem 
ber3. -^ i>i c^no^ii;^ i Tyv;^ uni • 

U U 2 - 



510 CHRONOLOGICAL lADLE. 

A.D. ^^-^ 

1763 Peace between Great Britain, France, and Spain, at Paria, F^Muar/IV* 

Catharine II. Empress of Russia. 

17ti4 StHiiislaus II. King of Poland. 

IJvron's Discoveries in the South Seaa. 

I7r»5 JOSEPH II. Enineror of Germany. 

17tk) Thti JesiiitM expelled from Bohemia and Denmark. 

Christian VII. King of Denmark. 

1767 The Jesuits expelled from Spain, Genoa, and Venice. 

Discoveries of Wallis and Carteret in the South Seaa. 

1768 Royal Academy of Arts established at London. 

The Jestyts expelled from Naples, Malta, and Parma. 

Bougainville's Discoveries in the South Seas. 

1769 IT Pope Clement XIV. 

Cook's first Discoveries in the South Seas. 

Corsica taken by the French, June 13. 

1770 Earthquake at St. Domingo. 

1771 Gusiavus III. King of Sweden. 

1772 Revolution in Sweden, August 19. 

Poland dismembered by Russia, Prussia, and Austria. 

1773 Cook's second Voyage and Discoveries. 

The Society of Jesuits suppressed by the Pope's bull. AugUkt 25. 

1774 Lewis XVI. King of France. 

1775 Battle of Bunker's Hill in North America, June 17. 

1776 ^ Pope Pius VI. 

The Americans declare their Independence, July 4. 

1777 Mary Queen of Portugal. 

Surrender of the British Army under Burgoyne at Saratoga, in liie 

state of New- York, October 17. 

1778 League between the French and Americans, October 30. 

1779 Peace between the Imperialists and Prussians, May 13. 

Great Eruption of Vesuvius, August 8. 

Siege of Gibraltar by the Spaniards, July. 

Captain Cook killed in the Island of Owyhee. 

1780 Great Riots in London on account of the Popish Bill, June 2. 
War declared between Great Britain and Holland, December 20. 

1781 Surrender of the British Army under Cornwallis to the Americans and 

French at Yorktown in Virginia, October 18. 

1782 Sir G. Rodney defeats the French fleet off Dominica, April 12. 

1783 Peace between Great Britain, France, and Spain, and the Independ 

ence of America declared, January 20. 

1784 Peace between Great Britain and Holland, May 24. 

1785 Treaty of Alliance between Austria, France, and Holland, Novem 

ber9. 

1786 Frederick IV. King of Pru8.«jia. 

1788 Defensive Alliance between England and Holland, April 25. 

1789 Selim III. Grand Seignior, April. 

George Washington first President of the United States, April. * 

The Bastille at Paris taken and destroyed, and the Governor mam 

cred, July 14. 

1790 Monastic Establishments suppressed in France, February 13. 

War commenced in India with Tippoo Sultan, May 1. 

LEOPOLD II. Emperor of Germany. 

1792 FRASCIS II. Emperor of Germany. 

Gu.stavus HI. King of Sweden assassinated by Ankerstrom, March 29. 

Gustavus IV. King of Sweden. Duke of Sudermania Regent in his 

minority. 

The Thuilleries attacked. The Kine and Queen of Frane« XA^ 

refuge in the National Assembly. The Swiss guard* mtflnorod by 
the populace, August 10. 

The Royil Family of France imprisoned in the Tempi*, Ayfiwl H. 



OHHONOLOGICAL TABLE. 011 

A.D. 

1792 A dreadful massacre of the state^prisoners at Paris, September 2, 3. 

The National Convention is constituted, the King deposed, and France 

declared a Republic, September 21. 

Savoy incorjporated with tlie French Republic, November 27. 

-"- Lewis X VL is brought to trial, and answers each article of accusation, 

December 14. 

1793 Lewis XVI. condemned to death by a majority of five voices, Janua- 

ry 17, and beheaded, January 21. 

Russia declares war against France, January 31. 

The French Convention declares war against England and Holland, 

February 1. 

Queen of France condemned to death and beheaded, October 15. 

1794 Robespierre, with his chief partisans, guillotined, July 28. 

1795 The Stadtholder takes refuge in England. Holland overrun by th« 

French, January. 
"-— Lyons bombarded, laid in ruins, and all its loyal inhabitants massacred. 
May. 

Lewis XVII. died in prison at Paris, June 8. 

The Cape of Good Hope taken by the British, September 16. 

Belgium incorporated with the French Republic, September 30. 

Stanislaus II. resigns the Crown of Poland. The kingdom divided 

between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, November 25. 

1796 The French overrun and plunder Italy. .. n |ij^| 

Death of Catharine II. Paul Emperor of Russia, November 17. 

1707 John Adams President of the United States, March 4. 

The Dutch Fleet beaten and captured by Admiral Duncan, Octo- 
ber II. 

•1798 The Papal Government suppressed by the French. The Pope qiiits 
Rome, February 26. 

Ireland in open rebellion. May, June, &c. 

Admiral Nelson destroys tiie French Fleet in the battle of the Nile, 

August 1. 

Tlie Swiss finally defeated, and their Independence abolished, Sep- 

tember 19. 
1799 Seringapatam taken by General Harris, and Tippoo Sultan killed, 
May 4. 

Death of Pope Pius VI., September. 

A Revolution at Paris. Bonaparte declared First Consul, Decern- 

ber 25. 
1800 

Union of Britain and Ireland. 

Bonaparte defeats the Austrians in the battle of Marengo in Italy, 

June 14. 

Armistice between the French and Austrians in Germany, July 15. 

The new Pope, Pius VII., restored to his government by the Emperor, 

July 25. 
Malta taken by the British, September 5. 

1801 First meeting of the Imperial Parliament of Britain and Ireland, 

January. 

Thomas Jefferson President of the United States, March 4. 

Death of Paul. Alexander I. Emperor of Rusf^ia, March 23 

Battle of Copenhagen, in which the Danes are defeated by Lord Nel- 

son, April tj. 

1802 The Catholic Religion re-established in France, March. 
Treaty of peace between Britain and France. 

— ^ The King of Sardinia resigns his crown to his brother, July. 

Bonaparte declared Chief Consul for life, Jul)r. 

War between France, and Germany, and Russia, in which th« Fnodk 

are successful. 

1803 War between Britain and France 



512 CUAONOLOGICAL TADLE. 

AD. 

1804 Emperor of Germany assumes the title of Emperor of Austria, A^f 

gust II. ^ 

Bonaparte crowned Emperor of Frarue, December 2. 

1805 nonaparto King of Italy, March. 

Lord Nelson defeats the combined fleets of France and Spain ofl*Cap« 

Trafalgar, takes or destroys 19 ships of the line, and is killed in tno 
battle, October 21. 

War between England and Spain. 

1806 Louis Bonaparte crowned King of Holland, June. 

The British Parliament vote the Abolition of the Slave Trade, June IC 

Francis 11. resigns the office of Emperor of Germany, August 2. 

War between trance and Prussia. 

Battle of Jena and total defeat of the Prussians, October 14. 

1807 War between France and Russia, in which the French ate successful 

Copenhagen taken by the British, and the Danish fleet carried to Eng 

land. 

Treaty of Peace between France, and Russia, and Prussia. 

1808 Abolition of the Slave Trade in the United States of America, Janua- 

ry 1. 

War between Russia and Sweden. 

Bonaparte seizes Portugal, and the Royal Family flee to BraziL 

Bonaparte seizes the Royal Family of Spain. War between Franca 

and Spain. 

1809 Battle of Corunna, January 16. 

Fall of Saragossa, February 21. 

- James Madison President of the United States, March 4. 

Gustavus IV. King of Sweden deposed, and Charles XIIL proclaimed, 

March 13. 
— — War between France and Austria, April 6. 
— — French enter Vienna, May 12. 

- — War between Russia and Austria, May 22. 
— — The Papal States united to France, June 1. 

Battle of Talavera, July 24. 

— — Peace of Vienna between Austria and France, October 14. 

1810 Bonaparte divorces the Empress Josephine, January 16. 

He marries the Arch-Duchess Maria Louisa of Austria, April I. 

Louis Bonaparte abdicates the throne of Holland, July 1. 

Holland annexed to the French. 

Population of the United States, 7,239,903. 

1811 Prince of Wales appointed Regent, February 8. 

Two hundred buildings and large quantities of goods burnt in New 

buryport, Mass. 

Massacre in Cairo, when about 1,000 Mamelukes lost their lives 

March 1. 

A Son bom to Napoleon Bonaparte, styled King of Rome, March 20 

Batavia captured by the English, August 8. 

An unusually large comet appeared, September 1 

Richmond Theatre burnt, December 26. 

1812 Great Earthquake at Carraccas, March 26 

Perceval, Prime Minister of England, as.sassinated. May 11. 

War against Great Britain declared by the United States, June 18 

General Hull and his army taken prisoners in Canada, August 16. 

■ Battle of Smotensko, August 17. 

— — Battle of Moskwa, September 7. 

The French army enter Moscow, 14th September. 

British Frigate Guerriere captured, August 29. 

do. do. Macedonia captured, October 25. 
do. do. Java captured, December 29. 
IB18 Lewis XVIU. publishes an Address to the people of France, Fab 
ruary 1. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 513 

AD. 

1813 Treaty between Great Britain and Sweden, March 3. 

Sweden declares War against France, March 3. 

The Russian troops enter Hamburgh, March 18. "I" 

— — Prussia joins Russia against France, March. 

Spanish Inquisition abolished by the Cortes, April. 

Battle of Vittoria, in Spain, June 2. 

Austria declares War against France, August 11. 

General Moreau killed, August 28. 

Commodore Perry captures the British squadron, on lake Erie, Sep- 

tember 10. 

Battle of Leipsic, October 19. 

The Prince of Orange assumes the title of Sovereign Prince of the 

Netherlands, December 2. 

The Russians and their Allies enter France, December 23. 

1814 The Pope released by Bonaparte, January 83. 

— — Loni Wellington took possession of Bordeaux, February 13. 

Paris capitulates to the Allies, March 30. 

The Allies enter Paris, April 1. 

Napoleon Bonaparte dethroned, April 4, and banished to the Island <^ 

Elba, for which he sails, April 28. 

Louis XVIIL, being called to the throne of France, made his entry 

into Paris, May 3. 
— — General Peace in Europe, May 30. 

■ The Allied Sovereigns risit London, June 8. 

Inquisition restored in Spain, July 18. 

— — Norway annexed to Sweden, August 14. 

City of Washington taken by the British, August 24. 

British Squadron on Lake Champlain captured by Commodore M Don- 

ough, September 11. 
— — General Congress of Vienna, November 7 
• Pensacola taken by General Jackson, November 7. 

Treaty of Peace between the United States and Great Britain signed 

at Ghent, December 24. 

The British repulsed at New-Orleans, December 28. 

1815 The British completely defeated and General Packenham slain at 

New-Orleans, January 8. 

United States Frigate President taken by a British sqoadron, Janua- 

ry 15. 
Peace between Great Britain and the United States ratified Februa- 
ry iJ4. 

Bonaparte sailed from Elba, February 26 — lands in France, March 1— 

enters Paris, March 26. 
• Bonaparte left Paris to meet the Allies, May 2. 

Battle ol* Waterloo, June 17 and 18. 

Bonaparte surrenders himself to the British, July 15. 

Joachim Murat, King of Naples, shot for High Treason, October 13. 

Bonaparte landed at St. Helena, October 13. 

Marshal Ney shot for High Treason, December 7. 

1816 Jesuits expelled from Petersburgh and Moscow, January 2. 

St. Johns, Newfoundland, destroyed by fire, February 18. 

Princess Charlotte of Wales married to Prince Leopold, May 2. 

Lord Cochrane tried for breaking out of Prison, August 17. 

He is released by a penny subscription, December 7. 

Indiana admitted into the Union as a State, December. 

1817 United States Bank opened for business at Philadelphia, Januar}' 1. 
American Colonization Society for free Blacks organized, January 1. 

Jame's Monroe President of the United States, March 4. 

Pernambuco declared itself Independent, April 5. 

— — Portuguese authority established at Pernambuco, Maj 18. 
— Day of Algiers assassinated, September. 

66 



Mi CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

1817 Death of Princew CuroUne, November 6. 

-— — MissiMippi admitted into the Union aa a State, December 11. 

1618 Queen or England dies. 

Charles XIII. of Sweden dies, and is succeeded by Prince B«madctl« 

— — France evacuated by the Allies, October. 
•— Iliinois admitted into the Union as a State, December i. 

Commercial Treaties concluded between the United States on om 

part and Great Britain and Sweden on the other. 

— Alleghany College established. 

1819 A Treaty for the cession of Florida to the United States ugned at 

Washington, February 23. 

- First Stenm Ship sails for Europe, May. 

— — Commodore Perry dies in the West Indies, August 23. 

Alabama admitted into the Union as a State, December. 

1820 George III., King of England, dies January 29. 

(SvCOtrOC IV. succeeds to the throne of Great Britain and Ireland. 

— — The Duke of Berry assassmated, February 14. 

■ ' ' Maine admitted into the Union as a State. 

- Queen Caroline of England prosecuted for Adultery. 

— — » Another Revolution, which gives a Free Constitution to the Spanish 
nation. 

Population of the United States, 9,625,734. 

1821 Missouri admitted into the Union as a State. 

— — An attempt to destroy the Royal Family of France, January 27. 
' British Government issue a Manifesto respecting the Holy Alliance 
February. 
— — » Napoleon Bonaparte dies at St. Helena, May 5, 1821, aged 52. 

■ Queen Caroline of England dies, August 7, 1821. 

Elias Boudinot, President of the American Bible Society, dies. 

1822 William Pinckney dies, February 26. 

' Iturbide declared himself Emperor of Mexico. 

■ Columbian College established. 

Massacre of Greeks at Scio. 

- - Revolution in Portugal with a Cortes and Free Constitution. 

— — Don Pedro, son of the King of Portugal, declared Emperor of Brllilf 

1823 Iturbide dethroned and banished to Italy. 

France declares War against Spain, and invades it with e large armj 

Counter Revolution in Portugal. 

~^ Treaty of Peace between Spain and Buenos Ayres, July 4. 



M 



COMPARATIVE VIEW 



ANCIENT 



AND or 



MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 



In the following Tables the Countnes unknown to Ancientfl, or of whith 
the Namef are uncertain, are left blank. ,; . 

The same numbers in the two adjacent columns on each page indicate the 
ancient and modern names of the same countries or places. 



MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE. 

GREENLAND, or the Arctic Conti- 
nent. 

SPITSBERGEN a^and.) 

ICELAND, (Island,) belonging to 
Norway. 

NORWAY. SCANDINAVIA, SCANDIA, vei 

1. Wardhuis, or Norwegian Lap- BALTIA. 

land. 

2. Drontheim. 2. Nerigon. 

3. Bergen. 3. Sitones. 

4. Aggorhuis, or Christiana. 

SWEDEN. 

1. Lapland and West Bothnia. 1. Scritofinni. 

2. Sweden Proper. 2. Suiones. 

3. Gothland. 3. GuttB et Hilleviones. , 

4. Finland. ., .. . 4 Finningia. ^ 

5. Islands of Gothland — Oeland, 5 Insuls Sinus Cedani. 

Aland, Rugen. 

DENMARK. 

Jutland, Cktrtontnu Ciw^fiem* 

1. Alburg. 1. Cimbri. 

3. Wyburg . 



516 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF 

MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE. 



3. AarhuMD. 

4. Rrpen. 

5. Sleawick. 

UUnds m the BshU. 
1. Zealand. 
3. Funea. 

3. Faliter. 

4. Longeland. 

5. Laland. 
(S. Feneren. 

7. AJsen. 

8. Moen. 

9. Bornholm. 

RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 

1. Livonia and Elatoaia. 

2. Ingria, or the Government of 

Peteraburg. 

3. Carelia, or the Govomment of 

Wiburg. 

4. Novogrod. 

5. Archangel, Samoiedia. 

6. Moscow. 

7. Nishnei Novogrod. 

8. Smolensk!. 

9. Kiew 

10. Bielgorod. 

11. Woroneak. 
T2. Azoff. 

FRANCE. 

1. Picardy. 

2. Isle of France. 

3. Champagne. 

4. Normandy. 

5. Bretanj. 

6. Orleannoi*. 



7. Lionnoie. 

8. Provence. 

9. Languedoc. 

10. Gaienne. 

11. Gascoi^ne. 

12. Dauphine. 

13. Bii'-gundj and Franche>c9mte. 

14. Lorraine and Alsace. 

UNITED PROVINCES, OR KING- 
DOM OF HOLLAND. 

1. Holland. 

2. Friesland. 
'.I. Zealand. 
4. Groningen. 
8. OverjsMl. 



3. Harudes. 

4. Phundusii, Sigulonea. 

5. Sabalingii. 

iTtsulm Sinus CoimmL 
1,9. Teutones. 



SARMATLA EUROl»iEA 
I. Hirri et iEatii vel OatioBM. 



4. Budini. 
6. Basilici. 
8. Cariooes. 

10 Sl 4. Budini. 

11. Rozolani. 

12. lazyges. 

GALLIA. 

1. Ambiani. 

2. Bellovaci, Parisii, Suessonea. 

3. Rerai, Catalauni, Tricaises, l3 

Lin^ones. 

4. Unelli vel Veneti, Saii, Lex-' 

ovii, Veliocasses. 

5. Osismii, Veneti, Namnetes, 

Andes, Redonea. 

6. Aureliani, Carnutes, Seno- 

nes, Turones, Pictones, 
Bituriges. 

7. iEdui, Seguyiani. 

8. Salyes, Cavares. 

9. Volcae, Arecomici, Helvii, To- 

losates. 

10. Petrocorii, Bituriges, Cadurci, 

Ruteni. 

11. Aauitani. 

12L Aliobrogrs, Centrones. 

13. Lingonep, iEdui, Sequani. 

14. Leuci, Mediomatrici, Triboci, 

Nemetoa. 



1,2. Frisii 



SAXONES. 



4. Cauci vel Chauci. 

5. Franci. 



ANeiENT AND MODERiV GEOGRAPHY. 617 

MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE. 



6. Guelderland and Zutphen. 

7. Utrecht. 

NETHERLANDS, 

BKLONOlirO TO FRAVCX AVD HOLLAWD. 

1. Brabant. 

2. Antwerp. 

3. Mechlen or MalinM. 

4. Limburgh. 

5. Luxemburgh. 

6. Namur. 

7. Hainault. 

8. CambresLi. 

9. Artots. 
10. Flanders. 

GERMANY. 

1. Upper Saxony. 

2. Lower Saxonj. 

3. Westphalia. 

4. Upper Rhine. 

5. Lower Rhine. 
Q. Franconia. 

7. Austria. 

8. Bavaria. 

9. Suabia. 

BOHEMIA. 

1. Bohemia Proper. 

2. Silesia. 

3. Moravia. 

POLAND. 

1. Greater Poland. 

2. Less Poland. 

3. Prussia Royal. 

4. Prussia Ducat. 

5. Samogitia. 

6. Courland. 

7. Lithuania. 

8. Warsovia. 

9. Polacliia. 

10. Polesia. 

11. Red Russia. 

12. Podolia. 

13. Volhinia. 

SPAIN. 

1. Gallicia. 

2. Asturia. 

3. Biscay. 

4. Navarre. 

5. Arragon. 
G. Catalonia. 



8 

GQ 



6. Bructeri, Catti, Sicarabri. 

7. Batavi. 



BELGiE, &e. 

1. Menapii, Tungrii. 

2. ToxandrL 

4, 5. Alemanni. 

6. Treveri. 

7. RemL 

9. Atrebates, Veromandui. 
10. Belgae, Morini. 

NATIONES GERMANICiE 

1. Seuvi, Lingae, Sec. 

2. Saxonea, Longobardi, Gam- 

brivii. 

3. Cherusci, Gbamayi, Gauchi, 

Germania Inftrior. 

4. Germania Sapaion 

5. Marci, Tindwi. 

6. Mareomanoi, Hengpiidnri. 

7. Noricum. 

8. Rhstia. 

9. Vindelicia. 

1. Boiohoemum. 

2. Corconti. 

3. Quadi. 

GERMANO-SARitfATiE. 

1. Peucini. 

2. Lugii. 

3. 4. Burgundiones, Bufii, 

thones. 

5. Ombroges. 

6. Scyri. 

7. 8. Genfiano-Sarmatia. 



11, 12, 13. Bastarnas. 



HISPANIA, vel IBERIA. 
1, 2, 3. GallcBcia — Cantabri, As- 
tures, Varduli. 



4, 5, 6. Tarraconensii — Vascones, 
Valetani. 



7. Valentia. 

8. Murcia. 

9. Granada. 
10. Andalusia. 



Xx 



jkHw1b( J^ 



7, 8. Cartha^incnsis ^Uuani, 

Contestani 
0, 10. Beetica — Bastiani, Bastuli, 

Turdet.ini, &c. 



618 COMPARATIVE VIEW Of 

MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUltftiP^. 



11. Old Ca«til«. 


11. 


GallKci« pars— Acc«i. AreTaei. 


VU New CMtil«. 


12. Tarraconensia para — Carpetaai, 






Oretani. 


13 Leon. 


13. GalleciaB para— Vettonaa. 


U. Estremadani. 


14. 


Lusitania para — Bcturia. 


SPANISH ISLANDS. 




INSULiC: HISPANICiC. 


Ivica. 


Balearea. 


Majorca. 






Minorca. 






PORTUGAL- 




LUSITANLA. 


Entre Minho e Douro. 


Calliaci, LuaiUni, Celtiei. 


Tralos MoMea. 






Beira. 






EBtremadara 






Entre Tajo. 






Alentajo. 






Algarva. 






SWITZERLAND. 




HELVETIA. 


I. Bom. 


1, 


Sl,3,4. AmbroDM. 


2 Friburg. 






3. Ba8il or Bale. 






4. Lucem. 






5. Solotum. 






6 Schaffhauaen. 
7. Zurick. 
8 ApponzeJ. 


«,7,8,9,10. Tigmiai. 






9. Zug. 






10. Schweitz. 






11. Claris. 






12. Uri. 






13. Underwmld. 






14. Geneva. 


14. 


Nantuatev. 


15. Griaons, Ac. 


15. 


Veragri, Vallia Penuaa, L*- 


^f ITALY, 




pontii. 

ITALIA. 


^ 1. Savoy. 


1. 


Lepontii, Seguaini, Taa-' 








nni. 


•s 


2. Piedmont. 


2. 


Orobi. \ 


► 


3. Montferrat. 


3. 


Inaubre.. ? L'«""*- 


g 


4. Milan 


4. 


*S.5 


5. Genoa. 


5. 


) 


II 


6. Parma. 


6. 


Anamani. 


7 Modena. 


7. 


Boii. 


a Muntua. 


8. 


Cenomani. 


1 


9 Venice. 


9. 


Vonetia. 


iU Trent. 


10. 


Tridentini. J 




11. The Popedom. 


U. 


Lingones, Scnones, Picnum, Vm- 
bria, Sabini, Pan Latii. 


12 Tatcany. 


12. 


TuBcia vel Etruria. 


13 Lucca. 


13. 


Pars TuBcis. 


14. San Marino. 


14. 


Pars Umbriae. 


15 kingdom of Naplea. 


15. 


Samnium, Pars Latfi« Apulia, 
Campania, Lucania, Bruttium. 


ITALIAN ISLANDS. 




INSULiE ITALICiE. 


1. Sicily. 

2. Sardinia. 


1. 


Sicilia, Sicania, vel Trinaerift. 


2. 


Sardo, vel Sardinia. 


a Coraicm. 


3. 


Cymua, vel Coraica. 


4. Malta. 


4. 


Melita. 





ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPllV. ilf 

MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE. 



5. Lipari Islands. 




5. 


Lipariee Insula. 


6. Caori, Ischia. &c. 




6. 


Capres, Ischia, &c. 


HUNGARY. 








TRANSYLVANIA. 




DACIA. 


SCLAVONIA. 




PANNONIA. 


CROATIA. 




ILLYRICUM. 


TURKEY IN EUROPE. 






1. Dalmntia. 




1 


Dalmatia. 


2. Bosnia. 




2. 


Moesia Superior. 


3. Servia. 




3. 


Dacia Ripensis. 


4. Wallachia. 




4. 


Get*. 


5. Moldavia and Bessarabia. 


5. 


Para Daciae. 


6. Bulgaria. 




6. 


MsBsia Inferior. 


7. Albania. 






' 7. EoiruB. 
8. Macedonia. 


8. Macedonia. 






9. Romania. 




. 


9. Thracia. 


10. Livadia. 




.S 


10. Thessalia. 


11. Morea. 




g *' 


11. Peloponnesus. 

12. Scythia et pars Daoie. 

13. Parva Scythia. 

14. Tauriica Chersonesu. 


13. Budziac Tartary or 


Bessarabia. 


o 


13. Little Tartary. 






14. Crimea. 






GREEK ISLANDS. 


INSULiE MARIS lONII. 


1. Corfu. 




1. 


Corcyra. 


2. Cephalonia. 




2. 


Cephalenia. 


3. Zante. 




3. 


Zacynthus. 


4. Ithace, Thiace, &c. 




4. 


Ithaca, &c. 


GREEK ISLANDS 


IN THE 






ARCHIPELAGO 




INSULiE MARIS MGJEi 


1 Candia. 




1. 


Creta. 


2. Nesropont. 




2. 

3. 


Eub<Ba 


3. Stalimene. 




Lemnos. 


4. Scyro, &c. 




4. 


Scyros, &c. 




GREAT BRI 


TAIN. 


SCOTIJVND. 




SCOTIA. 


1. Edinburgh. 

2. Haddington. 




1. 
2. 


Damnii. ^ Vecturiones. 


3. Berwick. 




3. 


Ottodini. S 


4. Roxburgh. 




4. 


\ 


5. Selkirk. 

6. Dumtries. 




5. 
6. 


\ Selgov*. 


7. Kircudbright. 




7. 


) 


8. Peebles. 




8. 


\ 


9. Wigion. 
10. Lanerk. 




9. 
10. 


> Novantes. 


11. Air. 




11. 


) 


12. Dumbarton. 




12. 


\ \ 


13. Cute. 


( 1 


13. 


f f 


14. Renfrew. 




.14. 


> Damnii. > Kcti. 


15. Stirling. 




15. 


( \ 


16. Linlitlurow. 




16. 


) J 


17. Fife. 




17. 


\ \ 


18. Clackmannan. 

19. Kinross. 




18. 
19. 


> Caledonu. > Picti. 


20. Perth. ^_ ^^ . , 


t.-^'^SAi^'il'l I 


20. 


) J 



21. Argyle. 



31. Epidii, GadMii, Cerones. 



ftaO COMPARATIVE VIEW OF 

MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE. 



23. Kincardine. 

23. Forfar. 

24. Aberdeen. 

25. Banff. 
2C. Elgin. 

27. Nairn. 

28. Invemeas. 
2l>. Rosa. 

30. Cromarty. 

31. Southerland. 
33. Caithnoaa. 

33. Orkney. 

34. Shetland. 

ENGLAND. 

1. Cornwall. 

2. Devonshire. 

3. Dorsetshire. 

4. Hampshire. 

5. Someraotahire. 

6. Wiltshire. 

7. Berkshire. 

8. Oxfordshire, 

9. Gloucestershire. 

10. Monmouthehire. 

11. Herefordshire. 

12. Worcestershire. 

13. Staffordshire. 

14. Shropahire. 
lb. Easex. 

16 Hartfordahiro. 

17. Kent. 

18 Surry. 

19. Suasox. 

20. Norfolk. 

21. Sullblk. 

22. Cambridgeshire. 

23. Huntingdonshire. 

24. Bedfordshire. 

25. Buckinghamshire. 

26. Lincolnshire. 

27 Nottinghamshire. 

28 Derbyshire. 

29. Ilutiandsliire. 

30 Leicestershire. 

31 Warwickshire. 

33 Northamptonshire. 

33 Northumberland. 

34 Durham. 

35 Vorkshiro. 
3G I..anca8hire. 

37 Westmoreland. 

38 Cumberland. 
3'J Cheshire. 

4(1 Middhwox. 



23. Vemiconea. 
23. Horeata. 



24. 
25. 



Attacoti. 



Scoti. 



26. S J 

27 / 

no' > Vacomagi. 

29.* ) ^ 

30. >Canta>, f 

31. S ( 

32. Mertas. > 

33. Orcadea. 

34. Thule. 

ANGLIA. 

n ( Damnonii. 
3. Durotrigea. 

Belg». 



U 



7. Attsebaiii. 

8 ) 

g > Dobuni. 

J J- ; Silurca. 

12: ;i 

13. > Comarit. 

15. Trinobantea. 

16. Catieuchlani. 

17. Cantii. 



Regni. 



Simeni, ▼•! loeoi. 
Catieuchlaiu. 




U 



33. 
34. 
35. 
36. 
37. 
38. 

39. i.^ornaTn. 

40. Attrebates et Catieuchlani > 



OtadenL 



Brigantea. 



ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY, 631 

MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE. 



WALES. 



1. Anglesey. 

2. Flintshire. 

3. Montgomery. 

4. Denbighshire. 

5. Carnarvonshire. 

6. Merioneth. 

7. Cardiganshire. 

8. Carmarthenshire. 

9. Pembrokeshire. 

10. Radnorshire. 

11. Brecknocksaire. 

12. Glamorganshire. 

IRELAND. 



1. Louth. 

2. Meath East. 

3. Meath West. 

4. Longford. 

5. Dublin. 

6. Kildare. 

7. King's County. 

8. Queen's County. 

9. Wicklow. 

10. Carlow. 

11. Wexford, 

12. Kilkenny. 

13. Donnegai or Tyreoan*!. 

14. Londonderry. 

15. Antrim. 

16. Tyrone. 

17. Fermanagh. 

18. Armagh. 

19. Down. 

20. Monaghan. 

21. Cavan. 






1. Mona Inaola. 
2. 

OrdoTicefl. 



DemetsB. 



Silures. 



HIBERNIA, vel IRENE. 

Voluntii- 
> Cauct. 
Auteri. 




Robogdii. 
rdini. 



18.) 

19. > Voluntii. 

20.) 

21. Cauci. 



f22. Cork County. 

23. Waterlbrd. 

24. Tipperary. 

25. Limerick. 

26. Kerrv. 

27. Clare. 



« r28. Galway. 
^29. Roscommon. 
I <j 30. Mayo. 
c 31. Sligoc. 
U [32. Leitrim. 



22. VodijB, In verm. 
^ Brigantea 



25. 
26. 
27. 



29. 

30. > 

31. } 

32. S 



Velabocc. 

Gangani. 
lUteri. 
Nagnats. 



BRITANNIC ISLANDS 

1. Shetland and Orkney. 

2. Western Isles of Scotland. 

3. Man. 

4. Anglesey. 

5. Wight. 

X X 1 



INSULiE BRITANNICiE 

1. Thule. 

2. Ebudes Insula. 

3. Monseda vel Mona, 

4. Mona. 

5. Vectis. 

e6 



MODERN ASIA. ANCIENT ASIA. 



TURKEY IN ASLA.. 


ASIA MINOR. 


1 Natolia. 


1. Mvh a, Lydia, Caria, Phrygia, 
Bithynift, Galatia, Paphlago- 




2. Amaiia or Siwu. 


nia. 
2. Pontua. 


3. Aladulia. 


3. Armenia. 


4. Caramania. 


4. Cappadocia, Cilicia, Sec. 

5. Biibylonia, Chaldea. 


5. Irak. 


G. Diarbock. 


6. Mesopotamia. 


7. Curdiatan. 


7. Assyria. 


8, Turcomania. 

9. Georgia. 


Q* > Armenia Major. 


10 riyria and Paleatine. 


10. Syria, Palmyrene, Phoenicia, Jo- 
dsa. 

ARABIA. 


ARABIA. 


Arabia Petraea. 


Arabia Petraa. 


Arabia Deserta. 


Arabia Deserta. 


Arabia Felix. 


Arabia Felix. 


PERSIA. 


PERSIA. 


1. Chorassan. 


1. Pars Hyrcaniae et Sogdiana. 


2. Balk, Svblustan, Can^^lahnr. 


2. Bactrania. 


3. Sigivtan. 


3. Drangiana. 


4. Makeran. 


4. 


5. Kerman. 


5. Gedrosia. 


G. Farsivtan. 


6. Persia. 


7. ChusMtan. 


7. Susiana. 


8. Irak Agem. 


8. Parthia. 


9 Curdestan. 


9. Pn'P Awyri*. 


10. Aderbeitzen. 


10. Media. 


11. Georgia. 


11. ) 


12. Gangea. 


12. > Iberia, Colchis, et Albania. 


13. Dagestan. 


13. S 


14. Mazanderam. 




15. Gilan Taberiatan. 


15. Pars Hyrcanic. 

16. Pars Albani. 


16. Chirvan. 


INDIA. 


INDIA. 


Mo/^oL 


fndia intra Gangem. 


Delhi. 


Palibothra. 


Agra. 


Agora. 


Cambaia. 


Regna Pon et Taxilia. 


Bengal. 




India teitkm the Ganges. 




Pecan. 


Dachanos. 


Golconda. 


Prasii vel Gangaridc. 


Binnagar. 




Malabar. 


Male. 


Island of Caylon. 


Taprobana Insula vtl Saliee. 


India beyond the Ganges. 


hdia extra Gangtm- 


P6«0 




ToD<^a:B 




CochiDcbiaa 




Siam. 


Sinarum Refio. 




CHINA. 



Niu«he. 



ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOtSRAPUT. 6^ 

MbDERN ASIA. ANCIENT ASiA: 



Laotons. 


SilUB. 


Pekin 




Xansi. 


Swica. 


Xensi. 




Xantum. 


Cathaea: 


Nanking. 




Chekiam. 




Honan. 




Huquam. 




Kiamfli. 




Fokien* 


. ■. ; . 


Canton. 




Suchueo:: 




Quecheu. 




Yunam. 




CHINESE 


ISLANDS. 


Formoaa. 




Ainan. 




Macao. 




Bashee Islands. 




RUSSIA IN ASIA. 


1. Astractm. 


1. Sarmatia AsiaUca. 


2. Orenburg. 


2. ^ 


3. Casan. 

4. Siberia— Tobolsk, Jeniseia, Ir- 


^' > Scythia intra Imaam. 


kutsk, Kamschatka. 


) 


INDEPENDENT TARTARY. 


I. Great Bucharia. 


1. Bactriana, Sogdiana. 


2. Karasm. 


2. Aria. 


ALUTH TARTARS. 


SCYTHIA extra IMAUM. 


1. Little Bucharia. 


1. 


2. Casgar. 

3. Turkestan. 


2. 


3. 


4. Kalmac Tartars. 


4. 


5. Thibet. 


5. 


6. Little Thibet. 


6. 


CHINESE TARTARY 


SINiE. 


Kalkas. 




Mongol Tartan. 




Mantchou Tartars. 




Corea. 




ISLANDS OF CHINESE TAR 




TARY. 




Sagalien-Ula-hata. 




Jedso. 




ISLANDS OF JAPAN. 




Japan or Niphon. 




Xicoco. 




Ximo. 




PHILIPPINE ISLES. 




Lucon or Manilla. 




Mindanao, Sec. 




MARIAN OR LADRONE. 




ISLANDS. 




Tinian. 





tt4 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF 

MODERN ASIA. ANCIENT ASIA- 



ISLES or SUNDA 

Borneo. 
Sumatra. 
Java, Slc. 

MOLUCCA ISLES 

Celebes. 

Amboyna. 

Cerara. 

Timor. 

Florca, Ac. 

MALDIVA ISLES. 



MODERN AFRICA. 



ANCIENT AFRICA. 



BARBARY. 

1. Morocco, 

2. Algiers. 

3. Tunis. 

4. Tripoli. 

5. Barca. 

1. Egypt. 

2. BiLDCLOKRID. 

3. Zaara^ or the Desert. 

4. NK9ROX.A.rfD. 

5. Guinea. 

C. Upper Ethiopia 



Nubia, Abyssinia, Abex. 

7. Lower Ethiopia 

8. Lower Guinea 



Loango, Congo, Angola, Ben- 
guela, Matanan. 
9. Ajan. 

10. Zangcebar. 

11. Monomotapa. 

12. monoemugi. 

13* SOFOLA. 

14. Terra de Natal. 

15. Cafraria, or country of the 

Hottentots. 



1. Mauritania Tingitana. 

2. Mauritania Csesariensis. 

3. Numidia, Africa Propria. 

4. Tripolitana. 

5. Cyrenaica, Libya Superior. 

1. iEoTPTUS. 

2. Libya Inferior, Gjitolia< 

3. Solitudines. 

4. Adtololxs. 

6. i£TBiopi^ et LiBT.B pars. 

7. iETHiopiJC pan. 



NORTH AMERICA. 
BRITISH AMERICA. 

1. The countries on the east and west side of Baffin's and Hudson's Bays 

2. Labrador, or New Britain. 

3. Canada, 

4. Nova Scotia. 



Islands. 



Newfoundland, Cape Breton. 

British Islands in the West Indies. 



Bermudas, Bahama Islands, Jamaica, St. Christopher's, Nevis, Montserrat 
Antigua, Dominica, St. Vincent, Tobago, Grenada, Barbadoes, Ac. Jbo. 



^ 



ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 525 



UNITED STATES OF A3IERICA. 



New England— Maine, New-Hampshire, Vermont, MassachusetUi, Connect- 
icut, and Rhode-Island. 

State of New- York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Vir- 
ginia, North-Ciu-olina, South-CaroUna, Georgia, Tennessee, Kentucky, 
Ohio, Indiana, Louisiana, Alabama, Missouri, Mississippi, Illinois. 

The diatriet of Columbia, the territories of Michigan, Arkansas. 

^; SPANISH AMERICA. 

Mexico or New Spain, New Mexico. 

NORTH AMERIcir^^ ^ 

^famish Islands in tlu West Indies. 

Coba, Porto Rico, west peH of St. Domiago, Trinidad, Margarita, Cuba 
gua, dM. 

Dutek Islands in the Wtt Indies. 
Part of St Martin's Isle, EneCatiua, Ares, Baenos Ayres, Curacoa, Araba. 

Frenck Islands in the West Indies. 
Miquelon, St. Pierre, part of St; Martin's Isle, St. Bartholomew, Martinico, 
Guadaloupe, DesiaoA, Mariegalant, St. Lucia, part of St Domingo. 



Danish Islands in the West Indies. 
St. Thomas, SanU Cruz. 



«?» 



SOUTH AMERICA. 4^^mt^ 

FRENCH. ^WS.^s- 

Part of the Proriaee of Guiana, Cayenne, dtc. 

SPANISH. 

Terra Firma, Country of the Amazons, Peru, Chili, Terra Magellaaica, 
Paraguay, Tucuman. 



DUTCH. 
Part of Guiana, Surinam, Ac. 



^n 



PORTUGUESE. 
Brazil, and many Islands on the coast, part of Goiana. Hi^ 



-Wmtx: 



ANCIENT EMPIRES. 



The Empire of Asstria, under Ninus and Semiramis, about 2900 beibro 
J. C, comprehended, Asia Minor, Colchis, Assyria, Media ChaUica, 
Egypt 



ipp cx>MrAUATiVE VIEW or 

The Empire of AssriyA, as divided about 820 before J. C, formed thre« 
Kingdoms, Media, Babylo-Chaldea, (Syria and Chaldea,) Lydia, (all 
Asia Minoi.) 

The Empire of the Persia;<9, under Darius Hystaspes, 522 before J. C, 
comprehended, Persia, Susiana, Chaldea, Assyria, Media, Dactriaua, 
Armenia, Asia, Parthia, Iberia, Albania, Colchis, Asia Minor, Egypt, 
part of Ethiopia, part of Scythia. 

The Empire of Alexander the rreat, 330 before J. C, consisted of, 
1, all Macedonia and Greece, except' Peloponnesus ; 2, all the Persian 
Empire, as above described ; 3, India to the banks of the Indus on th« 
east, and the laxartes or Tanais on the north. 

The Empire of Alexander was thus divided, 306 before J. C, b^ween 
Ptolemy, Cassander, Lysimachus, and Seleucus. 

Empire of PtoUmif. 
Ljbia, Arabia, C<Blo«yria, Palestine. 

*>#W1 «»» Empire of Cassander, *-^*^ 

Macedonia, Greece. 

Empire of Lysimackus. 
Thraeo, Bithynia. 

Empire of Seleucus. 

Syria, and all the rest of Alexander's Empire. 

The Empire of the Parthians, 140 before J. C.) comprehended Parthia, 
Hyrcaniaj Media, Persis, Bactriana, Babylonia, Mesopotamia, India to 
the Indus. 

The Roman Empire, under the Rings, was confined to the city of Rone, 

and a few miles round it. 

The Roman Empire, at the end of the Republic, comprehended all Italy, 

freat part of Gaul, part of Britain, Africa Proper, ^reat part of Spain, 
Ilyria, Istria, Libumia, Dalmatia, Achaia, Macedonia, Dardania, Moesia, 
Thracia, Pontus, Armenia, Judaea, Cilicia, Syria, Egypt. 

Under the Emperors the following countries were reduced into Roman 
Provinces. 

All Spain, the Alpes Maritime, Piedmont, du;. Knatia, Ncricam, Panno* 
nia, and Moesia, Pontus, Armenia, Assyn'a, Arabia, Egypt. 

Constantius Chlorus and Galerius divided the Empire into Eastern and 
Western ; and under Constantine each Empire had a distinct capital or 
seat of government. 

Tile extent of each division was fluctuating from time to time ; but, in gen 
eral, the Western Empire comprehended Italy, lllyria, Africa, Spain^ 
the Gauls, Britain. 

The Eastern Empire comprehended Asia Minor, Pontut, Armenia, Aasyriaf 
Media, Ac. Egypt, Thrace, Dacia, Macedonia. 



ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 



S27 



The EMriRS of Charlkmagnk, A. D. 800, comprenendea France, Marca, 
Hupanica, (or Navarre and Catalonia,) Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica, 
Corsica, Italy as far south as Naples, Istria, Libumia, Dalmatia Rhaitia, 
Vindelica, Noricum, Germany, from the Rhine to tlie Oder, and to the 
banks of the Baltic. 

France contained, 1, Neustria, comprehending Bretany, Normandy, Isle of 
France, Orleannois ; 2, Austria, comprehending Picardy, and Cham- 
pagne ; 3, Aquitania, comprehending Guienne, and Gascony ; 4, Burgun- 
dia, comprehending Burgundy, Lioonoiii, Languedoc, Dauphine, Provence. 



NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL RIVERS IN EUROPE 



ANCIENT. 

1. Rha. 

2. Tanais. 

3. Borystenet. 

4. Tyras. 

5. Danubius or later. 
G. Padus. 

7. Rhodanns 

8. Iberus. 

9. BoBtis. 

10. Anas. 

11. Tagus. 

12. Durius. 

13. Ganimna. 

14. Liger. 

15. Sequana. 

16. Samara. 

17. Scaldit. 

18. Moea. 

19. Rheuuii 

20. Visurgis. 

21. A Ibis. 

22. Viadrue. 



MODERN. 

1. Wolga. 

2. Don. 

3. Nieper. 

4. Niester. 

5. Danube. 

6. Po. 

7. Rhone. 

8. Ebro. 

9. Guadalquiver. 

10. Guadiana. 

11. Tayo. 

12. Douro. 

13. Garonne. 

14. Loire. 

15. Seine. 

16. Somme. 

17. Scheldt. 

18. Maese. 

19. Rhine. 

20. Weser. 

21. Elbe. 

22. Oder. 



The Vutula, the Dwina at Riga, and the Dwina at Archangel. 



END. 






^ 



«^lUt 







QUESTIONS 



EXAMINATION OF SCHOLARS 



iir 



TYTLER'S ELEMENTS 



or 



(£ISS7^!giiL m£V®I£t; 



BY AN EXPERIENCED TEACHEA. 



CONCORD, N. H. 

PUBLISHED BY JOHN F. BROWN 
1S49. 



DISTRICT OF NEW-HAMPSHIRE, u> tni 

District Clerk's office 

BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the fourth day of September, A. D. 
1,823, and in the forty-eipiith year of tlie Indepemlence of the United 
States of America, ISAAC HILL, of the said District, hath deposited in 
tliis oihce the title of a book, the right whereof he claims as proprietor, io 
i\ve words n.Ilowin^, io uit — 

" Elements of Gonenl History^: aacient and modern. By Alexander 
Eraser Tytler, F. R. S E. Pro^tysor of H.itory in tl.C University of Edin- 
burcrh. With a continuation, terminatinj; at tlie demise of King Gecrge HI., 
l,yQO. By Rev. Eilward Nares, D. D. Professor of Modem Historjr'ir the 
University of Oxford. To which are added, a succinct History of the Ur.lt 
ed States, an improved Table of Chronolcsy ; a comparative view of 
Ancient and Modern Gcoj^raphy ; and Questi(ms on each section. Adapted 
for the use of Schools and Academics. By an experienced Teacher.'' 

In conformity to the act of the Congress of the UnitecT States, entit.cd, 
" An act fo' the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, 
cknrls, and boohs, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, duriuj^ 
the times therein mentioned ;' aB'1 al^io an act, «ntitfed, " An act snpjile- 
menlary to an act, «htitle<f an- act for the ^ncoura^eihent of learning, by 
securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, Jo the authors and pro- 
prietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned, and extending 
the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etciiing Listorica 
Mid other prints." 

WILLIAM CLAGGETT, C.trk 

of the District of Netc-Hampshir*. 
A uiM copy of Record. 

Atteat WILLIAM CLAGGETT, CUA. 



■^ 



QUESTIONS. 

PART FIRST. 

SECTION 1. 

1. What books afford the earliest authentic history of the ages 

dlately following- the delug^e ? 

2. "When were Babylon and Nineyeh built ? 

3. By whom were they built ? 

4. Who are said to have raised Assyria to a high degree of splendour ? 
6. What is the condition of the early parts of Egyptian history ? 

6. Who was the first king o( Egypt ? 

7. How was Egypt divided ? 

SECTION n. 

8. What is the earliest mode of government ? 

9. Of what description were the first monarchies ? 

10. What was the rank of the kings of Scripture ? 

11. What was the character of the first penal laws in human society^ 

12. What were the earliest laws formed for the benefit of society ? 

13. What singular usages prevailed adbng the ancient nat'4>ns relating 

to matrimony ? 

14. What laws next succeeded in order to those of marriage ? 

15. What were the earliest methods of authenticating contracts? 

16. What nation used hieroglyphics, and for what purpose were they 

used ? 

17. What were the methods for recording historical facts, and publishii^ 

them among the ancients ? 

18. What are among the earliest institutions that have existed ? 

19. How was the priesthood anciently exercised ? 

20. Of what are useful arts the offspring ? 

21. Of what are some of the earliest of them? 

22. What were the first sciences cultivated ? 

SECTION III. 

23. To what nation is most of the knowledge of ancient nations to be 

traced ? 

24. How did that knowledge descend to modem nations ? 

25. What presumption does the country afford of the antiquity of tU« 

Egyptian empire? 

26. To what are the inundations of the river Nile owing ? 

27. What was the government of Egypt ? 

28. What was the character of their penal laws ? 

29. What was the manner of conferring funeral rites in Egypt ? 

30. "What regulation was there concerning the borrowing of money ? 

31. In the knowledge and cultivation of what useful arts and eciencet 

were the Egyptians distinguished ? 

32. What samples of their architecture still remain 1 

33. When were the pyramids built ? 

34. For what were they probably built ' 



4 QUESTIONS. 

33. What was the national character of the Eg^ptian^? 

36. What circumstances serred to debase them in tht opinion of cmteai 

porary nations ? 

sEcrroN IV. 

37. By what name were the I'hoeuicians known in Scripture? 
3H. For what an we indebted to them? 

S9. What is said of then in the time of Abraham ? 

40. Whnt is the antiquity ofjtheir writings ? 

SECTION V. 

41. To what early nations were the Grecians indebted for their first rudi- 

ments of civilization ? 

42. Who were the ancient inhabitants of Greece? 

43. AV'hat colony settled in the country about the time of Moses ? 

44. Who setth d Attica and at what time ? 

45. Who fstablished the cour( of Artopag^us? 

46. Who established the Amphictyonic Council ? 

47. Who introduced into Greece^ and at what time, ^phabetic writing; '. 

48. How many letters did tlie alphabet then contain^ 

49. What was then the mode of wrilinj ? 

SECTION VI. 

30. What is said of the Pelasg-i, of Ancient Greece? 

51. What was a predominant cJiaracteristic of the early Greeks? 

52. What wt-re the naunes of their four solemn Games, as tliey were 

termed ? 

53. Of what did thoy consist ? 

54. What g^ood ix)litical effects ffid these ^ames have ' 

SECTION VII. 

55. Who instituted the Eleusinian mysteiies ? 
B6. What was the nature of these mysteries ? 

57. Who laid the foundation of the grandeur of Attica? 
68. When and how did he do it ? 

59. What was the object of the Argonaut!' expedition .-' 

60. What was the character of the attack ind defence in the sieges o( 

Thebes and Troy ? 

61. On Avhose authority restj the detail "of the war of Troy? 

62. What are the principal facts recorded of that war by Homer ? 

63. How were military expeditions then conducted ? 

SECTION \1IL 

64. \\hen did the Greeks beg^in to colonize ? 

65. Who was elected the first chief mao^istrate of the Athenian republic ' 

66. What caused the Greeks to seek refugee in other countries by estab- 

lishing colonies ? 

67. ANhat caused Greece to abolish the re^l and establish a republican 

g:overnment ? 

68. What distinguished civilians arose in Sparta and Athens at this time ? 

SECTION IX. 

69. What period was Lycurgus invested with the power of reforming and 

new-modellinj: the constitution of his country? 

70. What was the government of Sparta as new-modelled by Lycurgus ? 

71. To what did he particularly bend bis attention r 

72. How did he divide the territorv ' 



QUESTIONS. 5 

73. What regulation did he make concerning^ the use of moDey ? 

74. By whom were the necessary arts practised '' 

75. What was the course of Spartan education? 

76. By what was the general excellence of the institutions of Lycurgiu 

impaired ? 

77. How were the slaves treated ? 

78. What was the end of the institutions of Lycurgus ? 

SECTION X. 

79. What was' the nature of the chang^e in the Athenian constitutioo 

when the reg'al office was abolished? 

80. What was the tenure by which the Archonship was held ? 

81. Who attempted a reform in the constitution, 824 B. C. ? 

82. When did Solon attain the Archonship ? 

83. What was his character ? 

84. Hc"v did he divide the citizens ? 

85. How did he counterbalance the weight of the popular assemblies ' 

86. How did the particular laws of Athens compare with her form of 

goverrment ? 

87. W hat was the nature of the laws relating to debtors and slaves ? 

88. What was the condition of women at this time in Athens ? 

89. What was one of the most iniquitous and absurd peculiarities of ihe 

Athenian and some of the other Grecian governments ? 

90. Plow were the arts viewed in Athens ? 

91. How did the character of the Athenians compare with that of the 

Spartans ? 

92. To whom were the liberties of Athens surrendered, 550 B. C. ? 

93. Who afterwards restored the democracy r 

SECTION XI. 

94. Under whom did the, first empire of the Assyrians terminate? 

95. What three monarchies arose from ita ruins ? 

96. What king of Assyria, led the Jews into captivity, took Jmisalein 

and Tyre, and subdued Egypt? 

97. W^ho was the successor of Cambyses in the throne of Persia? 

98. What countries did Cyrus annex to his empire ? 

99. What was the government of Persia ? 

100. To whose care was the children and youth of Persia committed fof 

education ? 

101. ^^*hat was the nature of the laws in Persia? 

102. What was the religion of Persia? 

103. What was the sacred book of the Persians called ? 

104. On what is the theology of the Zendavesta founded ;' 

SECTION XII. 

105. W^hat king of Persia invaded Greece ? 

106. Where was the Persian army defeated ? 

107. WTio commanded the Greeks in the battle of Marathon ? 

108. What reward did Miltiades receive for his eminent services from the 

Athenians ? ~~^ 

109. Who were the successors of Miltiades in the war with the Persians ? 
no. Who succeeded Darius in the command of the Persians? 

111. With what force did Xerxes attempt the conquest of Greece ? 

112. Who was Leonidas ? 

113. With what force did Leonidas contend with the vast army of 

Xerxes ? 

1 14. At what place was it 

115. What was the result 

!• 



6 dUEsnoNa 

T 16. What waathe success of Xerxes with his fleet at lea? 

il7. Where were the Pernians totally delVated on hmd, by the combined 

army of the Athenians and Lacedxmonians? 
118. What was the end of Xerxes? 
119 What was the national character of the Greeks at this time i 

SECTION XIII. 

120. Who g;oyemed Athens after the Persian war? 

l'-21. In what manner did he govern it? 

122. What gave rise to the war during- the reign of Pericles between 
^ Athens and Laceda;mon ? 

M23. On what acco int was Alcibiades condemned to death for treason ? 

1!24. By whom did the Lacedaemonians reduce the pjwcr of the Athe- 
nians ? 

125. What eminent philosopher was then in Athens at this time ? 

126. What was particularly disgraceful to the Athenians in regard to 

him ? 

127. What- is the subject of the history written by Xenophon? 

SECTION XIV. 

128. On the decline of Athens and Sparta, what other Grecian Republic 

rose to a high degree of eminence among the contemporary states^ 

129. What ied to the war between Thebes and Sparta? 

130. What two distinguished Generals did l^hebes employ in conducting 

this war ? 

131. How did this war terminate ? 

SECTION XV. 

132. Who at this time attempted to bring the whole of Greece under hii 

dominion ? 

133. What caused what was called the Sacred War of this period ? 

134. What distinguished Grecian orator exposed the artful designs of 

Ph«ip? 

135. In what battle was the fate of Greece, so that all her states beowne 

sulijfct to Philip ? 

136. What u:reat enterprise did he attempt? 

137. Did he complete it? 
'38. Why not? 

SECTION XVI. 

139. Who was the successor of Philip? 

140. At what age did Alexander ascend the throne of Macedon? 

141. How large was his army at this time ? 

142. What was his first enterprise? 

143. Who was king of Persia at this time ? 

144. With what force did Uarius meet Alexander? 
^46. Where did they meet ? 

146. What was the result of the battle of Granicus? 

147. What were the respective losses of the Greeks and Persians in (J)« 

battle of Issus ? 

148. What opportunity did Alexander have for the display of generosity 

after the battle of Issus ? 
.49. ^^^^at was the consequence of the battle of Issus? 

150. What caused Alexander to storm and subject the city of Tyre * 

151. What was the fate of its inhabitants ? 

152. What was disgraceful to Alexander in his capture of Gasa? 

153. What opened Egypt to Alexander's victorious armt? 

154. What city did he build in his return from £f7p« > 



155. Who met Alexander at Arbela with an army of 700,000 

156. What was the result of the batUe at Arbela? 

157. When was v'ersia conquered by Alexander ? 

158. What project did he attempt after the conquest of Penia? 

159. What prevented his conquest of India ? 

1 60. What became of Alexander on findings a limit to his Tictories ? 

SECTION XVII 

161. WTiat wish did Alexander express as, to a successor? 

162. What became of his family ? 

163. Which were the most powerful monarchies formed from his vast 

empires ? 

SECTION XVIII. 

164. What distinguished orator of Greece attempted to arouse his coun- 

trymen, to shake off the yoke of Macedon, on the death of Alexan- 
der ? 

165. What empire arose in Europe on the decline of the Macedonian 

power ? 

166. How was Greece added to the Roman empire ? 

167. When was the conquest of Greece completed? 

SECTION XIX. 

168. ^Vhat is said of the nature of the Republican g^ovemment of Greece ? 

1 69. Wliat was the condition of the people under them ? 

170. In what periods of the Grecian history are we to look for splendid 

examples of patriotism ? 

171. What is the most remarkable circumstance that strikes us on com 

parings the latter with the more early periods of the history of th 
Greeks? 

SECTION XX. 

172. In what description of the arts did the Grecians excel ? 

173. Which of the Fine Arts did they carry to the greatest degree of per- 

fection ? 

174. In whose reign did the Fine Arts floiTrish most? 

175. "What were their three orders of architecture ? 

176. What other orders of architecture are there ? 

177. What was the state of sculpture in Greece ? 

178. How did the paintings and music of the Grecians compare with 

those of the moderns ? 

SECTION XXI. 

179. How does poetry compare with prose as to antiquity? 

180. When did Homer flourish ? 

181. Who ave some of the other principal poets of ancient Greece ? 

182. When was the origin of dramatic composition aimong the Greeks ? 

SECTION XXII. 

183. What eminent historians of Grreece were contemporaries? 

184. When did they flourish ? 

185. Who were some of the latter distinguished historiatns of Greece ? 
186» What is said of Plutarch's Lives of Illustrious Men ? 

SECTION XXIII. 
187. What was the most ancient school of philosophy ia Greece ? 



% auEsncNs 

I8«. Who founded the Italian sect of philosophers in Greeoa f 

iK9. When did Socrates flourish ? 

IWJ. Who foiindt-d the Acadtmic sect? 

191. Who founded the Peripatetic sect? 

I9x>. ^Vho are some of Uie other Greek philosophers ? 

193. What is the effect of the Greek philosophy on morality acJ the prof 

ress of useful knowledge ? 

SECTION XXIV. 

194. Afttr the conquest of Greece what Power became an object of pu*> 

ticular importance i 

195. ^Vhat was the character of the first inhabitants of Italy ? 
190. Who were th-y ? 

197. ^^ hat is the opinion of DionysiiM concerning; the orig-in of Rome? 

198. Wh-.it is the vulgar account of the origin of the city built by Rom- 

ulua ? 

199. At what time was it founded ? 

200. AVho were the most formidable enemies of the early Romajis ? 

201. "Who was the second king of Rome ? 

202. Who added 100 Plebeians to the Roman Senate? 

203. Who rempved the poorer citizens from all share in ^e gOY^nment ol 

Rome ? 

204. What became of Servius TuUius ? 

205. Who succeeded him on the throne ? 

206. What caused the expulsion of Tarquinius ? " 

207. What was the first retrenchment in the power of the Romua Sen- 

ate ? 

208. What use did the early Romans make of their victories ? 

209. How long did the regal government of Rome continue ? 

210. How many kings were there ? 

211. What is said of the wars in which Rome was almost continually en- 

gaged ? 

SECTION XXV. 

212. Wliat gorvemment succeeded the regal one in Rome ?. 

213. Who were the two first consuls ? 

214. What law is mentlgned that was made under the direction of Vale- 

rius ? 

215. What gave rise to the office of Dictator ? 

216. What was the power of the Dictator ? 

217. Wh'rtt gave rise to the office of Tribune *, and what were the powers 

of that office ? 

SECTION XXVI. 

218. \Vhat effect had the office of Tribune on the po^vers oflhe Senate T 
21P. Under what circumstances was Valero made Tribune? 

220. When did the Roman constitution become a complete democracy f 

SECTION XXVII 

221. For what purpose were the Dpcemriri chosen ? 

222. What were the laws called, which they framed? 

223. At what time were they made ? 

224. With what pow( rs were the Decemviri invested ? 

225. Who wa<i at th«- head oflhe Decern virate ? 

226. What caused the abolition of this office ? 
?27 How long did it exist ? 



QUESTIONS. 9 

SECTION XXVIII. 

223. What two barriers separated the patricians and plebeians ? 
2^9. What two olRce? were created, 437 B. C. ? 

230. What successful expedient did the senate adopt for filling; the Ro- 

man armies ? 

231. What city was taken by Oymillus ? 

232. At what period and after how long" a siege ? 

233. To what event do the Roman writers attribute the loss of all the rec- 

ords and monuments of their early history ? 

234. What is there singular in regard to most of the revcluticna in 

Rome ? 

SECTION XXIX- 
-235. How long after the foundation of their city did Rome become mistress 
of all ltr>\y ? 

236. What was 'he policy observed by the Romans with respect to the 

nations they had conquered ? 

237. What gave rise to the Punic wars ? 

SECTION XXX. 

238. By whom and when was Carthage founded ? 

239. How many smaller cities were under the dominion of Carthage at 

the time of the Punic wars ? 

240. What was the form of government ? 

241. To what was the wealth and splendour of Carthage owing ? 

SECTION XXXI. 

242. Who founded Syracuse ? 

243. What was the government of it ? 

SECTION XXXII. 

244. Where did the war between Rome and Okrthage commence ? 

243. What Roman consul was taken by the Carthaginians in the first 
Punic war ? 

246. What patriotic act did Regulus perform when a prisoner to the 

Carthaginians ? 

247. How did the first Punic war terminate ? 

248. How long did the pea.ce between Rome and Carthage continue ? 

249. How did the second Piinic war begin ? 

250. Who was the Carthaginian general in this war ? 

251. How did Hannibal conduct this war ? 

252. Where did the Romans meet with complete defeat ? 

253. How many were slain in the battle of Cana; ? 

254. What is supposed would have been the consequence had Hannibal 

improved this victory ? 

255. In what way did the Romans compel the Carthaginians to sue for 

peace i' 

256. What Roman general carried war to the gates of Carthage ? 

257. At what time did the second Punic war close ? 

258. When did the third commence ? 

259. What was the issue of this war ? 

260. When was Carthage destroyed ? 

261. What other success attended the Romans this year? 

SECTION XXXIII. 

262 What two persons, at this time, undertook to reform the coimptioiit 
of the Romans ? 



10 QUESTIONS. 

263. What circnmst&ncea attending the war of Jug;urtha gave decisirc 

proof of the corruption of the Roman manners ? 

264. \N hat became of Jusrurtha? 

265. Between what two rivals did a civil war noi7 break out in Rome f 

266. \N'hat became of Marius ? 

267. To what office was Sylla afterwards elected? 

268. What mag^nanimous act charact^^rized the latter part of his life ? 
26&. Between whom was the civil war revived after the death af iSyWa ? 

270. What conspiracy, at this time, threatened the destruction ot 

Rome ? 

271. By whos,; provident zead :ind patriotism was it exting^uished ? 

272. What distinguished individual now rose into notice ? 

273. Under what circumstances was the first Triumvirate formed ? 

274. \^ hat Roman general invaded and conquered Britain, 54 U, C. 

275. Who procured the banishment of Cicero ? 

276. Who effected his recall from exile ? 

277. What dissolved the Triumvirate ? 

SECTION XXXIV. 

278. What proposition was made at this time by Caesar ? 

279. Did Pompey accede to it ? 

280. Did war ensue between them ? 

281. What decree did the senate pronounce ? 
2R2. Where was a decisive battle fought i* 

283. What became of Pompey ? 

284. In what war was the famous library of Alexandria l>urDt ? 

285. AVhat was the character of Caesar's administration of the gt>yem« 

ment, after the complete overthrow of Pompey's partisans.'* 

286. To what offices was he appointed ? 

287. What wa3 the end of Catsar ? 

288. Under what circumstances was the second Triumvirate formed . 

289. For what did Antony summon Cleopatra to appear before him ? 

290. What caused the overthrow of Antony ? 

291. What became of him? 

292. What induced Cleopatra to destroy herself? 

SECTION XXXV. 

293. What power was given to every head of a family ? 

294. '>^'hat were reckoned the highest points of female merit ? 

295. What qualifications contributed most to elevate persons to the hifbo 

est offices and dignities of the state ? 

SECTION XXXVI. 

296. Wliat was the state of literature in the early ages of the Roman rtt- 

public ? 
297 Who were the principal Roman historians ? 

298. Who were the principal Roman poets? 

SECTION XXXVII 

299. Was much attention paid to the study of philosophy in the early 

periods of Rome ? 

500. At what time did philosophy become an object of attention with th« 

Romans ? 

501. Who first diffused a taste for th 2 study of philosophy among the 

Roman? ? 
802. Who may be reckoned their most eminent philoROpher ? 



QUESTIONS. 11 

SECTION 2:XXVIII. . 

303. What were some of the most distinguishing- traits of character in the 
early Romans ? 

3C4. What contributeii chiefly to their change of character and man- 
ners ? 

305. What were some of the amusements of the Romans? 

SECTION XXXIX. 

306. To what may be ascribed the extensive conquests of the Romans' 
307 What was the number of soldiers in a Roman legion? 

308. When is it supposed that the tactic of the Romans was at its heigh' 

of excellence ? ' 

309. By whom was the art of entrenchment carried to great perfection ? 

310. When was the naval military art first known among the Romans ? 

SECTION XL. 

311. When did the most material change for the worse in the national 

character of the Romans take place ? 

312. What were the morals of the Romans in the last ages of the com- 

monwealth ? 
313 From what circumstances did Roman virtue so rapidly decline •• 

314. To what did the Roman, republic owe its dissolution ? 

SECTION XLl. 

315. What battle decided the fate of the commonwealth ana made Octa- 

vius master of Rome ? 

316. By what name was he now called ? 

Sn. What event said to be productive of universal joy distinguished hii 
reio;n ? 

318. What methods-did he practice to keep himself in the favour of th< 

people ? 

319. When did Augustus die and at what age ? 

320. How long did he reign ? 

321. Who succeeded him ? 

322. What ^as the character of Tiberius ? 

323. In what manner was he related to Augustus ? 

324. What wa-s the end of Tiberius? 

325. In what year of his reign was Jesus Christ crucified ? 

326. Who was iha successor of Tiberius ? 

327. What was t>is character ? 

328. What becam- of him ? 

329. Who succeeded Caligula ? 

SECl'ION XLIi. 

330. By what acts of \ iolence was the reign of Nero, the succesior ofClaX' 

dius, characterised ? 

331. Who were the thr -e next Roman emperors? 

332. Under which of th. emperors was Jerusalem taken ? 

333. Who succeeded Ves lasian ? 

334. What was the charatt,er of Titus? 

335. How was it suspected Titus came to his death ? 

336. What three emperors n.>xt in order succeeded Domitiaa? 

337. What was the character of Trajan and Adrian ? 

SEC HON XLIII. 

338. For what length of time did the Antoninea reiffn ? 

339. VlTiat was their character? 



la QUESTION a 

340 What length of time waa there from the leath of the Antonines M 
the accession of Diocletian? 

341. What was the character of the emperors that reigned in this period? 

342. VMial chau°^e in th»: g^overnment did Diocletian introduce? 

343. Under whom was the seat of the Roman empire removed and when? 

344. What was his religion ? 

SECTION XLIV. 

345. What was the g^eneral character of the g^ovemment of Rome under 
Constautine ? 

346. In what way did he injure the army ? 

347. W hat was the policy pursued by the emperor Julian towards Chris- 

tianity ? 

348. Who were the three emperors that succeeded in order to Julian ' 

SECTION XLV. 

349. In whose reig^n did Christianity become the established religion of the 
Roman empire ? 

350. Why were the Romans less tolerant towards the Christian than they 

were towards the different pag-an religions of other nations? 

351. When were the books of the New Testament collected into a rol- 

ume ? 

352. When was the Old Testament translated into Greek from the origi 

nal Hebrew ? 

353. In what way did Christianity suffer In the third century ? 

354. Did Christianity become more or less pure as it received favom 

from the civil powers ? 

SECTION XLVI. 
455. When and by whom was the city of Rome sacked and plundered ? 

356. What is the length of time from the building of Rome to the extinC" 

tion of the empire ? 

357. What may be considered the ultimate cause of the ruin of the Ro- 

man Empire ? 

358. Who was .he last emperor of Rome ? 

359. When was he compelled to resign the throne ? 

360. By whom was he compelled to do it? 

SECTION XLVII. 

361. Frojn what country is it supposed that the Goths were originally de- 
/ rived ? 

362. \Vhat was the character of the ancient Scythians ? 

363. Of what nation were the Germans a branch? 

3(>4. What effect had the religion of the Goths upon them, as a warlike 
people ? 

SECTION XLVIIL 

365. Wf»re the Roman laws retained after Italy was conquered by the 

Goths? 

366. What character does Tytler give the conquerors cf Italy? 

367 What government did the Goths establish in Italy after its conquest ? 
JOn Was it elective or hereditary? 

SECTION XLTX. 
3fr> '.Vhat are the rao«t ancient books of history in existence ? 
"*" T\<y are some of th" earliesf writers of profane history whoM ▼^'^kf 
• .' j*ill extant 



QUESTION8. jg 

371 What modern histories of Greece and Rome are most worthy of pe- 
rusal to the person who has attended to orig^inal works named ? 

372. What may be considered the greatest magazine of histixical knowl- 

edge ever collected ? 

373. What are esteemed the lights of history ? 



PART SECOND. 

MODERN HISTORY. 

SECTION I. 

374. At what oera is the commencement of profane history dated ? 

375. What new and powerful dominion arose in the latter part of Uie sixth 

century ? 

376. To whom do th6 Arabians trace their descent? 

377. When and where was Mahomet born ? 

378. What was his descent and education ? ' 

379. "WTiat is the sacred book of the Mahometan religion called' 

380. By whom and under what circumstances was it written? 

381. What are the nature and substance of Mahometan religion? 

382. ^^'hat caused the banishment of Mahomet from Mecca ? 

383. What is his flight called ? 

384. When did it take place ? 

385. Did the Mahometan religion have a rapid increase ? 

386. What was the title of the head of this empire? 

SECTION II. 

387. Who were the Franks ? 

388. From what did they receive this name? 

389. Under whom and what circumstances were the Franks converted to 

Christianity? 

390. Who delivered France from the ravages of the Saracens? 

391. At what time did this take place ? 

392. With whom and under what circumstances commenced the second 

race of kings in France ? 

393. Who succeeded Pepin in the sovereignty of France ? 

SECTION III. 

394. How was the power of the government divided and exercised in tlic 

early parts of the French monarchy ? 

395. What was the religious character of the ancient Germans? 

S96. What new system of policy vose at this time among the united 
Germans and Franks, which extended itself over most nations of 
Europe ? 

397. What is to be understood by the Feudal System ? 

398. What effect had the Feudal System on the power of the sovereign . 

399. By what name is the second race of French kings called ? 

SECTION IV. »f 

400. How came Charlemagne into possession of the undivided sovt^reijnty 

of France ? 

401. What was his private character ? 

402. When did he die ? 

403. Who was his successor? 



U QUESTIONS 

SECTION V. 

404. "What 19 said of Charleman;ne in relation to commerce ' 

405. How (lit! lie view liKrature ' 

406. What style of architecture was successfully studied and cultivated 

in that a°fe ? 

107. What sanguinary and most iniquitous custom of the present time 

may be traced to the age of Charlemagne? 

SECTION VI. 

108. What great heresies existed in the Christian church about thii 

time ? 

409. By whom and when was the Arian heresy condemned ? 

410. \N hat was a source of the most obstinate controversy in those aojes ? 

41 1. What gave rise to penances and other religious voluntary suffering' 

412. What effect had the conquests of Charlemagne on Christianity ? 

SECTION VII. 

413. Who was the immediate successor of Charlemagne ? 

414. Did his empire remain entire under his successors? 

415. What was the character of his succesaora ? 

SECTION VIII. 
41C. "What was the condition of tlie £a£tem empire during the eighth and 

ninth centuries? 
417. What was the character of the emperors ? 
•418. What religious dispute prevailed at this time ? 

SECTION IX. 

4 19. Under whom did the Pope begin to acquire temporal power? 

420. What is said of the religious character of the temporal princes of this 

period ? 

421. What check was there, at this time, to the increasing power of the 

church of Rome ? 

422. W^hat is the character of the clergy of this period ? 

SECTION X. 

423. By whom was the empire of Morocco founded ? 

424. W hen did the Saracens overrun and conquer Spain ? 

425. Was the Mahometan religion extensively professed ? 

426. What prevented the Saracens from raising an extensive empire? 

SECTION XI. 

427. What had become the condition of the empire founded by Charle 

niagne, in the tenth and eleventh centuries ' 
420. How were the emperors at this ftme elected ? 

429. Who wt re some of the most distinguished monarchs of Germany in 

the middle ages? 

430. Were there frequent disputes between the Popts of Rome and Ger 

man emperors ? 

SECTION XIL 

431. From whom is it probable the British isles derived tiieir first inhabi- 

tants ? 

432. What was the condition of the country when invaded by the Ro- 

mans ? 
4T). When did Julius Cassar entw Britain ' 



QUESTIONS. 16 

434. When did a complete reduction of the island take place, and put it 

under the Roman power ? 

435. When did the Romans abandon the country ? 

436. What led the Saxons into Britain ? 

437. How long were the Saxons in conquering^ the Britons ? 

438. What was the government called, established by the Saxons? 

439. When and by whom was the Saxon Heptarchy brought under one 

sovereign ? 

440. What piratical people for a long period subsequent to this, desolated 

the coasts of Britain ? 

441. AVhat relationship was there between Alfred the Great and Egbert? 

442. What is the character of Alfred ? 

443. When did he die ? 

444. Who were the immediate successors of Alfred ? 

445. What people invaded and obtained the government of England sub- 

sequent to the time of Alfred ? 
446 When was William duke of Normandy put in possession of the throne 
of England? 

SECTION XIII. 

447. What was the character of the Anglo-Saxon government ? 

448. How many ranks of people were there ? 

449. How did the Anglo-Saxons compare with the Normans in point ol 

civilization ? 

SECTION XIV. 

4b0. Who was elected to the throne of France, A. D. 987? 

451. What was the prevailing passion among the nations of Europe dur* 

ing the tenth and eleventh ceitUiries ? 

452. What was the state of the Northern powers of Europe in point of civ» 

ilization, at this time ? 

453. What was a subject of dispute between the Popes and the Emperon .' 

SECTION XV. 

45'«. What was the consequence of the battle of Hastings ? 

455. What was the end of William the conqueror ? 

456. What important law did he introduce into England ? 

457. Which part of his subjects, were treated with most favour? 

458. Who were some of the immediate successors of William the conquer 

or.^ 

459. Who effected the conquest of Ireland ? 

460. What clouded the latter part of the reign of Henry II. ? 

461. What was the character of this monarch ? 

462. Who succeeded him on the throne ? 

463. How came Richard I. to be imprisoned in Germany? 

464. Under what sovereign was the Magna Charta produced ? 

SECTION XVI. 

465. What two factions were there in Italy in the thirteenth century ? 

466. What occasioned them ? 

467. What was the political state of Europe at this time •• 

SECTION XVII. 

468. Who was the first promoter of the Crusades ? 

469. What was the object of the Crusades ? 

470. What was the number of Peter's army, and when did he commenct 

his crusade to the Holy Land .'' 



10 QUESTIONS. 

471. What became of thii armj f 

472. ^Vhen was a second crusade undertaken and hew many en|;aged is 

it? 

473. What was the fate of this expedition? 

474. \\ ho headed the third crusade? 

475. When was the fourth fitted out ? 

476. What particular success attended one, and what was its issue ? 

477. \Vho undertook the last crusade into tlie East? 

478. What became of Lewis IX. ? 

479. How many, is it supposed, of the persons who engaged in the cm 

sades, perished ? 
48C. What benefit resulted from the crusades ? 

SECTION XVIil. 
i81. How was the profession of arms esteemed among the Germans? 

482. What is said to have beeji characteristic of the Gothic manners ? 

483. When did chivalry attain its perfection ? 

484. What writings accompanied the adventures of chivalry? 

485. Are works of fiction capable of producing* good moral effects? 

SECTION XiX. 

486. "WTien did the crusaders take Constantinople ? 

487. How long did the French emperors govern it ? 

488. When may the rise of the house of Austria be dated? 

489. How did the states of Italy compare at this time with nv**. >if the 

other countries of Europe ? " 

490. What severe and bloody measure was adopted in relation %*> tbe 

Knights Templars ? 

SECTION XX. 

491. When did Switzerland become independent ? 

492. By what name was it then called ? 

493. To what government had it been subject? 

494. What was the number of battles fought before il became in^h^ -«- 

dent? 

SECTION XXI. 
405. What prince imposed a tribute on all the Italian states? 

495. In whose time was the Popedom removed to Avignon ? 

497. How long did it remain there ? 

498. Wiiat act dielincuished the reign of Charles IV. ? 

499. Who summoned the council of Constance, 1414? 

500. What martyrdoms were the consequence of this coancil ? 

501. By whom was the wealth of the Germanic states possessed^ 

SECTION XXII. 

502. ^^^lat character is given of Henry III. ' 

503. By whom was he made a prisoner ? 

504. Who succeeded Henry III. on the throne of England ? 

505. ^^'hen and by whom was Wales conquered ? 

SECTION XXIII. 

506. What is the state of the Scottish history before the time of Malcolm 

III.? 

507. Who were the two next succeeding kings cf Scotland f 

508. Who became competitors to the CK)WD» 1285. 
Hrw vm tire Hi?^Tiite derldp^tf - 



QUESTIONS. 17 

510. What distinguished warrior arose, at this time, to assert the liberties 

of hi» country ? 

511. What became of Wallace? 

512. Who finally succeeded in delivering Scotland from the English and 

was crowned sovereign of it, ^306 ? 

SECTION XXIV. 

513. What statute was passed by Edward I. which related to taxes and 

imposts ? 

514. How many times in his reign is he said to have ratified the Magna 

Charta ? 

515. With how large an army did he invade Scotland? 

516. With what force did Bruce meet him? • 

517. Who dethroned Edward II. and under what circumstances? 

518. In what manner did Ed\ya.d HI. revenge the murder of his father? 

519. On what did he found his claim to the tiirone of France ? 

520. When are the English said for the first time to have used artillery in 

battle? 

521. What king of France was carried captive to England, and by whom ? 

522. What became of the captive king of France ? 

523. Who succeeded John in France and Edward III. in England? 

SECTION XXV. 

524. What became of Richard II. aicid who succeeded him ? 

C25. What was the origin of the quarrels between the houses of Lancas 

ter and York ? 
526 What induced Henry V. to invade France ? 

527. What was the result of this expedition ? 

528. On what term.s did Henry V. receive a right to the throne of France 

during the life of Charles VI. ? 

529. By what aid was Charles VII. enabled to secure the throne of France 

to himseir? 

530. What became of the Maid of Orleans ? 

531. What was the state of society in Europe at this period? 

532. What circumstances show that it was in a low state? 

SECT lON XXVI. 

533. At what time did the Turks cross over into Europe ? 

534. What Asia-tic conqueror arose in the 14th century, who for a time 

checked the Turks in their career of conquest and oppression ? 

535. What effect did the death of Tamerlane have on the Turks ? 

536. What prince subjected Constantinople to the power of the Turks ? 

537. When did this take place, and how long had the eastern empire 

then subsisted ? 

538. Did this terminate the empire of the East, as it was termed ? 

SECTION XXVIL 

539. What is the government of Turkey ? 

540. What limits and restraints are there upon a Turkish Sultan ? 

541. What is the character of the people ? 

542. With what officer are the principal functions of the government ea- 

trusted ? 

543. Ho-^ are the revenues of the government obtained? 

SECTION XXVIII. 

E44. ^Vhat greatly increased the power of the French crown in the ISib 
century •' 2* 



&45. What was the . Haracter ol Lewu Xl.** 

640. Who were the two immediate successors of Lewii XI., on the throne 
of France ? 

547. la what foreign enterprise did Charles Vlll. of France enga^«; ? 

*?ECTION XXIX. 

548. What circumstance united the king^doms pf Arragon and Cattile 

under the pame sovereig^ns ? 

549. What institutions were formed in this period for the discorcry and 

punishment of crimes ? 

550. When did Ferdinand take the title, kin» of Spain ? 

fi51. How long time did the dominion of the Moors continue in Spain? 

552. On ^vhM. account and when did Ferdinand expel the Jews from 

Spain ? 

553. How numerous were they ? 

554. AV'hat memorable discovery was made in this reign ? 

SECTION XXX. 

555. ^Tiat -was the character of pope Alexander VI. ? 

556. What became of him ? 

557. Who conspired to deprive Lewis XII. of Navarre ? 

558. When did he die ? 

SECTION XXXI. 

559. How did the partisans cf York and Lancaster diiting^uiah themseltei 

fr-tm each other ? 

560. Which party triumphed? 

561. Howmany of the Lancastrians were slain in the battle near Touton ? 

562. To whom was Edward IV. in the first instance indebted foi hit 

throne ? 

563. What caused Warwick to torn against Edward ? 

564. What epithet was g-iven to WarwicK ? 

565. Who was the queen of Henry VI. and what is said of her chaj^acter ? 

566. What of Henry VI. — of his queen Margaret — and of the Prince, 

their son ? 
5C7. Who was Richard III ? 

568. How did he come to the throne ? 

569. \N'hat became of him ? 

5"y0. What became of Edward V. ? 

5*;1. How were the Houses of York and Lancaster united, which put • 
period to the civil wars between them ? 

572. What is said of the government of Henry VII. ? 

SECTION XXXII. 

573. What waslhe state of the feudal system in Scotland ? 
674. What was a constant policy of the Scottish kings ? 

575. What Scottish king was prisoner in London in company with John, 

king of France ? 
57^;. How iong was he held in captivity there ? 

577. How Icng was James I. held in captivity by the English ? 

578. What advantage did he derive from this captivity ? 
hlO. To what end did the five Jameses come ? 

680. With what English sovereign was Jamei V. contemporary, and ei*- 
gagged in war ? 

SECTION XXXIII. 

(81. What wmi th« constant policy of the Scottish kin^s 



QUESTIONS 19 

682. What rendered thii policy necessary ? 

bS3. In whom resided the leg^islative power? 

684- Of what did the revenue of the sovereign consist ? 

SECTION xxxrv. 

585. Who were the first restorers of learning; in Europe ? 

586. What soverei^s in this age encouraged the revival of learning io 

Europe ? 

587. What distinguished genius appeared ia the middle of the thirteentb 

century ? 

588. In what did the genius of Bacon discover itself? 

589. What led to a discovery of many of the ancient authors, during the 

fifteenth century? 

590. What contributed most to the dissemination of knowledge at this 

period ? 

591. To what is to be traced modem dramatic composition ? 

SECTION XXXV. 

592. What was the boldest naval enterprise of the ancients 1 

593. What parts of Europe were unknown to the ancients ? 

594. To what sea was the commerce of the ancients mostly confined ? 

595. "\Vhat cities of modern Europe first became commercial? 
o96. When and whtre was first established a national bank '' 

597. \N hat weie the Italian merchants called in the middle ages? 

598. ^^ hat gi.ve rise to bills of Exchange ? 

599. When did commerce extend itself to the north of Europe ? 

600. For what purpose was the League of the Hanse towns Ibrmed ? 

601. When did the woollen manufactures of England become important? 
G02. What English sovereigns in th^s« ages particularly encouraged com- 
merce and the useful arts ? 

SECTION X'XXVI. 

603. "\Mien was the mariner's compass first used ? 

604. What nation became particularly distinguished in the fifteenth cen- 

tury for naval enterprise ? 

605. When and by whom was the Cape of Good Hope doubled ? 

606. How extensive did the Portuguese possessions in India become at 

this time? 

607. What effect had these discoveries on the commerce of Europe ? 

608. Who made repeated attempts to destroy the trade of the Portuguese? 

609. What besides the Portugues--; discoveries produced a spirit of sue- 

cessful enterprise in England ? 

610. What has been the increase of population in Britain since the reign 

of Elizabeth ? 

611. What proportion of the population is supposed to be employed in 

manufactures and commerce ? 

612. How does it appear that there has been a great increase of national 

wealth in BritaJi ? 

SECTION XXXVII. 

613. Who were the parents of Charles V. ? 

614. When did he come to the throne of Spain? 

61b. Who was the competitor of Charles V. for the throne of Austria oi 
the death of Maximilian ? 

616. Who was king of England at this time ? 

617. How did the war terminate between Charles and Francis? 

SI 8. With whom did Henry VIII. take part on the renewal of the war? 
619. What induced Charles to conclude a treaty with Francis, in 1544 * 



«0 QUESTIONa 

620. V^en and by whom was the order of Jesuits founded' ^ 

621. What was the principle of the order ? 

62*2. N^'hat g^ave Charles ptrpetual disquiet in Germony ? 

623. At what age and where did he resign his doniluicua? 

SECTION XXXVIII. 

624. ^Mlat was the condition of the Germanic empire previous to the reign 

of Maximilian I. ? 

625. What emperor acquired the greatest power in Germany ? 

SECTION XXXIX. 

626. Wljat important events distinguished the age of Charles V. ? 

627. Who was a leading character in producing the Reformation ? 

628. ^^'ho was Roman Pontiff at this time ? 

629. What practice of the Romish church did Luther first attack' 

630. What procurtd Henry VIII. the title of Defender of the faKh ? 

631. What distinguished reformer arose in Switzerland? 

632. ^Vhat sovereign at this time was upon the thrones of Sweden, Den- 

mark, and Norway ? 

633. Who was Gustavus Vasa ? 

634. What act of Leo X and of Christiem 11. contributed to the reforma 

tion in the north ? 

635. From what circumstance did the Lutherans derive the name of Prot 

estants ? 

636. Who became a distinguished convert to the doctrines of the refor 

niation in Geneva ? 

637. What is said of the character of Calvin - 

SECTION XL. 

638. What reformer arose in England in the middle of the fourteenth ceu 

tury .'' 

639. In what way had WIckliffe prepared the minds of the people of Eng- 

land for the reformation ? 

640. Who was the immediate cause of it ? 

841. What led Henry Vlll. to declare himself head of the church in Eng- 
land :• 

642. When did he die, and by whom was he succeeded ? 

643. What checked the progress of reformation in England, in the year 

1553.' 

644. How many Protestants suffered martyrdom during the reign of Mary, 

in r.ngland ? 

645. In whose reign did the Protestant religion become established accord- 

ing to its present form in England ? 

SECTION XLI. 

646. WTio discovered America? 

647. To whom did he apply in vain for aid in making discoveries ? 

648. Who finally furnished him for the voyage ? 

649. How long after Columbus left the Csuaaries, before he discovered 

la.id ? 

650. In which of his voyages did he discover the continent of America ? 

651. From whom was the name of America received ? 

652 How did the Spaniards treft the inhabitants of the newly discovered 

countries ? 
653. When and bv whom was the continent of America explored ? 

654 How long had the Mexican enipire been founded at this time ? 

655 Who was the sovereign of it ? 



QUESTIONS. fl 

666. What waa the result of the expedition against the Mexicans ? 

657. Who and with what success attempted to supersede Cortez ? 

658. What became of Montezuma ? 

659. Who was his successor, and what became of him ? 

660. When and by whom was an expedition undertaken against Peru ? 

661. What are some of the most important circumstances that attended 

this expedition ? 

662. What became of D'Almagro and Pizarro? 

663. What constituted the principal vahie of the American Spanish pos- 

sessions ? 

SECTION XLII. 

664. What effect had the success of the Spaniards on the other nations of 

Europe ? 

665. Who first settled Brazil, Florida, and Canada ? 

666. From what did Eng-land derive her right to her American settle- 

ments ? 

667. Who first planted an English colony in America ? 

668. How do those parts of America at first settled by British colonists 

compare in natural richness with the Spanish possessions ? 

SECTION XLIII. 

669. "VtHiat was the state of the fine arts in Europe in the time of Leo X. ? 

670. What was their progress ? 

671. In what arts did the Italians excel ? 

672. Who were some of the most distinguished Italian painters ? 

673. Who were some of the most distinguished Italian sculptors ? 

674. When is the invention of engrating on copper dated ? 

SECTION XLIV. 

675. What is the character of the Turks in the fifteenth century ? 

676. From whom did the Turks take the island of Rhodes ? 

677. From what ancient nation are derived the principles of maritime ju- 

risprudence existing among modem nations ? 

678. What conquests did the Turks make in the sixteenth century ? 

SECTION XLV. 

679. What occasioned a revolution in Persia in the latter part of the fif. 

teenth century ? 

680. What is the^government of Persia ? 

681. From what country have proceeded the conquerors who occasioned 

the principal revolutions of Asia ? 

682. What singular phenomenon does the kingdom of Thibet exhibit ? 

SECTION, XLVI. 

683. Who has furnished the earliest accounts of India ? 

684. How do those accounts compare with the present condition of the 

Hindoos ? 

685. When did the Mahometans begin an establishment in India? 

686. What was the condition of the Mogul empire in the beginning of the 

eighteenth century ? 

687. Who conquered and obtained possession of the Mogul empire abou) 

the middle of the eighteenth century ? 

SECTION XLVII. 

688. How have the remains of the ancient knowledge of the Hindoos been 

preserved t* 



CI QUESTIONS 

689. How ha* the \kk\y df Hindoo people been dirided ? 

690. What inference 13 to be drawn from this classification of the Hindoos^ 

as to their early civilization ? 

691. "What was the civil policy of the Hindoos in the time of Alexander 

the great ? 

692. What is the antiquity of some Hindoo compositions lately trans- 

lated ? 
C93. What is the antiquity of some numerical tables lately obtained from 
the Bramins by M. Gentil ? 

694. What do the writings of the Hindoo priests demonstrate ? 

695. What is the religion of India generally ? 

SECTION XLVIII. 

696. 'Wliat is said of the laws and system of government in China? 

697. When did the Tartars establish themselves permanently in the unw- 

ereignty of China ? 

698. When and by whom was the empire of Japan discovered ? 

699. Who carried on a beneficial trade with the people of Japan? 

700. What caused this trade to be broken off? 

701. Why is it that the Dutch are still allowed to trade with the Japa 

nese ? 

SECTION XLIX. 
T02. To whom does Sir William Jones trace the origin of the Chinese? 

703. What is the government of China ? 

704. How are honours bestowed in China ? 

705. What is the state of the sciences in China at thjs time ? 

706. What arts in China are carried to great perfection ? 

707. What are the morals of the Chinese ? 

708. What Chinese writer is said to have produced a good system of mo 

rality? 

709. What is the religion of the emperor and the higher mandarins ? 

SECTION L. 

710. What was the opinion of >fr. Bailly concerning the arts and sciences 

among the nations of the east ? 

711. How long have they been stationary with the Chinese? 

712. At how early a period are the Chaldeans represented to hare been 

an enlightened people ? 

713. Is the opinion of Mr. Bailly well founded ? Mkt 

SECTION LI. 

714. Who took Calais from the English for the French ? 

715. How long had it been in possession of the English? 

716. What was the character of Philip II. ? 

717. The government did he confer on the Prince of Orange? 

718. For what purpose did he establish the Inquisition in those provinces* 

719. What led to the establishment of the republic of the seven unitetf 

provinces ? 

720. What is the chief magistrate called ? 

721. What became of the Prince of Orange ? 

722. Wlio aided this republic in obtaining independence ? 

SECTION LII. 

723. What was the government of the seven united provinces ? 

724. What important evil is there in the conititution of the government 1 
7J5. What was tlie authority of the chief magistrate ? 



QUESTIONS. » 

'716. Who almost annihilated the republic ? 
7t7. When was the Stadtholdership made hereditary • 

SECTION LIII. 

728. How was the loss of the Netherlands compensated to Philip 11. ? 

729. When did he take possession of Portugal ? 

730. What naval enterprise engaged the attention of Philip .' 

731. What was the result of it? 

732. What is the character of PhHip ? 

SECTION LIV. 

733. What accelerated the progress of reformation in France ? 

734. "What two parties were engaged in a civil war in the latter part «# 

the sixteenth century ? 
7'?5. ^Vhen was the massacre of St. Bartholomew? 

736. What was the character of Charles IX. of France ? 

737. Who were his two immediate successors ? 

738. What became of them ? 

739. What great project was Henry IV. meditating, when assassinafted ? 

SECTION LV. 

740. "WTien did Elizabeth come to the throne of England ? 

741. What was the state of the kingdom during her reign ? 

742. What fixed a stain on Elizabeth's character ? 

743. Under what pretence did Mary of Scots assume the arms and title oi 

queen of England ? 

744. What form of religion became established in Scotland, in the reign erf 

Elizabeth ? 

745. Who was a distinguished reformer in Scotland ? 

746. Who were the two husbands of Mary ? 

747. How came Mary in the hands of Elizabeth ? • 

748. Under what pretence was Mary condemned and executed ? 

749. How long was she a captive in England ? 

750. At what age and when did Elizabeth die ? 

SECTION LVI. 

75 1» Wlio succeeded Elizabeth on the throne of England? 

752. What rendered James unpopular with his subjects ? 

753. What was the object of Ihe gunpowder treason ? 

754. By whom was the conspiracy formed ? 

755. W^hat was a favourite object with James ? 

756. Who was his successor? 

757. What were some of the principal subjects of dispute between Charlei 

and hi? parliaments ? 

758. What caused the Scots to rebel and take up arms against the govern- 

ment of Charles? 

759. What two di?tinguished individuals at this time were impeached by 

the commons and beheaded? 

760. What important occurrence was there at this time in Ireland ? 

761. When the civil war commenced, who were on the side of the king 

and who on that of the parliament ? 

762. Who directed Ihe measures of the army of parliament ? 

763. In what way was Cromwell able to procure the death of Charles ? 

764. WTien was he beheaded ? 

765. How far were the proceedings of the commons justifiable ? 



t4 QUESTIONS 

SECTION LVll. 

766. What part did the parliament of Scotland take in regard to the king ? 

767. On what condition was Charli-s II. proclaimed king of Scotland ? 

768. Who were the Cortnanttrs of Scotland ? 

769. What became of Charles II. when overcome by Cromwell? 

770. What was the title of Cromwell? 

771. \N'hat was tlu- cJiaracter of hi? government ? 

77'2. At what ag«! did he die, and who was his successor? ^ 

773. What was the parliament called that put to death king Charles? 

774. Under what circumstances and when was Charles II. restored ? 

SECTION LVIII. 

775. What was the character of Charles 11. ? 

776. W'hen were the epithets of Whig and Tory first known, and how 

were they applied ? 

777. Who was the successor of Charles II. ? 

778. What made him unpopular -with his subjects ? 

779. By what means was Charles removed from the throne ? 

780. On whom was the crown then settled ? 

781. What became of James ? 

SECTION LIX. 

782. To what period may the rudiments of the English constitation hm 

traced ? 

783. In whose reign was instituted the trial by jury? 

784. In whose reign did the Magna Charla originate ? 

785. In whose reign was the act of Habeas Ccrpits passed ? 

786. Of what does the parliament of Great Britain consist ? 

787. Of what does the house of lords consist ? 

788. Of what does the house of commons consist ? 

789. What is the act of Habeas Corpus ? 

SECTION LX. 

790. How are the pecuniary supplies of the sovereign obtained ? 

791. When did the English national debt arise? 

792. What constitutes the Sinkhig Fund ? 

793. Is it probable the debt will ever become extinct ? 

SECTION LXI. 

794. To what minister was France indebted for muc-h of her good succeu 

in the reign of Lewis XIII. ? 

795. What was the character of Lewis XIII. ? 

796. What became the condition of the Protestants in the reign of Lewis 

XIII.? 
7%7. When did he die ? 

SECTION LXII. 

798. Wliat weak and despicable act did Philip III. commit? 

799. When did Portugal become an independent sovereignty ? 

800. Who became her first king ? 

801. What is said of Spain in the reigns of Philip III. and IV.? 

SECTION LXIII. 

802. What was the condition of Germany when Charles V. abdicated th« 

throne ? 

803. What was then and for a long period afterwards a subject of conten- 

tion in Germany ? 



QUESTIONS. 1ft 

B04. What peace put a period to this contention? 
805. When did the peace of Westphalia take place ? 

SECTION LXIV. 
B06. When did Lewis XIV. come to the throne of France? 

807. At what age ? 

808. \^ hat led to a civil war in the early part of his reign ? 

809. When did Mazarin die ? 

810. What chang^e took place in the affairs of France at this time ? 

oil. What was reckoned one of the weakest and most impolitic measurea 
of Lewis XIV. ? 

812. What was the state of the finances af France in the latter pajrt of" 

the reign of Lewis XIV. ? 

813. What character is given of Lewis XIV. ? 

814. At what age and when did he die ? 

SECTION LXV. 

815. What change took place in the government of France, under the 

Capetian race of kings ? 

816. What power arose to limit and check the royal prerogative, in and 

from the reign of Lewis XIII. 

817. What made the powers of parliament a constant subject of dispute ? 

818. In what way was the crown of France to descend ? 

819. What was the established religion of France? 

820. What took place in the assembly of the Galilean church, in 1682 ? 

SECTION LXVI. 

321. What two distinguished characters in the north of Europe were 
contemporary with Lewis XIV. ? 

822. When is Russia said to have received Christianity? 

823. What sovereign first published a code of laws in Russia? 

824. When was Siberia added to the Russian empire ? 

825. When and how did Peter become master of the Russian empire ? 

826. How was the early part of his life spent ^ 

82',. What method did he adopt to improve himself in the sciences and 
useful arts ? 

828. When and at wh»t age did Charles XII. come to the throne of Sweden' 

829. At what age and with what success was his first campaign made ; 

830. W^hat change did he effect in the government of Folauad ? 

831. By whom was he defeated ? 

832. How many of his aHny remained to him after this defeat ? 

833. To what means did Charles then resort to regain his lost power ? 

834. Wliat became of Charles XII. ? 

835. WTien did Peter the Great die ' 

SECTION LXVIl. 

836. Who were the principal philosophers in the seventeenth century ? 

837. For what was Galileo imprisoned ? 

838. W^hat institutions were formed which contributed to the advance- 

ment of science and the arts ? 

839. What work of Newton contains the elements of all philosophy ? 

840. What was Locke's theory concerning the human mind ? 

841. What are some of the most distinguished poetical productions of 

modern times ? 

842. Who are some of the most eminent English Poets i 

843. Who were distinguished writers in history during the 16th and Hlh 

centuries ? ., 



tl QlIESTtONS. 

APPENDIX 

HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

SnCTION I. 

B44, ^Vh&t constUntes the la«i9 of Iht* ftrr^t historical record*? 

B^f'. Ilo'v raa wt account lor liie fabulous nlalious of the firit hiato- 
rinns ? 

846. From what period are the details in profane history to be received 
a? latls ? 

817. ^\ hat historical records are the most ancient as well as the most ra- 
tional ? 

848. What liistorical facts do they contain, not founJ in other history ? 

SECTION II. 

849. Who were the Israelites? 

850. Why were liiey suffered to be subdued by the Romans ? 

851. In what condition do their desct-ndants exist? 

852. Wh<it circumstance illustrates the truth and inspiration of the pro 

phttic writings .' 

SECTION III. 

853. How long: before Iferodotus did Moses live ? 

854. What ackuowledg;ruent did Porphyry mr.ke as to the antiquity of 

the writinirs of ^Io8e8 ? 
j55. What pagan traditions confirm the truth of the Pentateuch? 

856. What is said of Zoroaster ? 

857. What .'ewish historian successfully vindicates the authority of the 

Jewish scriptures ? 

SECTION IV 

858. What are tb^ principal facts recorded in the book of Genesis * 

859. What remarkable prophecy of Isaiah is there concemiiug Cyrus' 

860. And what one concerning^ Babylon? 

8G1. What was the length of time from the givin* of the law to Moset to 
the reformation in worship and g^^vernment of the Jews by Nehe 
miah? 

862. What hereditary distinction of rank existed among the Jews? 

063. What is said of Moses, Kljsha, and Gide'^n ? 

864. Whai internal undoubted characteristic of truth is therein tlit scrip- 

tures ? 

SECTION V. 

865. When was the crsation of the world accomplished > 

dC6. What was one of the most remarkable circum^tancei of the anted! 

hiviau!"? 
567. IK.w long did some of the oblest of them lire ? 
fif;H. Why did the .-\lniig;hly destroy (he world by a deluge of wattr ? 
661). Who were saved from it and by what means? 
870. Who wtre some of the first inventors of the useful arts ? 

SECTION VI. 
<!7l. What la said of the three sons of Noab ' 



QUESTIONS, r- 

«72. What is the most important event between the deluge and the e«i/ 
of Abraham ? 

873. Of what city was Babel the beginning ? 

SECTION VII. 

874. From whom do the Jews derive then origin ? 

875. What relationship was there between Jacob and Abraham? 

876. How came Joseph, the son of Jacob, to be in F^ypt? 

877. By what means was he made governor of Egypt ? 

878. How came his father and brethren to remove thither? 

879. Hv>w long did the Israelites remain in Egypt ? 

880. What were some of the circumstances connected with their Icarinf; 

it? 

881. How long after leaving Egypt did Moses die ? 

SECTION VIII. 

882. What caused a league to be formed between the Syrian chiefs ? 

883. Who was the successor of Moses in the government of Israel? 

884. How were the Israelites governed after the death of Joshua? 

885. Who were the two last Judges of Israel •• 

886. What change took place in the government on the death of Samuel ' 

SECTION IX. 

887. Wliat was the original government of Israel called ? 

888. What moral and political change took place on the death of Josbv«u 

in the condition of Israel ? 

889. Why was the regal government iatroduced ? 

SECTION X- 

890. How long did Saul reign over Israel? 

891. By what means was David raised to the throne as his successor? 

892. What prosperous events characterized the reign of David? 

893. What adverse ones characterized it ? 

894. How long did David reign, and who succeeded him ? 

895. What is the most remarkable event in the reigu of Solomon ? 

896. What books are ascribed to him ? 

897. Under what circumstances was the kingdom divided ? 

898. By what names were the two kingdoms subsequently to this division 

called ? 

899. What became of the ten tribes who constituted the kingdom of Is- 

rael ? 

900. Whence sprang the Samaritans ? 

901. When and in what manner ended the kingdom of Judah? 

SECTION XI. 

902. How long were the Jews held captive in Babylon? 

903. By whom were they released ? 

904. From what time and circumstance were the Israelites called Jews? 

905. What caused Alexander the great to march to Jerusalem with hos- 

tile intentions ? 

906. By what means was he appeased ? 

907. What favours did he then bestow on them ? 

908. What advantage did Ptolemy take of the*regard which the Jews paid 

to the Sabbath ? 

909. In what manner did the five brothers named Maccabeus become dis- 

tinguished ? 

910. Who was their father ? 



2g aUIWTJONtt 

911. When and by whoiu were the Jews lubjeclcii U tiifc ilomaus i 

912. Who was then placed on the throne of David under the protection 

of the Romans ? 

913. By what memorable event was the reig^n of Ilerod di8tiDg;'uiihed ? 

• 14. By whom and when was the Jewish nation ezting-ui»hed ? 

915. How many Jews arc su^posud to baee perished in their iMt wiL 
with the Kamaas ? ■ 

SECTION XII. 

• 16. What is the period of scriptural history ? ^ 

917. Where is it supposed that the Jewe obtaiaed their knowled^of tJbmf 

arts and sciences ? 

918. What was the state of commerce among the Jews? 

919. With what inference does Tytler conclude his work on history ? 



CONTINUATION, OR PART THIRD 

SECTIOiN J. 
t$o. "What was the age of Lewis XV. when the crown of France descend 
ed to him f 

921. When and what heirs to the crown >f France, died within a few 

months ? 

922. What made it necessary for France < » the death <rf Lewis XIV. to 

preserve peace with foreign states? 
§23. Who was regent of France during^ the n.inority of Lewis XV. ? 
tS4. Wliat distinguished minister was at the court of Spain, in this 
period ? 

925. W'hat was the character of the duk« of Orleans, the rej^ent o( 

France ' 

926. By what means were the duchies of Loii ^in and Ba; maule to revert 

to France ? 

SECTION II. 

927. Who succeeded queen Anne on the throne of Britain ? 

928. What acts of parliament had passed connected with the acceisioo 

of George I. concerning religion ? 

929. When did he enter his new dominions ? 

930. How did the rebellion of 1715 in ScotlanJ, terminate? 

931. By what name were the adherents to the Prtitndtr called ? 

932. By what name was the party called to which George I. committed 

the government of the realm ? 

933. Who was king of Sweden at this time ? 

934. For what purpose and by whom was he nearl}' in8tig;ated to mrM* 

Britain ? 

935. What ruined the prospects of Alberoul ? 

930. In what way did he attempt obtaining revenge "^ 

937. Why did he not succeed ? 

938. At what age aind when did George 1. die ? 



SECTION III. 
•39. When did Charles VI. become emperor of Anstria and Germany r 
940. Who was the Au.«trian commander in the first war of Charlet Vi. 
with the Turks ? 



aUESTIONS. *® 

941 mat arrangement did he make for the descervt of the Austrian 

942. WhltTas this arrancement or his act in making it called ? 

olt When did Charles VI. die, and who succeeded hira ? 

9!^; Was she permitted to enjoy unmolested the domm.ons descended to 

945. What' circumstances were calculated to raise up competitors for dif- 

ferent nar^s of her estates ? ^ 

QAfi Who was ths most forward and active of the queen's opponents; 
M?' WhatTevented the competitors of the queen from succeed.ng .. 

948. Which're'oflhem'succeeded in obtaining the imperial crown i. 

1741 ? 

949. How long after this did he live f 

950. On his death who obtained the imperial crown . 

951. When did the peaca of Aix-la-Chapelle take place . 

SECTION IV. 

962. At what time and age did George II. come to the throne of Eng- 

land? 
953» Who was his queen ? . . , 

954. Who was prime minister of England at this tune . 
955! What caused him to resign? .v^^^^^a? 

956. Upon what two occasions had his views been thwarted . 
957 When did he die ? , , . ? 

958. What interesting event occurred in Scotland the same year . 
059. What was the object of the insurrection m Scotland . 
960. In what battle were the hopes of the Stuart fami Y^or ever olasted ? 
961 What became of the heir of this family after that battle . 
902] What is considered the most melancholy circumstance attendmg 

the Scottish rebellion ? ^ . ,, i«ci > 

963. What singular act of parliament was passed m the year 1751 

964. When and at what age did George II. die ? 

SECTION V. 
^5. By what treaty was the house of Hanover effectually estabUshed 
on the British throne ? , -xi. 

966. How was the British naval force left by this treaty compared with 

the naval forces of other European nations ? 

967. What did Austria lose by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle . 

968. What did Prussia gain by it ? 

969. How Jid it eflFect Holland ? . . . .u *u ♦ f «. 

970. By what means was Russia introduced mto the southern states or 

Europe ? 

SECTION VI 

971. What became a subject of jealousy and future warfare, after the 

peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, between France and England ? 

972. In what respect did the peace of Europe, in 1748, extend to Asia 

and America? ^ j x ». • *i. 

973. What French governor in the East Indies attempted to bring the 

Mogul empire under the dominion of France ' 

974. In what way did the French in America pain an advantage over the 

English ? 

975. When did the French war in America commence . 

97C. What number of French merchant vessels was captured and car- 
ried intc the English por*.s the first yi»ar of the war? 



so QUESTIONS. 

9T7. "When the war was extended to Europe, what powen arnmgsd 
themselves ag-ain^t each other? 

978. ^^'hn was king; of I'russia at lliis lime ? 

979. \\ l>:it is hi» character > 

Cao. Wliat has this war been termed ? 

9U1. How many uu-n have been supposed to have perished annually is 

the caraj.-aig'us of it ? 

982. AVhat advautao;c did the English "^ain in America '' 

9H3. What new jilly did France obtain in the year of 1761 ? 

9VA. What induced him to join the Itajjue against Euglaud ? 

9J15. ^^'hat advanta°^t'3 did Eiig^land g'ain by this war? 

-9li6. What change in the uiiuistry of England contributed to the peace' 

SECTION VII. 

987. When did Geoig-e III. succeed to the throne of Britain ? 

988. What was one of hia first acts which showed him to be the friend 

of liberty ? 
9n9. What gave rise to distressing tumults in the year 1762? 
990. How did the measures of lerd Bute difTer from those of Mr. Pitt? 
P91. What contributed to make the first years ot George III. unquiet? 

992. What besides public addresses and remonstrancf s contributed to the 

popular fervour and agitation of public feeling at this period? 

993. What constitutional question came under discussion at this time? 

994. For what is the yeai' 1764 remarkable? 

SECTION VIII. 
905. What was the pretence for taxing the American colonits ? 
990. What was the iirst instance of imposing direct taxes without their 
consent ? 

997. When was this unposed ? 

998. W^hen was it formally repealed ? 

999. What reason is there for supposing that the Americans did not coa^ 

ttmplate independence when they first made opposition to the 
British government ? 

1000. How long was it after the passing of the stamp act before the com 

mencement of hostilities ? 

1001. When and where was American independence declared? 

1002. Who were sent to France, and when, to solicit aid for the Anieri 

cans ? 

1003. What other powers besides that of France, united against England 

1004. When did Great Britain ratify the treaty which admitted the Amer 

ican int'ependence ? 

SECTION IX. 

1005. Who laid the foundation f >r the French revolution ? 

1006. W^hy were the Jesuits banished from Portugal in the year 1750 ? 

1007. What charge was attempted to be fixed on them at Paris, subse- 

quent to this? 
lOOB.^ When was the order of Jesuits abolished in France ? 
10U9. From what other countries were they expelled, and when? 
1(»10. Whom (liil the dauphin of France, afterwards Lewis XIV. marry? 
lOl 1. When did he come to the throne ? 

1012. \Vhen was a.i alliance formed between the couft of Versailles and 

America ? 

1013. Wlio wt-re the most eminent friends of liberty in the British parlia 

inent? 
l<»14. What, jLt this time, produced an extraordinary effect on the Pan 
flians, af^ains* the extravagance of the French court/ 



QUESTIONS. 81 

1015. >Vhat particular difficulties had the king to encoanter ? 
1016 What, in the year HJJJ, tended to hasten tlic French rerolntion 
and brin^ matters lo a rrisis ? 

1017. Who flrst called for the status-general ? 

1018. ^Vho was in the French uiiiiiitry when the states-general was call- 

ed f 

SECTION X. 

1019. What inconsistency was there in the conduct of Maria Theresa con- 

cerning Poland ? 

1020. What led to a war between Austria and Prussia, in the year 1T78 ? 
IJ21. Wliat part did Austria take in regard to the war for American in- 

»»' " dependence-? 

1022. When and at what a»e lid Maria Theresa die ? 

j^ . SECTION XI. 

1023. How long before tlie death of his mother, Maria Theresa, did Jo- 

seph 11. come to the imperial throne of Austria' 

1024. In what manner did he labour to acquire the information needful to 

his subjects ? 

1025. What was the population of his domin'ons ? 

10*6. What important etHct was passed by hrm, October 31. 1781 ? 
1027. Wh^n did the Netherlands declare themselves independent of Aus- 

tria ? 
10-20. When did Joseph IT. die, and by whom was he succeeded? 

1029. How l()u» did Leopold reign .' 

1030. ^Vho succeeded him and wh^n ? 

lOiJl. What evil did he experienc* irom taking part against the French 

revolutiouists ? 
1032. By whom were the Austrians assisted againat the French in the 

war of 17jft^ ? 

SECTION xn. 

IC33. When was the states-general assembled ? 

1034. What was the French state prison called? 

1035. What became of it.' 

1036. H. w many families were there at this time in France of the ancient 

hereditary iiobility ? 

1037. In what way did the king attempt to rescue himself from ihe re- 

strainis imposed on him? 
10*^3. "Wnen was the national assembly dissolved ? 

1039. V\ hat prevented Sweden and Russia from engaging ia hostilTtie* 

agr^inst the rV^nch .' 

1040. What furnished the demagogues with onportunity for charging (he 

king with making war upon his people ? 

1041. What has this period of tl.e French history been called ? 

1042. Who was at the head of affairs in France ? 

1043. How many, suspected of being aristocrats, were assassinated on the 

second i>f September? 

1044. AVhen ^as the kii.g broi:^ht to trial ? 
104^. ^Vhen was he executed ;• 

I04d. Into how many factions were the revoluU~>niitJ diridcd, and whaf 

were they called ? 
1047. Which one triumphed? 
'04»< What became c( the queen of France ? 



3? airESTIONS. 



SECTION xni. 

1049. What change to>k place in the ministry of Great Hritain after Um 

peace with America ? 

1050. ^\ ho succeeded Mr. Fox in the British ministry? 

1051. What is the Sinkiu* Fund of Great IJritain ? 

1052. \\ hat important prosecution was undertaken at thii time by the 

British parliament ? 

1053. How long did it last, and what was its result f .>,'>»>;<< ' 

1U51. When was the attention of the house of commons finrt called to the 
slave trade ? 

1055. VV hen was it abolished ? 

1056. What event compelled the British parliament to meet on the 20th 

of November, 1788? 

1057. What occurrence aa-ose to threaten war between England and 

Spain, in the year 1790? 

1058. ^^hat led to the declaration of war against the king of Great 

Bi-jtain, by France, in the year 1793? 

1059. With what success was the war prosecuted ? 

lOGO. Wnat important occurrence took place in Ireland, 1798? 

1061. What important event to Ireland succeeded the suppression of the 

rebellion ? 

1062. What took place in India during the last year of the eighteenth 

century ? 

1063. What led to the peace of Amiens, between France and England, 

October 1st, 1801 ? 

SECTION XIV. 

1064. What was the situation of France towards the close of the year 

1793 ? 

1065. What took place on the 17th of November, 1793? 
106G. What alteration was there made in the calendi*. ? 

1067. W'hen and where did Napoleon Bonaparte first distinguish himself? 

1068. What became of Robespierre ? 

1069. What was the government of France, established and proclaimed 

in 1795? 

1070. What were the affairs of France externally at this tnne ? 

1071. Who were some of her most distinguished generals? 

1072. What territories were added to the French republic ? 

1073. What became of Lewis XVII. ? 

SECTION XV. 

1074. When did Bonaparte receive the chief cou^mand of the French 

army in Italy? 

1075. What was his age at that time ? 

10.6. On the reduction of Mantua, what did he state to his soldiers had 
been their success ? 

1077. Why were the Venetians unwilling to take part either with the 

Austrians or French ? 

1078. Of what dishonourable conduct was Bonaparte guilty, in relation 

to the Venetians ? 

1079. What took place on the 4th and 5th of September, 1797 ? 

1080. Upon what expedition did Bonaparte enter, in the year 1798 ? 

1081. What success did he have in this exp( dition ? 

10H2. What lessened his triumph and ?av.- a new turn to the war ? 
1083. What change took place in the French government on Bonaparte'* 
return from Egypt ? 



QUESTIONS. SI 

.084. When, by whom and with what result was the battle of Marat^ 
foiig^ht ? 

1085. When and between whom was the treaty of Luneville signed ? 

1086. W^.icn and between whom was the treaty of Amiens signed? 

1087. What was the French power, and what were her possessions at this 

time? 

SECTION XVI. 

1088. What regulation did Bonaparte make for religion in France ? 
1089 What took place on the 2d of August, 1802? 

1090. What led to a renewal of hostilities between France and England 

1803? 

1091. On '.be renewal of hostilities, what security did Bonaparte take for 

the future good conduct of England? 

1092. What military enterprise did he project? 

1093. What took place on the 18th of May, and the 2d of December, 

1804? 

1094. Why did general Moreau come to America ? 

1095. What mduced Russia, Prussia, and Austria, to unite in hoetilitiei 

against Napoleon ? 

1096. What took place on the 21st of October, 1805? 

1097. Aftfr what battle did the emperor of Austria solicit peace ? 

1098. What appeared to lead to the exaltation of Joseph Bonaparte to 

the throne of Naples ? 

1099. What change took place in the government of Holland, in 180G ' 

1 100. What change took place, in the same year, in the political condition 

of Germany ? 

1101. How came Bonaparte to be in Berlin, in Norember, of th«s year? 

1102. What extraordinary decree did he dictate, while there? 

1103. What concessions did the emperor of Russia m^^ to the' French 

emperor in the treaty of Tilsit ? 

SECTION XVII. 

1104. When did Charles IV. come to the throne of France ? 

1105. What caused the Spaniards, in 1793, to invade France ? 

1106. "What was the consequence of this invasion to Spain? 

1107. By what means did St. Domingo fall into the hands of the French ? 

1108. What led to the war between England and Spain in 1805 ? 

1 109. Why did the royal family of Portugal remove to America, and when ? 

1110. On what account was Ferdinand arrested and imprisoned by the 

Spanish authorities ? 

1111. By what means was the Spanish throne declared vacant and 

Joseph Bonaparte proclaimed king of Spain ? 

1112. What foreign power aided Spain and Portugal, agninst the French? 

1113. In what battle were the French beaten and compelled to evacuate 

Portugal ? 
n 14. When and under whom did the British army enter Spain ? 

1115. \N'hat became of Sir John Moore ? 

1116. When did Sir Arthur Wellesley, with fresh troops from £ng;land 

enter Spain ? 

1117. For what service was he raised to a peerage ? 

1118. What battle caused the gates of Madrid to be thrown open to the 

Spanish patriots in 1812? 

1119. When was the battle of Vittoria fought? 

U20. What were the consequences of it to the French ? 

SECTION XVIII 

H2l. ^Vhat was the partition treaty between France and Spain ' 



,1 QUESTIONS. 

1I2I1. What was the Milan decree? ,•»*•.' r'-^Trr j-^ 

1IC3. Who was cnated kin» of Naples when Joaeph Banapane remortd 

to ii^paiii ? 

11^4. How long; did the war of Austria last, which commenced in 1809' 

II2'». () I wliHt condition was Austria ahli- to obtain ^'eace ? 

\\2C). Whrn did Bonaparte''9 second marria°:e take place ? 

Il'i?. Whfn was the war renewed with Russia ? 

Il-^H. With how lar-^e an army did Bonaparte invade Russia, in 1812' 

1 \-29. What was the success of this expedition ? 

1130. With what force did he commence hostilities in 1313? 

1131. What battle complttdy discomfited the French empercr? 
113*2. When did the allies pass the Rhine? 

1133. When did they reach Faris ? 

1134. On what conditions was Bons^arte permitted to abdicate the French 

throne ? 

1135. When did the Bourbons return to Paris? 



SECTION XIX. 

1136. From what cause had Poland suffered much? 

11.37. What change did Charles Xll. make in the state of Poland ? 

1 138. By the aid of whose power was the family of Au°;ustu4 kept upon 

the throne of Poland during the first half of the eighteenth cen- 
tury ? 

1139. Who succeeded Auguatus III. and when ? 

1140. What internal dispute greatly distracted Poland at this time? 
1 14., With whon- did the plan of dismembering Poliud, originate ? 

1142. What reasons were given by the partitioning powers for the dis 

niemberment of Poland ? 

1143. \)n\ the Poles willingly acquiesce in fhe measure? 

1 144. When WHS the division actually agreed upon and sanctioned by the 

Polish diet? 

1 145. Whin did a second partition take place, and when a third ? 

1 146. What became of Stanislaus, the Tast king ol Poland ? 

1 147. ^^'hfc-n and by whom was the kingdom declared re-established? 

1148. What is the present political condition of it ? 



SECTION XX. 
H49. ^Vhen were hostilities renewed by England against France? 
1 150 What <aus<r,d Spain also to be involved with Great Britain ? 
1151. llow did the F^nglish violate the rules of justice in regard to Spain ? 

What splendid victory did the English obtain over the French 

ami .Spanish, in UiOu ? 
i 152. Of what act of injustice were the English judged guilty towards the 

Panes ? 

1 153. What caused the royal familv of France to take refuge in England, 

m 1 J{()7 ? 

1154. WiiHt were tlie Ent^liah orders in council issued in January and No- 

vember, M507? 

1 155. Wh'^n was the prince of Wales appointed regent ol Great Britain ? 
1'66. Why was he ai)pointed ? 

llo7. What distinguished personage was «s?assinated in the month of May, 

1 158. What interesting ev»nt took place in England, in May, 181G? 

1159. By what melancholy event ua^- it succeeded in Novenihcr of th«» 

following year ? 
1 1fiO. When did George Mi die ^ 



QUESTIONS 85 

SECTION XXI. 
1161. How did the Frrnch army ftei toward the eDipeior Napoleon, afler 

ht w:i9 exiled ? 
11G2. A'hf'u di<l IJiniHparte land in France, on his return from Klba ? 
U63. ^^■h^'n did he enter Taric' 
ilt)4. When was tne battle of Waterloo fought, which for ever termluat- 

ed his prospect-; ? 
nG5. "When (iid he arrive at St. Helena, to which he was banished ? 

1166. What resolution was adopted by the allied uiililary conjnjander? in 

relation to (he works of art, which the J reach hail colkcttd in 
former virtories ? 

1167. What precaution did tlie allies adopt to prevent future revolutions 

in that country ? 

SECTION XXII. 

1168. W^ho were the three immediate successors of Peter I. upon the 

throne of Russia? 

1169. How Ions: after the death of her father did the princess Elizabeth 

come to the throne ? 
4170. How Ions: did the reign, and who succeeded her? 

1171. What became of Peter III. ? 

1172. What was the character of Catharine II. his widow, who succeed 

ed? 

1173. When did Alexander, the present emperor of Russia, come to th» 

throne ? 

1174. W^hat became of his predecessor? 

1175. How long has Prussia existed as a kingdom? 

1176. How many kings hare reigned over it? 

1177. Which of them did most toward raising the king^dom to the first 

degree of power and renown ? 

1178. What two factions were there in Sweden in the reign of Frederick? 

1179. How long did Gustavus III. reign? 
11^0. How did he come by his death ? « 

1181. Why did Gustavus IV. abdicate the throne? 

1 182. Who is the present king of Sweden ? 
J183. When did he come to the throne ? 

1184. How many kings hav'e reigned in Denmark since the close of th« 

seventeenth century ? 
1185* In what war was Christian VII. connected with George III. of Erig 

land ? 

1 186. Why did his queen, Caroline Matilda, retire to, and end her dayi 

in Germany ? 

1187. Who is the present king of Denmark ? 

SECTION XXIH. 

1 188. In what disputes was Switzerland involved during the first part cl 

the 18th century? 

1189. Which of the popes of Rome suppressed the order of Jesuits? 

1 190. Who was rasied to the papal chair in 1775 ? 

1191. At vvha\ age, when, and where did he die? 

1 192. How came he at Valence ? 

1 193. When was his successor chosen, and by what name is he called? 
ri94. When did he aid in establishing the catholic religion in France? 

1 195. AVhat injury did he afterwards receive from France ? 

SECTION XXIV. 

1196. Who was the reigning; prince of India in the beginninj of th« Ihth 

century ? 



UUESTiONS. 

1197. To "vhat age did he live ? 

I IPM. In what manner did he come to the throne ? 

1199. What singular fact is mentioned as evidence of the conteiitioiui 

common for the throne, with that »emi-barbarou8 people ? 

1200. What chartered privilege has the Eugliiih l-Iast India CcoipaBj 

with this people ? 

1201. ^Vhen did th- Company receive this privileged 
rJ02. What description of this people is called Sepoys? 

1203. Who is regarded as the founder of the British empire in India? 
120-1. When did the British parliament make provision to prevent abuset 
of power in India ? 

1205. What distinguished individuals were instrumental in the first re- 

forms under the new system.' 

1206. What is the reason why this system was not scrupulously adhered 

to? 

1207. What was the object of Tippoo in regard to the English ? 

1208. tor what object was the East India College established ? 
209. What is the population of British India? 



STATE OF ARTS, SCIENCES, RELIGION, LAWS, GOVERN- 
MEx\T, Slc. 

1210. WTiat countries have been particularly distinguished in literature, 

arts, and science, in the 18th century? 

1211. Which of the sciences in particular have been much cultivated and 

advanced -n that time ? 

1212. In what particulars has chemistrv undergone important changes in 

the latter part of the 18th century ? 

1213. \\'ho claim to be the authors of the new theory of chemistry ? 

1214. What is now as>certained to be the nature of atmospheric air? 

1215. By whom was the discovery of vital air, or oxygen gas, made ? 

1216. To what branch of chemistry is the discovery o( the decomposition 

of water owing ? 

1217. Who discovered the constituent pans or principles of water? 

1218. What are they called ? 

1219. Who are some of the most distinguished chemists of the 18th cen- 

tury ? 

BOTANY. 

1220. Where and when was Linnaeus born ? 

12^1. What is the foundation of his systematic botany ? 

1222. With how many species of plants are botanists now said to be ac- 

quainted ? 

1223. What French botanist has done much for the benefit of the science ' 

1224. What is the difference between the system of Linnwus and that of 

Jussieu ? 

ELECTRICITY. 
i225. Wlio were some of the persons who first wrote learnedly on tb© 
•ubject of electricity? 

1226. Who proved that the electric fluid and lightning are the sam« 

thing ? 

1227. To what practical purposes did he apply this ? 

1228. Of whom was Galvanism the discovery ? 
li:2U. What is Galvanism called? 

1230. \S hat English i^hilosopher has become maoh celebrated for hit eUc- 
tro-rhemicnl r« soarches ? 



QUESTIONS. t7 

** ^riNERALOOY AND GEOLOGY 

tS3l. "VVhen did the modern scientific arrangements of minenLJ begin to 
orciif y the attention of naturalista ? 

1232. \y\\o has the credit of reducin* the science into classes and orders 1 
t233. From wb it did g^eology arise ? 

i2^. What is g^eolog^y ? 

GEOGRAPHY. 

1233. "What two new quarters of the world hare heen presented to us, la 

the laiat century, according to the French geographers? 
1236. What does AusUulaaia include ? 
l'.237. \Vhat does I'olynesia include ? 

1238. SN hat took place in 1761, in evidence of the improTements in civilj- 

zation ? 

1239. What eminent Prussian traveller has contributed to the perfection 

of geog^raphical knowledge : 

1240. From v/hat period have the Russian sovereigns made laudable ef- 

forts to obtain correct geographical information ? 

1241. Has the science of astronomy undergone jis great changes as the 

other sciencf^s nam?d during the last century ? 

1242. How many planets have been discovered in that time ? 

1243. AVhat fact is statv.d from which we can form some conjecture of the 

i;umber of fixed stars ? 



1244. ^Vhat French writer did much to unsettle the minds of his country' 

men on religion and politics ? 

1245. From whom has it been supposed that Voltaire imbibed his deisticaj 

sentiments * 

1246. ^^'ho were the principal deistical writers of England ? 

1247. What counteracted the tendency of their writings ? 

^24^. What other eminent French philosopher visited England, betides 

Voltaire, about the same time i* 
.249. To what did he principally confine his views .* 
250. What were the political opinions of Rousseau ^ 
.251. "^^'hat was the origin of the French Encyclopedia .' 
1252. What courts of Europe were tlirown open to the French philoso- 
phers ? 
• 253. Is it to be supposed that the French philosophers, to whom the rer- 
olutiou has been imputed, contemplated the awfoi catastrophe 
of that event ? 

1254. Who was chieOy 'nstrumental in introducing the improrements ©i 

the ]8th century into Russia .' 

DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 

1255. What are the principal discoveries and iuventions of modern timer .' 
\t^. WTiat effect had the French revolution on the people of otaer cor,^- 

tries? 

1257. What moral improvemeuts have taken place in the condition \r ra- 

rious civilized nations I 

RELIGION. 

1258. In what countries does paganism prevail ? 

1259. Wliat is the present condition of the Jews ? 
1^0. Where does Mahomctanism prevail ? 

1261. What are the principal sects of the Christian religion ? 

1262. What sects have been most active as missionaries? 

4 



18 QUESTIONS 

1?63. What change has the papal authority experienced in the lime «a 
der cvasidcraiiou ? 

HISTORY, rOLlTE LH KRATURC, FINF AllTS, Ac. 
kS64. \\ hat GcTuiCDs have beeu dislinguished in hlerutiue, auJ the fine 

arid ? 
. 265. Who in France ? 
I26G. Who in Great Britain ? 
I2C7. Who in lulj ? 

niEATY OF VIENNA, 1815. 

126B. ^Mlat addition of territory was given to Russia, and irhat new ti- 
tle to the Czar : 

1269. What is to be the condition of Cracow? 

1270. Hew did this trtaty aftert Saxony? 

1271. How did it alFtct IVussia? 

1272. What change took place in the Netherlandj? 



PART FOURTH. 



UNITED STATES. 

SECTION I. 

I27S ^Vhen and by whom was America discovered ? 

J274. Lnde.r whose patronage was it discovered? 

1276. What part of it was discovered first? 

1276. Why were the islands first discovered called the West Indies ? 

1277. Why was the continf>nt called America? 

1278. How long; time after Columbus sailed from the Canaries before he 

reached i?t. Salvador ? 

1279. To what governments did he apply for patronage without success ? 

SECTION II. 

1280. By whom and when was the contment of North America discorer- 

' ed ? 
1231. On what account did Virginia derive its name? 
I2JJ2. Who made the first attempt to colonize this part of the continent? 
12.'i3. To whom did Sir Walter Raleigh afterward assign his interest in 

the country .'' 
I?ft4. r^otn what did James river take its name? 
(2H5. Oil what account did capt. John Smith obtain his first relettse froia 

the Indians ? 
12^6. Who etTectf'd his second release from them ? 
12}i7. On what account was the cuUi\'ation of the soil neglected by the 

first colonists ? 

1288. What is the Iwstory of Pocahontas subsequent to saving the life of 

capt. {fmith ? 

1289. Who first bron;;ht the ,\frican negroes into this part of the country? 

1290. AN'lial part diil the Virj^inians take in relation to the revolution of 

the mother country under Cromwell ? 

1291. What was the pr>pulation of \ ir^ini-x, in 16P£ ' 



QUESTIONS. m 

' SECTION III. 

1292. What was the origin of the Flymouth colony.' 

1293. \Nheu was the seltltiiit^nt made ? 

li!J4. Of how many persons did the colony at first consist? 

12f>6. Of how many did it consist ten years afterwards? 

1296- liow many emiffranU came to Massachusetts, in the year 1630? 

12C'7, What ltd to the tirst settlement of Rhode Island acd Providence 

plantutions ? 
U9(i. Who laid the foundation of Hartford, Springfield, and Weathers- 

flLld ? 

1299. When and by whom was New-Hampshire first settled ? 

1300. ^Vhea did a systematic warlare commence between the English 

and Indians ? 

1301. What number of British subjects had settled in New-England, up 

to 163« ? 

1302. What instances of religious persecution took place in Massachusetts, 

about the middle of the 17th century ? 

1303. ^Vhpn and what were the particulars of the Salem witchcraft ? 

1304. W hen was Harvard college founded ? 

1305. From whom did iNIaryland derive its name, and by whom was it 

first sttUed? 

1306. By whom was New-York first settled ? 

1307. \Vhen was it surrendered to the English ? 

IP-OG. By whom and under, what cir-cumstances was Pennsylvania settled? 
r-09. When and by whom was Georgia settled ? 

SECTION IV. 

iJO. What settlements had the French in America? 

ill. In what way did France endeavour to confine the English within 

narrow limits, or to drive them from the continent? 
312. When, and v.hat method did the \irginia as5eu.aly adopt to sup- 
port the Ensciish claims, over the disputed territory ? 
513. "When and with what force was general Braddock sent over to sup* 

port thtse claims ? 
'314. "What was the sui^cess of Braddock's expedition? 

1315. How many campaigns were atten'^ed only with expense and disap^ 

{)ointmtnt to the English ? 

1316. What led to a change in English prospects ? 

1317. \N'hat celebrated English general was killed in the capture of 

Quttbcc? • 

1318. Huw man)' soldiers did the colonies furnish in the French war? 
13 P. "When was the British itamp act parsed? 

1320. A\'here in the colonies was it first opposed ? 

1321. \\'hich of the colonies proposed a continental congress to be holdeu 

at New-York ? 

1322. "When wus the law repealed? 

1323. What bill was passed on the repeal of this ? 

1324. \N'hat disturbances took place at Boston, in 1763 ? 

1325. What change took place on tlie elevation of Lord North f 
132G. ^Vhat disturbances took place in Boston, in March 1770? 

1327. ^Vhat took place in 1773? 

1328. What resistance was made, 1773, in Boston, to tlie British govern 

uient in relation to tea ? 

1329. Who was the British commander-in-chief in Boston, at this time ? 

1330. What took place at the congress of 1774, holden in Philadelphia? 
'.331. Where and under what circumstances was spilt the first blood of 

the revolutionary war? 
332. What led to the burning of Charlestown ? 



40 QUESTIONS. 

1333. Who headed an expedition into Canada? 

1334 With what success was it made ? 

i335 By whom was central Oat^c superseded? 

1336. When did the British evacuate Boston? 

1337. When was published the declaratio-i of American Indepeadeace ? 

1338. What tended much to raise the desponding^ hopes of America t& 

the latter i>art of 1776 ? 

1339. What splendid advantages did the Aniericzlns g^in in 1777? 

1340. VVhen was a treaty of alliance formed between the French and 

American: ? 

1341. Who took the command of the Eng^lish army on the return of gen- 

eral Howe ? 

1342. Whv was sreneral Lee suspended? 

1343. What took'place on the 15th July, 1779? 

1344. Where, and under what Circumstances was count Polaski mortally 

wounded ? 

1345. What prevented West Point from falling into the possession of the 

Engl ish ? 

1346. Wl.a* distinguished French military and naval commanders were 

sent to the aid of America ? 

347. AVhat event is reckoned to have decided the contest between Eng- 

land and America? 

348. How much money did England expend, and how many lives did 

she sacrifice in this war ? 

SECTION V. 

349. W'^hen did the coRvention meet to form a new constitution? 

1350. When and where did the first congress meet under the new consU 

tutir-n ' 

1351. What produced an insurrection in the western part oi Pennsylra 

nia? 

1352. What was the stale of affairs between the United States and France, 

during the revolution in the latter? 

1353. When di<l (oiigr.ss first meet in the city of Washington ? 

1354. What are the principal particulars of the war with Tripoli? 

1355. When and for how much wf- s Louisiana purchased ? 

SECTION VL 

1356. "What were the particulars that led to tlie sutpension of commodore 

Barron ? 

1357. What led to the declaration of war on the 18th of Xune, 1812, be- 

tween the United States and Great Britain? 

1358. What were some of the principal disasters on land, which the 

Americans experienced during the war? 

1359. What were their principal and most brilliant successes on land? 

1360. What naval victories did they obtain ? 

1361. W'hat naval losses did they exptrience' 

1362. What American officers were killed during the war ? 

1363. What British officers were killed during it ? 

1364. When and where was a treaty of peace signed ? 

1365. W"ho were the commissioners ? 

1366. What states, since the admission of Louisiana in 1812, have been 

admitted into the union ? 

1367. What accession of territory did the United States receive In 1819? 

1 368. WJiat waj the population of the United States in 1 R*0 ' 



UMSTIONS 



PART FIFTH. 



SECTION I. 

5369. Wnat circumstance agitated France in 1820? 

1370. When did Bonaparte die, and at what age "^ 

1371. What is said of him ? 

1372. What war occurred in 1823, and what were its effects ? 

1373. When did Louis XVIII. die, and who succeeded him ? 

1374. What circumstances occurred in Portugal in 1820, in 1821, and is 

1823 ? 

1375. Who succeeded George III.? 

1376. What remarkable events occurred in England i<n 1620 ? 

1377. For what was the Summer of 1821 remarkable, and what were its 

consequences ? 

1378. What important decree was issued by the Emperor of Russia in 1811 .' 

1379. What chang* has since taken place in the constitution of that 

Empire ? 

1380. What was the declaration of the Congress of Vienna in 1815, with 

regard to the slave trade .-' 

1381. Hov/ far were their purposes in this respect carried into effect .■' 

1382. What circumstances occurred with regard to the Jesuits in 1816 and 

in 1820 ? 

1383. When did Pope Pius VII. die, and who succeeded him ? 

1384. What were the principal events in the life of the present pope, pre- 

vious to his elevation to the papal throne ? 

1385. What occurred in Naples and Sicily in 1820 and 1821. 

1386. When did the Greeks revolt against the Turks ^ 

1387. What is said of this war ? 



SECTION II. 

1383. From what must we estimate the degree of civilization to which the 
ancient Mexicans had attained ? 

1389. What is said of the political system ? 

1390. What of the ecclesiastical ? 

1391. What crimes were made capital .•* A 

1392. To what was ti.e attention of government principally directed.' 

1393. What is said of the other governments in the country .'* 

1394. What of the arts and sciences known to them .'' 

1395. Do they appear to have been less civilized than European natious of 

the same period ? 

1396. What occurred when the Spaniards first landed, and how were they 

affected by it.'' 

1397. W^hat occurred in their route to Tenochtitlan or Mexico ? 

1398. When did they arrive at the capital ? 

1 399. What force had Coriez at this time ? 

1400. How were they received ' , i^ 

1401. What was tiie first act of aggression ? 

M02, Wliot most excited the indignation nf the Mexicans^ 

1403. On what account did Cortez leave the city-* 

1404. In what state did he find things on .iw retumf 

1405. Mow was Mon.ezuma killed .'' 
1406 Wljo was his successor ? 



<2 QUESTIONS 

1407. Where did iho first l»nttle occur, and wliat was il§ result? 

1408. What nvasur»'s did Cort.-/. .-id. .pi t<. slnnirilirn liis furce ? 

14(Ki. WImmi did he rciiirii t<> the ii*-i<>hhi>urii»<id (it'Teiiucliiiiian, and wluu 

measures did h^^ pursue to t«in«|iior the city ? 
1410. Wliat niniihcr of allien iM Ub receive? 
"illl. When was the <-ity coixpiered r 
l\\'2. How (Hd Cortez dispose of his captives? 
IH3. In whose r(;i;;rj did tlie con«iu»;st occur? 

1414. What is buid of tlie history of New Spain from thw period till iht 

revolution ? 

1415. Whoso property were those colonics? 
14 l(). How were tliey divided? 

1417. What was the an liority of the viceroy ? 

!418. Wliat aids liad the viceroys in tiie administration of government? 

111:). On wlioin did llie supreme authority devolve when a viceroy died? 

1420. When was tJie Council of the Indies established, and what were iu 

funttiuns ? 

1421. What other Iribmial was then- 

1422. What occurred in L^Od? 

1423. How did tliis allect^lhe Europe:in part of the population, and what 

did tlioy do ? 

1424. ^^*ho was iliu next viceroy ? 

142"), What conspiracy, was fornied, and how did it terminate I 

142(1. ^\'llat other revolt? arc mentioned ? 

1427. NVlien did •reneral Min.'i arrive .' 

14'2^. Wh.-n was he defeated r 

142!). When, and from what cause, did the i.j.>i lowjit from the authority of 

Spain orxiir ? 

1450. Who now united their influence in favour of a revolution ? 

1431. Who was selected lo execute tlicir plans .^ 

1432. What measures did he adopt to raise liimself to tlio supreme au- 

thority ? 

1433. Who were his.fnends, and who liis opponents ' 

1434. When was he declared emperor? 

14;^). How were the c1pi«,'v atfccted .-' ^! 

143G. Who now arose to produce a new revolution, and what wer« kii~ 

measures ? 

1437. By whom was Santana a^ist'ed ? 

14:^. When was this revolution completed ? 

143!). What became oi' Iturbido ? 

1440. Wii.'it form of j^ovcrnment was established^ 

1441. When was their constitution adopted? 
14^2. What is its princip.J defect? 

1443. What other federal covcinment was formed at the same puiiodr 

1444. What title does it assume? 

1445. AV'hat rrligioji is established? 

8ECTION fll. 

144(». When were the Bahamas d»9co\'ered ? 

1447. When was the fir.<t settlement made? 

1448. By whom were they soon afler possessed 

1449. Wh ) was their leader ? 

1450 Who have eincs po.s.sPssed the Bahamas? 

14^1. What \» said of the pirates?* 

1452. What is said of the Aborigines ? 

1453 What of the Arrowauks? 

14.54 How were the Great Antilles divided? 

14-55. What was the authority of the caciques P 

H5n. How populous wrr»" the«r inland* ' 



QUESTIONS. 4U 

1457 What became of ths inhabitants ? 

1458 Wiiai Ikn is uDrthy of record in favour of the Spaniards: 
145'.) W'liu were die Liucc&uicra P 

I4lj0. Wiieiice their name ? 

14G1. Give the rest of ibeir history ' 

steriOA rv 

1462 When was this country discovered arul settled? 

14G3. Character of its liislory till 1778 ? 

14<)4. Wiiat events followed ? 

14{o. AVI»en was the country invaded ; by w:;om ; and with what suco-jm 

14<)T;. V/iiere did the revolution commence, and what was its causo 

14G7. What is the date of its declaration of Independence? 

14tW. By whom was it afterwards invaded ? 

14«)!». Wl'.ai is its present state ? 

1470. What is the early history of Brazil ? 

1471. When did the rova' family arrive, and how long remain ? 

1472. I low was the gt)vernment then left ? 

1473. What circumstances followed ? 

1474. Who is the Emperor of Brazil .' 

1475. What is said of the liistory of Guiana.' 

147b. V/hat is the principal tribe of Indians in Guiana.' 

1^*77. Of what was New-Granada originally a part .' 

l47d. What changes have taken place in the audiences and vicero7»Hltil 

147*J What occurred in ISll ? 

14^). History of Vene::uela from 149S to 1806 .' 

1481. V\'hat is said of Mirandas expedition ' 

J 452. What occurred in ISll? 

1483. When were Venezuela and New-Gianada united.' 

14S4. What fundamental laws of the Republic are mentioned ' 

I4d5. W4iat is said of the constitution ? ♦ #^ 

1486. Wiiy is the early history of Peru uncertain ? 

1487. Former state of the Peruvian tribes ' 

1483. Who appeared among them, and with what pretenaioai ? 

1480. What city was foundi d .' 

1400. What did tliese extraordinary persons teach .' 

1491. How e.xtensive were their dorainicns .' 

1492. W^hat were they called .' 

1493. How was the succession of Incas preserved pure ? 

1494. What is said of their religion and civil policy .' 

1495. How many Incas were there ? 

1496. How far did they advance in civilization.' 
1 197. When did the ::^paniards first visit Peru ? 

1498. What is the history of Huana Capac ■ 

1499. What is the history of Huascar and - jihualpa .' 

1500. What is said of the Spanish invader 

1501. W'hat were their measures' 

1502. What is the subsequent history of Peru ? 

1503. What is its present condition .' 

1504. What possessions on the American continent do the Spaniards al 

ho!d .' 

1505. W'hal is the historj' of Chili before the invasion ? • 
1504). Describe the first expedition and its result.' 

1507. Describe the seconci expedition .' 

1508. What occurred on the return of Almagro to Peru ? 

1509. Who was entrusted with the thiid expedition.' 

1510. What is said of the subsequent contests ? 
1611. Give an account of the Araucaniana .' 
1518. What occurred w IblO .' 



44 QUESTIONS 

1513. What in 1814 and in 1817? 

ir>14. How was the patriot army re-organijeed ? 

1515. IVliat IS said of tliei. passa'io over the AnHat > 

IfjlC What were the events uf |S18? 

1517 \Vi:ni <ro\ •Tiunem is tslibhshed ^ 

}h\6 Why will tliMir progress in real knowl-idjr* ♦*• il«« r 

loli* What 18 Mid of UtMi Jo»» Bao MmHP r 

1&3U Wi^ai 18 aaid oi buut'&r " 



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>T6l^ 



Oeac,d:!.cd usmg the Bookkeeper procc. 
Neutrahz-ng agent: Magnes-umOx,de 

Treatment Date: ^i ^^ 

PreservationTechnologies 

.WORU0Le*0E«.N PAPER P««ERV*T.OS 
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